Estimated nutrient uptake and accumulation for 3500 kg/ha−1 (52 bu/ac) soybean yield [21, 22, 23].
\r\n\tThe present book intends to provide to the reader a comprehensive overview of the state of art in empathy studies, embracing the different theoretical points of view and illustrating the advanced research such as the application of new technologies to promote perspective-taking. The critical aspects and the future directions of the study on empathy will also be presented.
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Soybean originated in East Asia and has been cultivated in China for millennia. It is estimated that the domestication event from wild soybean (
Soybeans are one of the most flexible crops in terms of production methods, geographical growing regions, and end use versatility. Therefore, there are multiple agronomic practices to consider when preparing a field for soybean production. While tillage and fertilization practices are common among producers, technique specifications can vary greatly due to preferences, environmental conditions, and cost. Historically, mechanized and non-mechanized tillage was considered a vital practice to maximize crop yield and value [8]. While tillage is still a useful tool, contemporary research has corroborated the dangers of over-tilling and the potential benefits from soil conservation and no-till operations. No-till practices and conservation tillage for soybean are wide-spread in areas of highly-erodible soil, and some research has shown that soybean yields remain the same or increase with decreased tillage [9, 10, 11, 12]. However, other research has shown that rotational tillage practices will provide higher crop value than no-till practices, specifically because of herbicide costs and equipment requirements [13, 14, 15]. Given the need for proper soil maintenance, conservation tillage (<30% crop residue left on the soil surface) is a popular compromise, especially in herbicide tolerant soybean production [16, 17]. Research has further elucidated the benefits of conservation tillage and no-till practices on soil health by showing positive correlations with rhizobia and nematode populations [18, 19].
\nPre-plant fertilization for a variety of macro and micronutrients is another common practice in soybean production. Soil fertility programs are designed to provide sufficient nutrients for a crop’s needs which maximizes crop yield and farm efficiency while also minimizing environmental impact. To prepare a field for soybean planting, a farmer must start by determining what nutrients are already present in the soil; this can be accomplished by a variety of soil sampling and analysis methods [20]. The primary macronutrients, nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), and potassium (K), should be examined first alongside critical secondary macronutrients and micronutrients such as sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), boron (B), iron (Fe), and copper (Cu). General field nutrient requirement guidelines for soybean production are summarized in Table 1. While soybeans require a large amount of nitrogen, fertilization is usually unnecessary because of the symbiotic relationship with
While yield is the driving factor for fertilization, recent market changes have adjusted soybean valuation with increased focus on seed composition quality. Amino acid profiles as descriptors for protein quality in human food and livestock feed as well as high oleic acid soybeans for increased functionality and performance are just two examples of possible premiums producers can receive through soybean seed composition. Research has shown that agronomic practices coupled with location-dependent, environmental variables can directly impact those premiums [28, 29, 30]. Nitrogen fertilization plays a limited role in seed composition as it is rarely needed due to the bacterial nitrogen fixation. However, excess nitrogen has been shown to decrease the levels of sulfur-containing amino acids and has an inconsistent effect on fatty acid concentrations [31, 32]. Phosphorous applications can increase protein quantity without adjusting the amino acid profile but also has a positive correlation with higher phytic acid and isoflavone concentrations [33, 34, 35]. Additionally, phytic acid has been shown to increase alongside zinc concentrations [33]. Pre-plant potassium applications have limited return on investment in regard to yield and seed composition; however, potassium deficient soybean plants are at a greater risk to insect pests, specifically aphids [36, 37]. Limited yield response is observed with sulfur applications. Although researchers have found the use of sulfur fertilizers to be economically viable, particularly on coarse soils, sulfur fertilization is rarely recommended [9, 21, 38]. Soil sulfur levels have also been shown to greatly impact the ratio between 11S and 7S seed storage proteins [39]. As markets continue to change and value differing soybean seed compositions, it will be critical for producers to fertilize with both yield and seed components in mind.
