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Studies on terrestrial heat flow, particularly in oil and gas reservoir systems, have gained substantial attention. While the traditional focus was on igneous and metamorphic activities, this chapter focuses on geothermics and thermogenesis in gas reservoirs, emphasizing the fundamental concepts of heat and temperature, subsurface conditions related to heat, and responses of reservoir materials to temperature changes. Geothermics, at its core, explores the source and destiny of terrestrial heat, with “geo-” denoting the Earth and “thermos” signifying heat. It is the study of heat transport and thermal conditions in the Earth’s interior. In practical terms, geothermics extends to the assessment of geothermal resources, examining heat distribution in the Earth’s outer layers and the potential for heat extraction. Moreover, this science has evolved into an applied field, with geothermal energy being a notable application that harnesses the Earth’s heat. In this context, “thermogenesis” encompasses all physical and chemical reactions in the reservoir, including gas generation, thermal gas cracking, and mineral alteration. In essence, this chapter delves into the intricate dynamics of heat and temperature within gas reservoirs, providing valuable insights into geothermics and thermogenesis, and their significance in the energy industry.
*Address all correspondence to: yasirovic2009@gmail.com
1. Introduction
Since its early formation, the earth planet has evolved thermally, and is layered according to density. Earth is subjected to both internal and external source of heat, from the sun and from subsurface. Other source of heat on earth is the heat that originates from the subsurface, which is known later as the ground heat, which is quite important for life on earth, as well as for the earth itself. Volcanoes and seismic activity are induced by such ground heat. Formation of the rocks that form the lithosphere would not have resulted without the interaction between earth matter and earth temperature [1]. One important effect of heat is that the landscape and earth morphology depend to a large extent on internal as well as external heat or thermal stress. In the case of the former, the physical weathering process that acts on reshaping the earth surface is induced by earth temperature as expansion and contraction processes are solely temperature-controlled. Indirectly, temperature effect physical weathering (abrasion process) and deposition (eolian deposits) through wind motivation as wind—the second factor in physical weathering—is influenced by temperature differences from one region to another. Even chemical weathering potential in rocks is enhanced by temperature through the catalyzation of the reaction rate, as well as providing extra surfaces for chemical reactions on rock. An account of the possible temperature-induced geomorphic changes in the land surfaces is given in [2].
The difference between heat and temperature is almost well-established for everybody. Heat is the vital source of energy, while temperature is the measure of the status of bodies in terms of how cold or hot are they. Therefore, units used for temperature are those of energy (Joule, calorie, … etc.), and for temperature numerical units such as Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin degrees are applied. The main source of heat on earth’s surface is the Sun, through its radiation which is known as solar radiation. The surface of the earth is subjected to solar radiation during the daytime, and this radiation is lost at night in a continuous reversible process. Another characteristic of such radiation is that it varies over almost all time scales, from daily, through monthly, annually, to century. Spectral composition of this radiation showed that the solar radiation “falls into visible short-wave part of the spectrum, while the other half is mostly in the near-infrared part with a small part” [3]. As geothermal gradient describes the variation in earth’s temperature with depth, different formulas have been used to find temperature at any depth based on the gradient/slope. The most famous formula for finding out temperature at any depth is by adding the surface temperature (or sea bottom temperature in case of offshore temperature) to the required depth multiplied by the geothermal gradient at that region. An example of geothermal gradient is shown in Figure 1, at a depth of up to 5 km.
Figure 1.
Shallow geothermal gradient for five different regions. Note variations in surface heat flow based on variations in different geothermal gradients for each region.
The internal heat of the earth has been observed a long time ago and evidenced by the occurrence of volcanic phenomenon [4]. The internal heat is inferred also by the observation of elevated temperature with depth that is associated with subsurface drilling for underground mining operations. In such a case, temperature of these tunnels and mines becomes a major problem, which requires the ventilation of the subsurface environment. Trials to understanding this temperature go back to the eighteenth century, when [5] started some discussions on that matter. One important quote of his discussion was reported “because of my being particularly subject to the offended by anything that hinders, full freedom of respiration, I was not solicitous to •oe down into the deep mines”; he, therefore, collected information “(by diligent. inquiry purposely made) from the credible relations of several eye-witnessed suffering in nation, and for the most part unacquainted with each oilier.”