\nSoybean producers make decisions throughout the year that impact final yield, value, and profit from their annual crop. Many of the most critical decisions occur at the beginning of and throughout the growing season. From the moment a soybean seed is planted to harvest, producers choose (or decide against) a multitude of practices including crop rotation, row spacing, population density, irrigation, post-emergence fertilization, and pest management. Maximizing a potential soybean crop is directly connected to previous field usage. Crop rotation or the process of growing different crops in sequenced seasons within the same field is a common practice in soybean production. Corn (
Protecting and revitalizing the soil through non-harvested crops planted between soybean growing seasons or cover cropping is also beneficial. Cover crops protect the soil that would otherwise be farrow and replenish nutrients assimilated into the soybean plant [9, 22, 43]. Furthermore, cover crops can beneficially reduce weed pressure, lessen soil compaction, and improve water conservation [44, 45, 46]. However, cover crops increase annual cost and have not been shown to increase soybean yield which can negatively impact certain producer’s net profit [47]. Many farmers who receive enough growing degree units throughout the year also limit farrow fields by double cropping with soybean. Soybean and wheat double crop systems have exhibited high economic returns for producers in both field and modeling research [48, 49]. Double cropped soybeans exhibit lower yield due to late planting and decreased leaf-area-index potential, but this can be mitigated with early maturing varieties [50, 51]. Intercropping or growing at least two crops simultaneously is another, less-common option for soybean production. Corn and soybean intercropping can increase yields for both crops with the proper seeding rates [52, 53]. Wheat and soybean intercropping also displays positive yield response [54, 55]. Sugarcane (
After choosing a cropping system, soybean producers must then determine the proper row spacing and population density for their environment. The appropriate balance between row space and plant density is critical for maximum soybean production and reliable economic returns. Narrow rows and high plant densities both correlate with quickened canopy closure and weed suppression [57, 58, 59, 60]. Increased plants per field also increase cost; however, subsequent increased yield and profit overcomes the cost [61, 62, 63]. As soybeans emerge and grow, the next consideration for producers is irrigation. This localized decision can be based upon historical precipitation records, predicted forecasts, day-to-day weather events, or a combination of factors. In the absence of natural precipitation, irrigation is vital to soybean production as water deficiencies inhibit yield potential [64, 65, 66, 67]. Irrigation can also be optimized spatially throughout a field with variable rate techniques and temporally across the growing season by targeting specific growth stages [68, 69]. Fertigation applications can be used to combine applications of post-emergent fertilizer with irrigation. Other methods of post-emergent fertilization including foliar spray and direct-to-soil applications are more common solutions for growing season nutrient issues. Plant tissue sampling and analysis can be coupled with soil samples to determine in-season soil deficiencies and to prescribe further applications [9, 21, 26]. As soybean increases nitrogen uptake during reproductive stages when bacterial fixation may be diminishing, soil or foliar nitrogen applications are typical yet usually ineffective. While limited yield increases can be seen from supplemental nitrogen applications or various nutrient combinations, the economic returns generally fail to cover the cost of application [70, 71, 72, 73]. Foliar nutrient applications have shown minor impacts on seed protein and oil content; however, these results are inconsistent amongst experiments [74, 75]. A location-specific, comprehensive nutrient management plan that accounts for all other agronomic practices is the best method for maximizing yield and economic returns in soybean production.
\nInsect and insect-like pests of soybean vary greatly ranging from aphids to stinkbugs to loopers to beetles. Which insects are the major pests and potential pest impact on soybean varies significantly from year to year and depends on the region the soybean crop is grown. Total damage by insects is a little ambiguous but yield losses of up to 80% have been reported [76]. Some prominent insect pests include soybean aphids (
Insecticides constitute a large portion of insect management as they are used to control most insect pests and in some cases are the primary method of control [80]. Integrated pest management (IPM) is becoming more common among growers due to its ability to reduce pesticide use, non-pests affected, workers’ exposure to pesticides, and the likelihood insecticide resistance [82, 83]. Additionally, it has been found to be effective at reducing damage done by pests equivalent to conventional methods [84]. IPM works similarly for all pests. It involves monitoring fields to determine which pests are present, determining which pesticides can and should be used, and incorporating cultural management practices [83]. For insects, trap cropping and sweep nets are used to monitor and determine which insect pests are present [85, 86]. The cultural practices used in insect management include altering planting date and row spacing, using no-till fields, and using resistant soybean cultivars [76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81].
\nWeeds are considered one of the most damaging, if not the most damaging pests, in soybean [87]. About 37% of global production of soybean is affected by soybean, while 23% of global production is affected by other pests [88]. In the United States alone, it has caused losses of several million US dollars each year [87]. Weeds pose a problem for soybean crops since they compete for nutrients, space, and other resources [89]. There are many different weed pests that compete with soybean, some of which include common waterhemp (
Management of weeds is largely done through integrated pest management. This involves using herbicides along with herbicide resistant soybean varieties and cultural practices [87, 92]. There are many different classes of herbicides that include enzyme inhibitors, lipid synthesis inhibitors, photosystems diverters, nucleic acid inhibitors, and auxin inhibitors [93]. Historically, herbicides have been a large part of weed management and will most likely remain significant due to effectiveness and limited efficiency through other individual methods [87]. Furthermore, herbicide effectiveness can be improved by using herbicide resistant soybean, such as glyphosate resistant Roundup Ready soybean. Although since weeds can develop resistance to herbicides, it is important to incorporate other management practices [87]. One such method is herbicide spray timing. A common management practice involves pre- and postemergence herbicide applications. This involves spraying herbicides before and a few days after the soybean plants have emerged to reduce any damage to the soybean plants [94]. Additionally, cultural control practices are used including crop rotations, planting in narrow rows and proper fertilization to promote crop competition, and cultivation [92]. Crop rotations allow for different herbicides to be used which in turn helps to prevent the development of herbicide resistant weeds [92]. Promoting crop competition through planting density allows soybean plants to grow enough to create a canopy to maximize shading of weeds [92]. Cultivation is an effective and economical way to control weeds to help minimize herbicide use [92]. All of the aforementioned management practices are parts of integrated weed management and will continue to play a significant role in control of weeds.
\nSimilar to the insect pests, there is a wide variety of diseases in soybean. Most diseases are caused by fungal and bacterial diseases and can be vectored by nematodes. Fungal diseases have been known to reduce yield up to 50%, while bacterial diseases have been known to cause yield loss of anywhere between 15 and 60% [76]. Which disease is the most devastating depends on the region and the year, but the most prevalent diseases include
From Table 2, it is evident that chemical pesticides still play a large role in treatment strategies against all major diseases in soybean. However, there has been a rising interest to incorporate other methods that prevent and treat diseases in soybean due to the harmful environmental and health effects of pesticides. Some other methods to control soybean diseases are seen in cultural control practices, such as increasing or decreasing tillage and crop rotation, drainage, and using resistant cultivars [103]. While the treatments listed in the above table are usually effective, there is continual research to find innovative ways to improve the control of plant diseases. One such example is the development of using hyperspectral bands for early detection of charcoal rot in soybean [104]. These researchers developed a method that involves analyzing spectral and spatial information of infected and healthy soybean in order to find wavebands that signify a soybean plant that is infected with charcoal rot [104]. This process identified six wavebands that were specific to plants infected with charcoal rot and can potentially allow for the detection of charcoal rot in crops in three days [104]. By being able to identify disease earlier, growers can minimize the damage done by that disease by removing infected plants and incorporating treatment strategies, such as pesticides or cultural controls.