However, one cannot talk about the source of earth’s heat without talking about the origin of the earth. The most acceptable theory on the formation of the planet state that the earth’s matter is condensed by the gravitational force. The earth has become differentiated into different compositional zone-based density, that is, heavy materials sank down to the mantle and lighter materials to the surface forming the earth’s crust.
Heat of the earth, which can be classified as external heat and internal is acquired by two means. The exterior heat is acquired during the separation of the earth as young planet, where commits and other floating bodies in the atmosphere hit the earth’s surface. The major source of the earth’s interior heat is the decay of radioactive minerals [6].
The earth’s center is believed to have a temperature of around 6000 C, while the mantle typically ranging from about 1000°C to 3700°C, while the Earth’s crust has lower temperatures, ranging from around −40°C to 1000°C, with the highest temperatures in areas with active volcanic activity [7]. Heat or geothermal zonation of the earth is similar to the rock/lithological zonation (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Geothermal zonation of the earth. Note that the highest temperature is the core (~6000°c) and decreases outward.
The origin of the interior heat is attributed to two main processes that occur inside the earth, namely: radioactivity and earth cooling. Radioactivity contributes 80% of the earth’s heat, and heat normally originates as a result of nuclear transformations of radioactive minerals. Radiogenic heat is basically created by the decay of the three minerals, namely: potassium, thorium, and uranium (K, Th, and U), which accounts for an estimated 30–40% of heat loss through four continents [8, 9, 10, 11]. The most famous transformation is that one in which uranium 238 U converts into lead. Radioactive minerals are generally associated with igneous rocks, particularly granitic rocks. Cooling contributes 20% of the earth’s interior heat. Radiogenic heat flow is useful in the study of metamorphic rocks and have been applied in the Chinese metamorphic belts. The mean heat production was found to be 0.76 μW m − 3) which is estimated to contribute 24 mW m − 2 to the surface heat flow [12].
Heat production and transport in the earth are illustrated in Figure 3 for each earth zone. Heat production from radiogenic activity appeared to characterize the core and lithosphere. Heat due to cooling is referred to as to grow from the solidification of the outer core. Vertical heat transport is shown to be dominant, with minor lateral heat transport. Small portion of the heat generated at the top of the lithosphere is reflected and transferred inward.
Figure 3.
Geothermal sources of the earth: A: Heat sources of the earth and heat transport in the earth with respect to different parts of the earth, and b: earth’s heat flow from inside to the surface. The color scale (in watts) shows the distribution from the minimal of 23–45 mW/m2 (dark blue) to the maximal flux 150–450 mW/m2 *reddish).
As known from fundamental physics, heat is conducted via three modes; namely: radiation, conduction, and convection. In the earth’s subsurface, heat moves from the center of the earth outwards through the sedimentary crust into the ocean or atmosphere, where it is lost as radiant energy. The subsurface temperature distribution is influenced by conductive heat transport [13]. Convection, the most important in heat conduction is defined as the process of heat conduction through fluids. The general concept of convection is the movement of material when heated and density lost. The best demonstration for this phenomenon is a comparison an analogy between mantle convection and soup pot, where the content of the soup convects and rises upon heating (Figure 4) [14].
Figure 4.
Demonstration of convection, comparison between soup pot and rock mantle: Soup convects when heated from the bottom of the pot (after [14].
Several recent applications depend on temperature basically induced by thermal properties of rocks; these include high-temperature applications, such as maturation of organic matter for oil generation, oil migration, and enhanced thermal oil recovery, where combustion or hot fluids and steam are injected to the subsurface, geothermal reservoirs, nuclear waste disposal and storage, and groundwater heat storage where hot fluids might be stored and recovered later. On the other hand, there are some processes that are considered low-temperature, such as Perma frost, in the cold regions at low depths, however, these are considered out of the scope of this book. For many constructions, such as underground mines, knowledge of the geothermal gradient is mandatory for the mine design.