\nThe research above shows that there is interest in developing early detection for soybean pathogens. One of the other major areas of research for soybean diseases, is identifying resistance genes to promote resistant cultivars. Given that soybean cyst nematode is one of the most devastating soybean diseases there has been a lot of research done to identify genes involved with resistance to soybean cyst nematode. The main resistance gene in soybean to cyst nematode is the Rhg1 gene, which encodes an amino acid transporter [105, 106]. This gene confers partial resistance and has been shown to reduce reproduction of soybean cyst nematode and improve yield in fields that are infected with soybean cyst nematode [78]. Even though there are resistant cultivars available, they do not permanently stop diseases. For soybean cyst nematode, it is advised to utilize cultural practices, such as using multiple resistant cultivars and rotating with non-host crops that are resistant to cyst nematode, and other methods [107]. This is a classic example of how integrated pest management involves continuously incorporating new methods to control diseases to prevent the disease from overcoming any pesticides and resistant cultivars.
\nSoybean is a valuable crop worldwide mainly because of soybean meal’s nutritional efficacy as a food and feed ingredient. A high protein content, balanced essential amino acid profile, and the presence of other beneficial nutrients all contribute to its economic and nutritional value. Soybean meal constitutes 70% of seed value while only being roughly 35% of seed dry weight [108, 109]. Furthermore, in the United States, 97% of soybean meal is used for livestock feed [109]. This overwhelming usage rate as a livestock protein source is mainly due to the presence of essential amino acids. While some livestock require other amino acids, most livestock need nine essential amino acids: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine [110]. All nine of these amino acids are found in some quantity in soybean meal [111]. For this reason, soybean meal can maximize livestock production in cattle, swine, poultry, and aquaculture. Generally, soybean meal and other soy byproducts use are limited to a supplementary or finishing role for cattle due to feed ration complications from other seed components [110, 112, 113]. Soybean meal use is highly prevalent in monogastric livestock production such as swine and poultry and is increasing in popularity for aquaculture [114, 115]. However, soybean as feed has two main obstacles: methionine deficiency and trypsin inhibitor proteins. Albeit present in soybean, methionine content is deficient for livestock needs, is considered the first limiting amino acid for soybean meal and requires producers to supplement with synthetic methionine [116, 117, 118, 119, 120]. This has a variety of negative economic and environmental impacts, including increased cost and poor nitrogen-use efficiency [121, 122]. Trypsin inhibitor proteins are an antinutritional factor present in raw soybean that decreases feed efficiency and can harm the livestock. There are a variety of industrial processing methods used to overcome trypsin inhibitors in soybean such as thermal and infrared treatment [123]. In the future, soybean methionine deficiencies and trypsin inhibitor levels may both be solved via breeding and transgenic efforts.
\nSoybean as human food exists to two different extents that are derived from geography and cultural tradition. Eastern hemisphere populations incorporate whole soybeans and processed soy foods into their lives on a daily basis, whereas Western hemisphere populations generally utilize processed soybeans as food ingredients. Eastern soy foods are divided into two main categories: fermented and non-fermented. Non-fermented soy foods include whole seed options such as whole dry soybeans, soy nuts, and edamame, processed items such as soy flour and soy milk, and vegetative soy sprouts [115, 124]. Soy milk in its simplest form is a water extract from soybean that when further processed can make tofu and tofu byproducts such as okara (soy pulp) and yuba (tofu skin). Fermented soy products include miso, soy sauce, tempeh, natto, and sufu, and each product has a specific bacterial species that enables proper fermentation. For example, natto is associated with Bacillus subtilis, and soy sauce is associated with Aspergillus sp. [115, 124]. Western cultures have assimilated many soy food products, and they are becoming more popular as consumers seek plant-based protein sources. However, the vast majority of soybeans in western diets consists of food ingredients made from soybean meal and soy oil. Soybean meal can be processed into ingredients such as soy flour, protein concentrates, and protein isolates that are used in bakery mixes, breakfast cereals, baby food, and exercise supplements [114]. Soybean oil is widely used in vegetable oil and margarine mixes for a variety of cooking purposes. The importance of traditional and innovative soy food uses has perpetuated because of the potential health benefits from soy consumption. Soy foods have been shown to play a role in chronic human disease prevention for conditions such as heart disease, osteoporosis, and cancer [125, 126, 127]. However, isoflavones, one of the most common seed components linked to disease prevention, is also negatively linked to hormonal health as a phytoestrogen. While large population subsets are concerned about isoflavones negatively impacting fertility, summarized data has shown inconsistent results [128, 129, 130]. As consumers continue to seek plant-based protein, soybeans will be the premier source for historically and culturally significant recipes as well as healthy, novel animal meat alternatives.