There are several thermal properties that are normally considered, including thermal conductivity, heat capacity, and heat diffusivity. Thermal conductivity describes heat flow in steady state flow where no change in temperature with time. In transient heat flow, thermal diffusivity describes the heat flow [15]. Only thermal conductivity and heat capacity will be discussed in the context of thermal imaging heat is conducted from the interior of the earth outward mainly by conduction. Heat capacity will be discussed as the process of storing or releasing heat energy will significantly affect the detection of infrared, and hence, the process of resulting thermal imagery.
Thermal conductivity (TC) defines how much heat flows in a rock [16, 17, 18, 19]. TC is a vector quantity, unlike density, it depends on the direction of measurement.TC is crucial for the heat flow modeling required for basin thermal history and hydrocarbon generation and migration [13]. Quantification and characterization of heat flow are done through the coefficient TC, which is considered an intrinsic and important petrophysical property.
Thermal conductivity is defined as the capacity of a substance to conduct or transmit heat. This is the coefficient (1) in Fourier’s Law of heat conduction:
q=−hgradT(V)
where q = heat flux, watts/m2; grad T = temperature gradient, Klm. The standard unit of thermal conductivity is W/m-K. Other units include cakec-cm-“C and Btu/hr-ft-"F.
Thermal conductivity of rocks depend on thermal conductivity of individual minerals constituting that rock. Table 1 gives values of thermal conductivity of some common rock-forming minerals; in which quartz is the highest conductive mineral and micas are the lowest ones.
Heat capacity is derived from heat content with respect to temperature. Water is taken as the standard material with heat capacity of 1.00 cal/g-"C at 15°C (4.184 kJ/kg-K in SI units), and other substances are compared to that value. Heat capacity is measured experimentally using calorimeters. Review of heat capacity of rocks with respect to their thermal conductivity, it is clear that there is an inverse relationship between both properties, that is, the higher the thermal conductivity of the rock type, the lower its heat capacity. This is simply interpreted as that conductive rocks cannot keep heat, however, the range of variation in the heat capacity of rocks is not as wide as in thermal conductivity. Table 2 show heat capacity of common sedimentary rock types, including siliciclastic rocks (sandstone, siltstone, and shale), and carbonate ones. Heat capacity property in reservoirs is important in storing thermal energy by injecting fluids and restoring them later when needed.
Tem (C)
1-Sandstone
2-Sandstone
3-Sandstone
4-Sandstone
Exper.
Calc.
Exper.
Calc.
Exper.
Calc.
Exper.
Calc.
127
20.0
19.6
21.3
21.5
21.5
21.9
21.4
21.8
227
42.8
52.5
45.3
45.8
45.7
45.3
45.3
45.1
327
67.3
67.7
71.1
71.4
71.7
72.8
71.3
71.0
427
93.8
93.6
98.6
98.1
99.2
101.0
98.2
98.0
527
120.7
120.0
127.5
126
126.6
130.4
127.7
127.6
5-Siltstone
6-Siltstone
7-Shale
8-Limestone
127
21.7
21.3
21.3
21.8
20.9
22.2
22.1
21.5
227
45.8
46.1
46.3
46.0
44/2
44.0
45.8
46.0
327
71.8
71.2
71.7
71.2
69.6
68.4
72.1
71.0
427
99.8
99.4
99.5
97.8
96.3
96.7
98.3
97.3
527
129.0
130.2
127.4
126.5
144.8
124.4
126.2
125.0
Table 2.
Calculated and measured heat content of some sedimentary rocks. Values in cal/g; temperature base 298 k.
Heat capacity for different rock types is proved to be of almost similar values with no signficat variations, where the range was from 20 to 22. In higher temperatures, the range is from 120 to 130 J/g.
Thermal diffusivity describes the heat flux inside a certain volume of the material, while the out flux between the rock and surrounding is the thermal conductivity. In other words, thermal diffusivity controls the rate at which temperature rises inside a uniform block of the material. If, on the other hand, heat capacity reflects the stored heat in a volume that causes the rapid increase of its temperature, we can find that there is a genetic relation between the three rock properties, where rock thermal diffusivity is the ratio of thermal conductivity to heat capacity [21]. The thermal diffusivity is demonstrated in Figure 5.
Figure 5.
Demonstration of thermal diffusivity using a block of uniform material.
As reservoirs are basically a system of rocks, pore systems, and fluids, the heat flow in such systems is complicated and is the resultant of all components of the system. This section discusses the subsurface conditions in relation to heat and temperature.
In reservoirs, the subsurface is composed of the rock material as a framework, subsurface fluids, and the acting processes such as overburden pressure and temperature. With increasing depth, the pressure, temperature, and salinity increase. Many processes are temperature dependant as well as pressure dependant. Temperature-dependant processes are affected basically by the pre-mentioned thermal properties of reservoir rocks such as thermal conductivity, heat capacity, and thermal diffusivity. Such processes include thermal oil recovery, geothermal reservoirs,
Formation pressure is defined as that pressure other than hydrostatic pressure [22]. Among other factors, including the concentration of salts in formation water, subsurface heat is a major factor in increasing formation pressure. The Daltons law relates temperature to pressure in pressurized systems. In the subsurface, the same law applies where overburden pressure increases with an increase in reservoir temperatures. This relationship is shown in the pressure-temperature-density diagram Figure 6.
Figure 6.
Pressure-temperature-density diagram for water after [23]. Excess pressure is the higher pressure due to the temperature increase from T 50 to T 60.
The figure shows that with increasing depth, temperature and overburden pressure increase.
Thermal conductivity of reservoir rocks is measured for dry, solvent-saturated, and brine saturated to simulate thermal conductivity of the reservoir system. All results showed that TC of brine-saturated sandstone is highest, followed by the solvent-saturated, and the lowest value recorded is for the non-saturated ones. This agrees with the models that consider TC of rocks as a summation of the individual minerals that makeup the rock, and the thermal conductivity of brine is higher than solvent, which is higher than air. Within the saturated sandstone samples, TC recorded for the medium-grained samples show relatively higher values as compared to coarse ones (Figure 7).
Figure 7.
Thermal conductivity of air-saturated, solvent saturated, and brine-saturated sandstones of oil sands (note the distribution of the points scattered around the curve for each type, where medium-grained ones mostly above the curve, being the highest values for TC.
In low permeability reservoirs or tight reservoirs, permeability is minimal and fluid may be considered as stationary. However, fluids normally flow under different mechanisms, of which fluids under thermal conditions are to be considered. One of the flow motions is simple convection where fluid moves under temperature/density gradient where hot fluids move upward, while the cold one moves down. Another effect occurs under high temperature where fluid evaporates and the vapor escapes to colder zones where it condenses again. Further details are present in Ref. [18], and initial tests and observations on the effect of vapor pressure and partial saturation of rocks on thermal conductivity were conducted by Ref. [24].
One of the expected subsurface conditions related to temperature is the rock expansion. Study of expansion phenomenon was done for rock forming mineral by Ref. [25]. Where gradual expansion with increasing temperature was found to reach up to 2% along the crystal axis. Dry rock expansion was documented by Ref. [26] where direct expansion in rocks was reported as in all natural materials. In saturated rocks, tedious and intensive experiments have been conducted by Ref. [27] who measured experimentally the strain of fluid-saturated rocks using highly sensitive equipments. They concluded that thermal stress on saturated rocks under temperature conditions similar to the subsurface results in the contraction of pore space and increase in fluid expansion. Dry rock expansion, and the comparison of dry sandstone and saturated sandstone is shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8.
Thermal expansion of rocks: A: Volumetric thermal expansion of three dry sandstone rocks, and b: Thermal expansion of saturated sandstone rocks versus dry ones.