\nEven though soybean is classified as an oilseed, soybean oil has historically been an afterthought for soybean producers and processors. When markets for soybean meal would falter, researchers and other stakeholders would turn to soybean oil for added value or seek alternative uses for meal components. Modern sustainability and industrial goals have stimulated soy-based product usage in a variety of fields, as summarized in Table 3. Soybean oil as biodiesel has experienced the largest growth with United States consumers using over 2 billion gallons in 2017 [131]. Current biodiesel production methods can create soy-based fuel that perform nearly equal or equivalent to standard diesel fuels and have the potential to become a truly renewable resource when coupled with sustainable farming practices [132, 133, 134]. Constantly improving processing methods will continue to augment soybean seed component versatility and create new opportunities for soy-based products.
\n\nSoybean seed has many beneficial traits, such as high protein, oil, and soluble sugar content [135]. While soybean seed value is defined by these favorable qualities, past and present breeding attempts have sought further improvement. With regards to protein content, breeders have worked with soybean to increase total protein content as well as the amount of sulfur containing amino acids, methionine and cysteine [135]. Methionine and cysteine are of interest since the seed protein is naturally deficient, and these two amino acids can improve the nutritional value of soybean meal [135, 136]. However, some research indicates that total protein content is negatively correlated with other favorable seed qualities, including yield, oil content, and potentially methionine and cysteine content [137, 138]. So far, most breeding efforts to improve protein quality have involved identifying quantitative trait loci (QTL) that are associated with the amino acid content [139]. QTLs are regions of DNA that are associated with a particular trait and allow breeders to select for particular cultivars that have the trait of interest [140]. The composition of soybean seed oil primarily includes linolenic, steric, palmitic, linoleic, and oleic acid [141]. There have been breeding attempts mainly to increase oleic acid in soybean seed while keeping linolenic acid relatively low, due to respective human health impacts [141, 142]. Lastly, soluble sugar levels, specifically sucrose content, has also been an area of interest in soybean breeding [135]. While sucrose is the main sugar found in soybean, fructose and glucose are also present but in trace amounts [143]. Similar to protein content, multiple QTLs have been identified associated with high sucrose [144]. Sucrose is a desirable seed composition trait due to soy food flavor improvement for human consumption [144]. Overall, conventional breeding has been used to improve protein quality, oil content, and sucrose content in soybean seed.
\nWhile soybean does have numerous profitable seed traits, it also contains several unfavorable traits that include trypsin inhibitors (TIs), indigestible carbohydrates, and phytate [145, 146]. There are two trypsin inhibitors found in soybean, the Kunitz and Bowman-Birk trypsin inhibitor, and they are antinutritional factors due to their ability to interfere with protein digestibility and reduce the health of animals that are fed soybean meal containing these proteins [147, 148]. Currently, processors can heat the soybean meal in order to inactivate the trypsin inhibitors, but this step is costly [149]. Due to TIs negatively affecting animal health and increased cost for inactivation, more breeding efforts are being made to develop low-TI soybean lines [150]. Indigestible carbohydrates, raffinose and stachyose, that are found in soybean seed are also a target for soybean breeding since they can cause flatulence and diarrhea when consumed [144]. There has been progress made in lowering these carbohydrates, which include identifying QTLs associated with raffinose and stachyose [144]. Lastly, while phytate is an antinutritional factor found in soybean, there is not a lot of work being done anymore to breed low phytate soybean lines since phytase supplements are an effective, inexpensive way to reduce the phytate found in soybean meal [151].
\nGenetic engineering involves the process of artificially and intentionally manipulating the DNA of an organism with the purpose of modifying that organism [152]. Some of the methods used to transform plants include
Soybean is an essential crop that is grown globally due to its various and diverse uses. Given its importance, there are many pre-growing practices to prepare the field for the growing season, including tillage, pre-plant fertilization, and monitoring soil pH. Many agronomic aspects must be considered during growing season to ensure successful soybean growth including crop rotations, double cropping, cover crops, irrigation, row spacing, plant density, and post-emergence fertilization. Additionally, integrated pest management involving the use of pesticides, resistant soybean cultivars, and cultural practices are vital to control the numerous pests of soybean. While soybean is highly used in livestock feed due to its high protein content, it’s methionine deficiency and presence of antinutritional factors still present problems that need to be solved. Soybean versatility is represented by the many uses in human consumption, biofuels, and other industrial uses. Traditional and conventional breeders have been working to increase protein and oil content, while eliminating antinutritional factors. Genetic engineering and gene editing show promise to help improve soybean by introducing genes to improve protein and oil quality and knocking out genes to remove antinutritional factors.
\nThe authors would like to acknowledge Virginia Tech’s Open Access Subvention Fund for funding the publishing fee.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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VR provides a 3D and dynamic view of structures and the ability of the user to interact with them. The recent technological advances in haptics, display systems, and motion detection allow the user to have a realistic and interactive experience, enabling VR to be ideal for training in hands-on procedures. Consequently, surgical and other interventional procedures are the main fields of application of VR. AR provides the ability of projecting virtual information and structures over physical objects, thus enhancing or altering the real environment. The integration of AR applications in the understanding of anatomical structures and physiological mechanisms seems to be beneficial. Studies have tried to demonstrate the validity and educational effect of many VR and AR applications, in many different areas, employed via various hardware platforms. Some of them even propose a curriculum that integrates these methods. This chapter provides a brief history of VR and AR in medicine, as well as the principles and standards of their function. Finally, the studies that show the effect of the implementation of these methods in different fields of medical training are summarized and presented.",book:{id:"6211",slug:"medical-and-surgical-education-past-present-and-future",title:"Medical and Surgical Education",fullTitle:"Medical and Surgical Education - Past, Present and Future"},signatures:"Panteleimon Pantelidis, Angeliki Chorti, Ioanna Papagiouvanni,\nGeorgios Paparoidamis, Christos Drosos, Thrasyvoulos\nPanagiotakopoulos, Georgios Lales and Michail Sideris",authors:[{id:"211650",title:"M.D.",name:"Panteleimon",middleName:null,surname:"Pantelidis",slug:"panteleimon-pantelidis",fullName:"Panteleimon Pantelidis"},{id:"211654",title:"Ms.",name:"Angeliki",middleName:null,surname:"Chorti",slug:"angeliki-chorti",fullName:"Angeliki Chorti"},{id:"220557",title:"Ms.",name:"Ioanna",middleName:null,surname:"Papagiouvanni",slug:"ioanna-papagiouvanni",fullName:"Ioanna Papagiouvanni"},{id:"220558",title:"Mr.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Paparoidamis",slug:"georgios-paparoidamis",fullName:"Georgios Paparoidamis"},{id:"220559",title:"Mr.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Lales",slug:"georgios-lales",fullName:"Georgios Lales"},{id:"220560",title:"Mr.",name:"Thrasyvoulos",middleName:null,surname:"Panagiotakopoulos",slug:"thrasyvoulos-panagiotakopoulos",fullName:"Thrasyvoulos Panagiotakopoulos"},{id:"220561",title:"Mr.",name:"Christos",middleName:null,surname:"Drosos",slug:"christos-drosos",fullName:"Christos Drosos"},{id:"220562",title:"Dr.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Sideris",slug:"michail-sideris",fullName:"Michail Sideris"}]},{id:"50915",doi:"10.5772/63266",title:"Doped Bioactive Glass Materials in Bone Regeneration",slug:"doped-bioactive-glass-materials-in-bone-regeneration",totalDownloads:3499,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:"In the arena of orthopaedic surgery, autograft is considered to be the gold standard for correction of fracture repair or other bone pathologies. But, it has some limitations such as donor site morbidity and shortage of supply, which evolved the use of allograft that also has some disadvantages such as immunogenic response to the host, low osteogenicity as well as possibilities of disease transmission. Despite the benefits of autografts and allografts, the limitations of each have necessitated the pursuit of alternatives biomaterials that has the ability to initiate osteogenesis, and the graft should closely mimic the natural bone along with regeneration of fibroblasts. A variety of artificial materials such as demineralised bone matrix, coralline hydroxyapatite and calcium phosphate-based ceramics such as hydroxyapatite (HA), β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) and bioactive glass have been used over the decades to fill bone defects almost without associated soft tissue development. Most of them were having only the properties of osteointegration and osteoconduction. Only bioactive glass possesses osteogenic property that stimulates proliferation and differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells and in some cases influencing the fibroblastic properties. But, this material has also some disadvantages such as short-term and low mechanical strength along with decreased fracture resistance; but, this was further minimised by ion doping that positively enhanced new bone formation. There are many metal ions such as magnesium (Mg), strontium (Sr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), silver (Ag) and some rare earths that have been doped successfully into bioactive glass to enhance their mechanical and biological properties. In some of the cases, mesoporous bioactive glass materials with or without such doping have also been employed (with homogeneous distribution of pores in the size ranging between 2 and 50 nm). These biomaterials can be served as scaffold for bone regeneration with adequate mechanical properties to restore bone defects and facilitate healing process by regeneration of soft tissues as well. This chapter encompasses the use of bioactive glass in bulk and mesoporous form with doped therapeutic ions, their role in bone tissue regeneration, use as delivery of growth factors as well as coating material for orthopaedic implants.",book:{id:"5164",slug:"advanced-techniques-in-bone-regeneration",title:"Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration",fullTitle:"Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration"},signatures:"Samit Kumar Nandi, Arnab Mahato, Biswanath Kundu and Prasenjit\nMukherjee",authors:[{id:"60514",title:"Dr.",name:"Samit",middleName:null,surname:"Nandi",slug:"samit-nandi",fullName:"Samit Nandi"}]},{id:"37120",doi:"10.5772/29607",title:"Trigeminocardiac Reflex in Neurosurgery - Current Knowledge and Prospects",slug:"the-trigeminocardiac-reflex-in-neurosurgery-current-knowledge-and-prospects",totalDownloads:3434,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:null,book:{id:"749",slug:"explicative-cases-of-controversial-issues-in-neurosurgery",title:"Explicative Cases of Controversial Issues in Neurosurgery",fullTitle:"Explicative Cases of Controversial Issues in Neurosurgery"},signatures:"Amr Abdulazim, Martin N. Stienen, Pooyan Sadr-Eshkevari, Nora Prochnow, Nora Sandu, Benham Bohluli and Bernhard