8. Reactions and alteration induced by temperature
Temperature results into thermal stress in almost most materials including earth materials. The response of rocks to thermal expansion is a reflection of responses of the minerals that make up the rock. Mineral alteration by temperature is a well-known phenomenon as temperature damages the mineral structure through the differential thermal expansion of the minerals. The thermal expansion of minerals varies from one mineral to another where the term coefficient of expansion appears. The coefficient of expansion not only varies from one mineral to another, but it also varies depending on the crystallographic direction.
In most cases, the effects of temperature are evidenced by an alteration of the mechanical properties and rheological behavior of rocks by making fractures similar to that of cooling joints in igneous rocks at the surface. The phenomenon of making fractures in reservoir rocks is in favor of thermal fracing of reservoir rocks in enhanced oil recovery. However, according to [28], the effect of high overburden pressure inhibits the thermal fracking of rocks due to the high weight rocks. Experiments on coalbeds regarding the impact of thermal cracking on the formation of artificial cracks [29] showed that thermal cracks formed proportional to thermal stress in terms of crack size. According to the above-mentioned two cases, the lightweight of coalbeds might make thermal frocking possible as compared to thermal fracking of siliciclastic reservoir rocks.
Diagenesis is another phenomenon that is significantly affected by temperature. In formations under trapped radiogenic heat and high pressures cause diagenesis. Of montmorillonite which decomposes into illite. The former contains compositional water which is released as released freshwater of crystallization either remains in the transformed clay under high pressure because the adjacent sand beds are already geopressured or flows to and dilutes normally pressured aquifers.
The effect of heat in decreasing the viscosity of oil, and subsequently in its movement and migration, is documented in many literature sources; however, scanning electron microscopy techniques were used to demonstrate this effect are shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9.
Conventional SEM images of residual oil droplets in the (a) horn river. (B) Eagle ford, and (C) Woodford shales. The oil migrated into matrix pores, and microfractures upon heating to 350°C for four days in hydrous pyrolysis apparatus (experiments were only run on the Eagle Ford and Woodford formations). The Horn River example, which was not heated, demonstrates that hydrocarbons can occur within matrix mineral pores and not be solely confined to organopores [30].
While the mantle typically ranging from about 1000°C to 3700°C, while the Earth’s crust has lower temperatures, ranging from around −40°C to 1000°C, with the highest temperatures in areas with active volcanic activity [30].
8.1 Occurrence of gas in a gas reservoir
Excluding the secondary occurrence of hydrocarbons in fractured igneous rocks [31], all geologists agree that hydrocarbons do not form in igneous or metamorphic zones, but are generated and retained in sedimentary rocks [32].
The temperature range of formation of both oil and gas from organic matter is called the oil and gas window, respectively. The oil window normally takes place between 60 and 120 ~ gas generation occurs between about 120 and 220 ~ above which the kerogen has been reduced to inert carbon (Figure 10).
Figure 10.
Photomicrograph of a heat-affected lower Permian Barakar formation shale from Raniganj basin, India, showing the development of bireflectance in vitrinite [33].
The subject of oil source rocks is covered in far greater depth in the textbooks [32, 34]. Oil generation normally takes place between 60 and 1R mineral reactions.
Some mineral reactions are generally catalyzed by temperature where they absorb heat. For reversible reactions, absorbed heat is released again and the mineral phase is restored [27, 35]. Experiments have been conducted to demonstrate such reactions by increasing the temperature to simulate the subsurface reservoir (Table 3).
Tem range (C)
Mineral
Heat of reaction cal/g
Reaction
25−220
Ca-Montmorellonite
127
Desorption
25−220
Mg-Montmorellonite
135
Desorption
400−625
Mg-illite
64
Decomposition
455−642
Kaolinite
253
Decomposition
455−723
Ca-Montmorellonite
67
Decomposition
573
Quartz
4.82
α- β inversion
700−830
Ca-carbonate
465
Decomposition
790−950
Mg-illite
15
Decomposition
816−908
Ca-Montmorellonite
26
Decomposition
Table 3.