Schaller",authors:[{id:"78171",title:"Prof.",name:"Bernhard",middleName:null,surname:"Schaller",slug:"bernhard-schaller",fullName:"Bernhard Schaller"},{id:"78525",title:"Mr.",name:"Amr",middleName:null,surname:"Abdulazim",slug:"amr-abdulazim",fullName:"Amr Abdulazim"},{id:"78530",title:"Dr",name:"Pooyan",middleName:null,surname:"Sadr-Eshkevari",slug:"pooyan-sadr-eshkevari",fullName:"Pooyan Sadr-Eshkevari"},{id:"126039",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:"Nikolaus",surname:"Stienen",slug:"martin-stienen",fullName:"Martin Stienen"},{id:"126040",title:"Dr.",name:"Nora",middleName:null,surname:"Prochnow",slug:"nora-prochnow",fullName:"Nora Prochnow"},{id:"126041",title:"Dr.",name:"Benham",middleName:null,surname:"Bohluli",slug:"benham-bohluli",fullName:"Benham Bohluli"}]},{id:"26863",doi:"10.5772/26362",title:"The Bearing Surfaces in Total Hip Arthroplasty – Options, Material Characteristics and Selection",slug:"the-bearing-surfaces-in-total-hip-arthroplasty-options-material-characteristics-and-selection",totalDownloads:9526,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"938",slug:"recent-advances-in-arthroplasty",title:"Recent Advances in Arthroplasty",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Arthroplasty"},signatures:"Hamid Reza Seyyed Hosseinzadeh, Alireza Eajazi and Ali Sina Shahi",authors:[{id:"66361",title:"Dr.",name:"Alireza",middleName:null,surname:"Eajazi",slug:"alireza-eajazi",fullName:"Alireza Eajazi"},{id:"74857",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamid Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Seyyed Hosseinzadeh",slug:"hamid-reza-seyyed-hosseinzadeh",fullName:"Hamid Reza Seyyed Hosseinzadeh"},{id:"173207",title:"Dr.",name:"Alisina",middleName:null,surname:"Shahi",slug:"alisina-shahi",fullName:"Alisina Shahi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65467",title:"Anesthesia Management for Large-Volume Liposuction",slug:"anesthesia-management-for-large-volume-liposuction",totalDownloads:6203,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The apparent easiness with which liposuction is performed favors that patients, young surgeons, and anesthesiologists without experience in this field ignore the many events that occur during this procedure. Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",book:{id:"6221",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}]},{id:"42855",title:"Critical Care Issues After Major Hepatic Surgery",slug:"critical-care-issues-after-major-hepatic-surgery",totalDownloads:8935,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"3164",slug:"hepatic-surgery",title:"Hepatic Surgery",fullTitle:"Hepatic Surgery"},signatures:"Ashok Thorat and Wei-Chen Lee",authors:[{id:"52360",title:"Prof.",name:"Wei-Chen",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"wei-chen-lee",fullName:"Wei-Chen Lee"},{id:"157213",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashok",middleName:null,surname:"Thorat",slug:"ashok-thorat",fullName:"Ashok Thorat"}]},{id:"72175",title:"Fontan Operation: A Comprehensive Review",slug:"fontan-operation-a-comprehensive-review",totalDownloads:1299,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Since the first description of the Fontan operation in the early 1970s, a number of modifications have been introduced and currently staged, total cavopulmonary connection with fenestration has become the most commonly used multistage surgery in diverting the vena caval blood flow into the lungs. The existing ventricle, whether it is left or right, is utilized to supply systemic circuit. During Stage I, palliative surgery is performed, usually at presentation in the neonatal period/early infancy, on the basis of pathophysiology of the cardiac defect. During Stage II, a bidirectional Glenn procedure is undertaken in which the superior vena caval flow is diverted into the lungs at an approximate age of 6 months. During Stage IIIA, the blood flow from the inferior vena cava (IVC) is rerouted into the pulmonary arteries, typically by an extra-cardiac conduit along with a fenestration, generally around 2 years of age. During Stage IIIB, the fenestration is closed by transcatheter methodology 6–12 months after Stage IIIA. The evolution of Fontan concepts, the indications for Fontan surgery, and the results of old and current types of Fontan operation form the focus of this review.",book:{id:"9585",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",fullTitle:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease"},signatures:"P. Syamasundar Rao",authors:[{id:"68531",title:"Dr.",name:"P. Syamasundar",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"p.-syamasundar-rao",fullName:"P. Syamasundar Rao"}]},{id:"45712",title:"Serdev Sutures® in Middle Face",slug:"serdev-sutures-in-middle-face",totalDownloads:4952,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"2989",slug:"miniinvasive-face-and-body-lifts-closed-suture-lifts-or-barbed-thread-lifts",title:"Miniinvasive Face and Body Lifts",fullTitle:"Miniinvasive Face and Body Lifts - Closed Suture Lifts or Barbed Thread Lifts"},signatures:"Nikolay Serdev",authors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",middleName:null,surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}]},{id:"55812",title:"Postural Restoration: A Tri-Planar Asymmetrical Framework for Understanding, Assessing, and Treating Scoliosis and Other Spinal Dysfunctions",slug:"postural-restoration-a-tri-planar-asymmetrical-framework-for-understanding-assessing-and-treating-sc",totalDownloads:7701,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Current medical practice does not recognize the influence of innate, physiological, human asymmetry on scoliosis and other postural disorders. Interventions meant to correct these conditions are commonly based on symmetrical models of appearance and do not take into account asymmetric organ weight distribution, asymmetries of respiratory mechanics, and dominant movement patterns that are reinforced in daily functional activities. A model of innate, human asymmetry derived from the theoretical framework of the Postural Restoration Institute® (PRI) explicitly describes the physiological, biomechanical, and respiratory components of human asymmetry. This model is important because it gives an accurate baseline for understanding predisposing factors for the development of postural disorders, which, without intervention, will likely progress to structural dysfunction. Clinical tests to evaluate tri-planar musculoskeletal relationships and function, developed by PRI, are based on this asymmetric model. These tests are valuable for assessing patient’s status in the context of human asymmetry and in guiding appropriate exercise prescription and progression. Balancing musculoskeletal asymmetry is the aim of PRI treatment. Restoration of relative balance decreases pain, restores improved alignment, and strengthens appropriate muscle function. It can also halt the progression of dysfunction and improve respiration, quality of life, and appearance. PRI’s extensive body of targeted exercise progressions are highly effective due to their basis in the tri-planar asymmetric human model.",book:{id:"5816",slug:"innovations-in-spinal-deformities-and-postural-disorders",title:"Innovations in Spinal Deformities and Postural Disorders",fullTitle:"Innovations in Spinal Deformities and Postural Disorders"},signatures:"Susan Henning, Lisa C. Mangino and Jean Massé",authors:[{id:"204825",title:"Dr.",name:"Susan",middleName:null,surname:"Henning",slug:"susan-henning",fullName:"Susan Henning"},{id:"206242",title:"Dr.",name:"Lisa C",middleName:null,surname:"Mangino",slug:"lisa-c-mangino",fullName:"Lisa C Mangino"},{id:"206245",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Massé",slug:"jean-masse",fullName:"Jean Massé"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"202",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82020",title:"Minimally Invasive Transforaminal Lumbar Interbody Fusion: A Novel Technique and Technology with Case Series",slug:"minimally-invasive-transforaminal-lumbar-interbody-fusion-a-novel-technique-and-technology-with-case",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105187",abstract:"Minimally invasive spine surgery (MIS) transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion (MI-TLIF) has been utilized to treat a variety of spinal disorders. Like other minimally invasive spine surgery techniques and technology, the MI-TLIF approach has the potential to limit the morbidity associated with larger exposures required for open surgery. The MI-TLIF approach has a number of advantages over many other minimally invasive spine surgery approaches including direct decompression of neural elements, collection of morselized autograph from the surgical site to achieve high fusion rates, restoration of spinal canal diameter, foraminal diameter, disk height, and reduction of spondylolisthesis. In this chapter, we discuss a novel technique for performing MI-TLIF developed by the senior author who is a leading minimally invasive spine surgeon. The technique and technology illustrated in this chapter were developed out of a recognition of a need to reduce the learning curve for performing MI-TLIF, as well as need for a cost-effective method that provides a high fusion rate, excellent clinical outcomes, and low complication rate. The indications, surgical planning, postoperative care, complications, and patient outcomes in a large series will be reviewed using this novel MI-TLIF technique.",book:{id:"10634",title:"Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery - Advances and Innovations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10634.jpg"},signatures:"Mick Perez-Cruet, Ramiro Pérez de la Torre and Siddharth Ramanathan"},{id:"78335",title:"Safety and Efficiency of Cervical Disc Arthroplasty in Ambulatory Surgery Centers",slug:"safety-and-efficiency-of-cervical-disc-arthroplasty-in-ambulatory-surgery-centers",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99589",abstract:"Introduction Anterior cervical surgeries have been safely performed in ambulatory surgery centers since 1995 with the first cases being one level anterior cervical discectomies without fusion, then in 1996, one level anterior cervical discectomies with fusion (ACDF). When it is was certain that outpatient fusion was safe, the number of ACDF levels slowly and methodically were increased to the now standard outpatient maximum of four level ACDF. During this evolution, with the introduction of arthroplasty surgery, one level arthroplasties were considered appropriate for outpatient surgery and now two-level outpatient cervical arthroplasties are routine and some three level arthroplasties have been performed with no additional morbidity compared to one level procedures. The author first reported a series of 27 patients in 2010 who underwent cervical disc replacement at an ASC. (Wohns, R. Safety and cost-effectiveness of outpatient cervical disc arthroplasty. Surg. Neurol. Int. 1, 77, 2010). The average operative time was 40 minutes and the patients were observed over a period of three hours prior to discharge. None of the patients had major complications and there were no reports of worsening or persistent pain. The results of a Delphi study in 2018 compared the safety and efficiency of one-level and two-level arthroplasty procedures performed in an ASC and in a hospital setting. (Gornet et al. Safety and Efficiency of Cervical Disc Arthroplasty in Ambulatory Surgery Centers vs Hospital Settings. Int’l J of Spine Surgery. Vol. 12, No.5, 2018, pp. 557-564). The study analyzed outcomes of 145 ASC patients, 348 hospital outpatients and 65 hospital inpatients and the conclusion was that both one and two-level arthroplasties may be performed safely in an ASC. Surgeries in ASCs are of shorter duration and performed with less blood loss without increased AEs. At the present time, there does not appear to be any contra-indication to performing the vast majority of cervical arthroplasties in an ambulatory surgery center (ASC). Furthermore, the cost of an outpatient arthroplasty is commonly 30% to 50% of the cost of hospital-based procedures.",book:{id:"10634",title:"Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery - Advances and Innovations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10634.jpg"},signatures:"Richard N.W. Wohns"},{id:"82255",title:"Minimally Invasive Laminectomy for Lumbar Stenosis with Case Series of Patients with Multi-level (3 or More Levels) Stenosis",slug:"minimally-invasive-laminectomy-for-lumbar-stenosis-with-case-series-of-patients-with-multi-level-3-o",totalDownloads:28,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105186",abstract:"Lumbar stenosis is the most common pathology seen and treated by spine surgeons. It is often seen in the elderly population who frequently have multiple medical co-morbidities. Traditional approaches remove the spinous process and detach paraspinous muscles to achieve adequate canal decompression. This approach can damage the posterior tension band leading to permanent muscle damage, scar tissue formation, iatrogenic flatback syndrome, and increase risk of adjacent segment disease requiring reoperation. Performing lumbar laminectomy in a cost-effective manner is critical in effectively treating patients with lumbar