Heats of reaction for several minerals (after Barshad 1972, [36]).
The fact that source rock evolves thermally is well established [34]. Because of the fact that hydrocarbons in normal cases migrate upward [32], the source rock is subjected to heat flow firstly; and the hydrocarbons migrated from affected shales to reservoir. The abnormal heat flow is generally a heat plume resulting from intrusion. In such cases, hydrocarbon matter volatiles to the reservoir and vitrinite in the affected shale reflects birefringence as shown in the photomicrograph by [33]. However, maturity of hydrocarbons in a reservoir might not reflect the thermal status of the source rock, where immature oils can occur in reservoirs of thermal history, and vice versa. For gas formation, gas is formed either by the effect of bacteria, the process known as biogenesis, at relatively shallower depth below 550 C [37]; or, at higher depths, is formed by the effect of temperature, known as thermogenic gas. In unconventional petroleum systems where the source rock is the reservoir itself, the thermal effect causes the formation of secondary porosity [38]. Such secondary porosity significantly increases the storage capacity of the system.
Geothermal reservoirs represent one of the applications of the responses of reservoir fluids to reservoirs geothermic. Geothermal reservoirs provide clean renewable energy, [39] and the research in that field are going on for decades [40] according to [41] the geothermal system can be defined as a reservoir in a certain area that provides the opportunity to extract heat economically. Generally, the geothermal system can be divided into three main groups [42, 43]. The first one is the hydrothermal system which is formed when heat is transferred from a source by conductivity to porous media and the porous fluid within it. Moreover, the hydrothermal system can be classified into liquid-dominated and vapor-dominated (or dry steam/steam-alone) systems, depending on the existence of water or vapor. The second one is the Geopressured-geothermal system formed when the water is trapped in permeable media (rock) surrounded by impermeable or low permeable rock [42]. The last one is the artificial geothermal reservoir system called the hot dry rock system (HDR), formed in which boreholes are drilled and water is injected into the hot igneous rock [41]. Furthermore, the geothermal systems can be classified upon the equilibrium state into static and dynamic systems, the static is characterized by contentious recharge and discharge of water, while the dynamic is dominated by low or no recharge [42].
In terms of temperature conditions, or reservoir geothermic, geothermal reservoirs are classified into low, medium, and high geothermal reservoirs [41, 42, 44, 45]. The low-temperature geothermal reservoirs (at temperature less than 90°C) can provide waters source for industrial use and other uses but are not sufficient for electricity [44]. The intermediate temperature (the temperature is <150°C and ≥ 90°C), and the high temperature (the temperature is ≥150°C). More details on the subject matter can be found in [46].
One of the thermal applications of reservoir geothermic also is thermal oil recovery [47, 48, 49, 50]. In conventional hydrocarbon systems, heat is used in oil recovery to enhance the oil recovery by reducing the oil viscosity allowing it easily to flow (Reference). The process depends totally on reservoir thermal properties. However, in unconventional shale gas and shale oil recovery, heat is used as a fracking agent instead of hydraulic fracking which requires injecting a large volume of water [51].
11. Conclusion
The geothermics of reservoir have been studied and investigated where sources of terrestrial heat, means of heat transport, and thermal properties of rocks were discussed in detail and in relation to subsurface conditions such as overburden pressure and fluid content. The subsurface heat and subsequent temperature were proven to affect the reservoir system and many processes that take place in it. Porosity changes by the effect of temperature and similarly, fluid phase changes also. Some minerals show alterations and reactions have been described also. The applications of reservoir geothermics have also been addressed such as geothermal reservoirs. In conclusion, this chapter provides deep insight into the heat regime and temperature in reservoirs and, especially, reactions between different subsurface heat and components of reservoir systems.
Acknowledgments
The authors are willing to acknowledge the Red Sea University as their parent university where several facilities are provided for authoring this chapter.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Written By
Yasir Ali and Yasir Yousif
Submitted: 28 September 2022Reviewed: 29 September 2022Published: 20 December 2023
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