stenosis. This chapter reviews a minimally invasive muscle-sparing approach to treating lumbar stenosis. The technique is performed through a tubular retractor. Direct decompression of the spinal stenosis is achieved while preserving the paraspinous muscle attachments and spinous process. This technique has multiple advantages and can potentially reduce load stress on adjacent levels and subsequent adjacent level pathology leading to further surgical intervention. In addition, the procedure shows how facet fusion is performed using the patient’s own locally harvested drilled morselized autograph to achieve bilateral facet fusion. By fusing the facets, we have shown that restenosis at the operative level is less likely to occur. This chapter will review a case series of multilevel lumbar stenosis including clinical outcomes.",book:{id:"10634",title:"Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery - Advances and Innovations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10634.jpg"},signatures:"Mick Perez-Cruet, Ramiro Pérez de la Torre and Siddharth Ramanathan"},{id:"80705",title:"Cervical Arthroplasty",slug:"cervical-arthroplasty",totalDownloads:37,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102964",abstract:"Technological advances have allowed spine surgery to follow the trend toward minimally invasive surgery in general. Specifically, we have seen a corresponding rise in the popularity of cervical arthroplasty. For the treatment of cervical disc disease, arthroplasty is a less invasive option than the gold standard of cervical discectomy and arthrodesis, which by nature is more disruptive to surrounding tissues. Arthroplasty preserves the facets, maintains motion, and reduces the rate of adjacent segment breakdown. These factors counteract the negative impacts of fusion while maintaining the benefits. Arthroplasty implants themselves have become more streamlined to implant as well with less native bone destruction, and biomechanics more compatible with the native disc. While initial implants were ball and socket devices with complex fixation and plane-specific movements, later devices incorporated such motions as translation and compression. Viscoelastic components and materials more closely resembling native tissues afford a more biocompatible implant profile. Until cell-based therapies can successfully reproduce native tissue, we will rely on artificial components that closely resemble and assimilate them.",book:{id:"10634",title:"Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery - Advances and Innovations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10634.jpg"},signatures:"Jason M. Highsmith"},{id:"80605",title:"Minimally Invasive Treatment of Spinal Metastasis",slug:"minimally-invasive-treatment-of-spinal-metastasis",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102485",abstract:"Advancements in the treatment of systemic cancer have improved life expectancy in cancer patients and consequently the incidence of spinal metastasis. Traditionally, open spinal approaches combined with cEBRT (conventional external beam radiation therapy) allowed for local tumor control as well as stabilization and decompression of the spine and neural elements, but these larger operations can be fraught with one complications and delayed healing as well as additional morbidity. Recently, minimally invasive spine techniques are becoming increasingly popular in the treatment of spinal metastasis for many reasons, including smaller incisions with less perioperative complications and potential for expedited time to radiation therapy. These techniques include kyphoplasty with radiofrequency ablation, percutaneous stabilization, laminectomy, and epidural tumor resection through tubular retractors, as well as minimally invasive corpectomy. These techniques combined with highly conformal stereotactic radiosurgery have led to the advent of separation surgery, which allows for decompression of neural elements while creating space between neural elements and the tumor so adequate radiation may be delivered, improving local tumor control. The versatility of these minimally invasive techniques has significantly improved the modern management of metastatic disease of the spine by protecting and restoring the patient’s quality of life while allowing them to quickly resume radiation and systemic treatment.",book:{id:"10634",title:"Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery - Advances and Innovations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10634.jpg"},signatures:"Eric R. Mong and Daniel K. Fahim"},{id:"76620",title:"Minimally Invasive Lateral Approach for Anterior Spinal Cord Decompression in Thoracic Myelopathy",slug:"minimally-invasive-lateral-approach-for-anterior-spinal-cord-decompression-in-thoracic-myelopathy",totalDownloads:146,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97669",abstract:"Myelopathy can result from a thoracic disc herniation (TDH) compressing the anterior spinal cord. Disc calcification and difficulty in accessing the anterior spinal cord pose an operative challenge. A mini-open lateral approach to directly decompress the anterior spinal cord can be performed with or without concomitant interbody fusion depending on pre-existing or iatrogenic spinal instability. Experience using stand-alone expandable spacers to achieve interbody fusion in this setting is limited. Technical advantages, risks and limitations of this technique are discussed. We conducted a retrospective chart review of all patients with thoracic and upper lumbar myelopathy treated with a lateral mini-open lateral approach. Review of the literature identified 6 other case series using similar lateral minimally invasive approaches to treat thoracic or upper lumbar disc herniation showing efficient and safe thoracic disc decompression procedure for myelopathy. This technique can be combined with interbody arthrodesis when instability is suspected.",book:{id:"10634",title:"Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery - Advances and Innovations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10634.jpg"},signatures:"Edna E. Gouveia, Mansour Mathkour, Erin McCormack, Jonathan Riffle, Olawale A. Sulaiman and Daniel J. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. 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I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"40",type:"subseries",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive Species, Destruction of Habitats, Overexploitation of Natural Resources, Pollution, Global Warming, Conservation of Natural Spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"