Perspectives and Application of Land Use Management Strategies to Address Mangrove Ecosystem Degradation in Guyana: A Case Study of Mon Repos

Abstract

Destruction and threats to coastal mangrove ecosystems have been a perennial problem for policy-makers in Guyana. The problem is due in part to the erosion cycles, spontaneous infrastructure development and environmental degradation. To address these multiple issues, the National Mangrove Project Office employed several different strategies, including public awareness programmes. Despite the efforts, the issues continue to plague the country. The aim of this paper was to illustrate the efficacy of zoning and regionalization for combating the problems associated with mangrove ecosystem degradation at Mon Repos, East Coast Demerara. A survey of the literature and analysis of selected documents were done and ArcGIS Pro and remote sensing were applied to the case study. The results showed that while efforts could undoubtedly have a positive impact on mangroves at Mon Repos in terms of sustaining ecosystem services, facilitating livelihood opportunities and addressing the waste management issue, the effectiveness of such actions is likely to be impeded by the lack of real-time data. To adequately address these issues, the collection and use of more accurate and up-to-date scientific from the application of Geographic Information System and Remote Sensing and implementation of a multiple-use conservation zoning plan are among the strategies recommended for implementation.

1. Introduction

Land use has long sustained human societies, but its ecological consequences have been diverse and sometimes opposing, both degrading and enriching soils and affecting and shaping habitats [1, 2]. In the first half of the twentieth century, attempts to understand land use regulation and management and concomitant changes were restricted to the application of theories and models that emphasized the allocation of land for complementary purposes. For instance, the theories and models associated with urban and rural land use, such as those postulated by Harris & Ullman, Hoyt, Burgess and Von Thunen [3] focused on arranging land uses around and radiating outwards from the Central Business District (CBD). However, these theories and models have been limited in scope and application, especially in terms of some of the very restrictive assumptions under which they were constructed. Each theory allocated certain land uses in proximity to industries, adjacent to low-income areas and promoted spatial and social segregation. Land use management generally refers to the implementation of any measure that regulates the use or a change in the form or function of land to achieve stated objectives. However, in circumstances where there is a failure to satisfactorily address a range of social, urban and community, and environmental issues conflicts emerge among various groups and degradation to the natural physical environment and ecosystems results [3, 4].

Briassoulis [1] noted that it is important to reconcile and integrate three epistemological approaches to determine land use and change. These are: (i) inductive approach—to observe and describe to understand; (ii) deductive approach—to model to understand; and (iii) dialectic approach—to integrate to understand. These traditions were first proffered by the Brundtland Commission Report of 1987 [5]. Further emphasis has been placed at the time when there was almost universal concern about global environmental change resulting in a significant number of research and policy initiatives worldwide, especially after the Rio Summit in 1992 [6]. Policy issues, for examples, have emerged from research initiatives undertaken by the FAO, the European Environment Agency (EEA) as well as the United Nations which focused on the Conventions on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Desertification (UNCCD), and Biological Diversity (UNCBD). Land use changes in various physiographic and administrative regions, including coastal areas, soon became recognized as a significant component of the global environmental system.

Over the past few decades, the management of land use, including coastal ecosystems became a popular talking point among planners and policy-makers and concerted efforts have since been made to integrate geospatial models and the use of technologies to have a deeper insight into the issues surrounding land use change and better understanding of the various management strategies to employ for addressing land use [7, 8, 9]. Land use now focuses on incorporating the models and technologies for both extensive and intensive land management initiatives. The use of Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) in land use management has therefore reshaped global patterns of biodiversity, ecosystems, and landscapes planning and management [2, 10].

The degree of efficiency of such practice has resulted in some instances of orderly arrangement of land uses, protection of the natural environment and ecosystems, reduction in pollution and promotion of good health and well-being of various populations worldwide [9, 11, 12]. It does not mean that the practice is without shortcomings also, especially in the absence of stringent regulatory frameworks and prudent fiscal management systems. This has been recognized by the many issues with the land selection process, resulting in conflicts among various land and resource users [12]. According to the Canadian Institute of Planners [13] and Pelling [14], failure to effectively regulate land use leads to deterioration of physical, economic, social, and environmental conditions. These conditions, in turn, affect ecosystems and the services they provide.

In Guyana, some practices associated with land use do not often address key elements of ecosystems management [15, 16]. Planning decisions for managing the fragile coastal ecosystems, for instance, have been very limited because of the lack of or insufficient accurate and up-to-date scientific data on several interconnected elements including land use, biodiversity, and coastal dynamics (tidal movements, ocean currents and sediment cycles) and anthropogenic activities. These phenomena are now strongly influenced by climate variability and climate change and population growth rate demand for land, especially among the poorer sections of society.

A fundamental starting point for confronting coastal land use and ecosystems management issues is to understand how the dynamics of land use planning interact with urban and rural systems and resource users in the ever-changing coastal environment. This can only be understood and appreciated with the aid of some geospatial applications and the requisite technical skills to interpret the data. Too often decision-makers and planners in the country view land use management as a transient phenomenon and do not appreciate its value for sustainable coastal ecosystems management. For this reason, development activities have been expanding and accelerating in areas for which no land use plan exists, mangroves are destroyed to facilitate industrial and other developments and livelihood activities, and indiscriminate disposal of domestic and industrial effluent in mangrove areas is widespread [17, 18, 19]. The absence of land use plans is a recipe for incompatible land use because development is done in a haphazard manner, failing to incorporate key socioeconomic, physical, and environmental factors in the decision-making process [7, 15]. Such actions are also oblivious to legal and institutional systems, some of which are outdated and in urgent need of review.

The main objective of this paper is to illustrate the efficacy of integrating two sets of geospatial technologies (GIS and Remote Sensing) in zoning and regionalization as land use management strategies to address the issue of mangrove ecosystem degradation at Mon Repos, Guyana. The study draws attention to the need for the use of GIS and remote sensing to develop a comprehensive understanding of and appreciation for the complexity of land use and mangrove ecosystems management at the study area and how these interact with the dynamics of coastal processes and human intervention. It presents a conceptual framework of land use management and mangrove ecosystems sustainability and analyses the challenges for the effective management of the ecosystem. Finally, the study provides a variety of perspectives, proposed strategies, and lessons to support the transferability of knowledge and experiences to similar coastal ecosystems in Guyana.

2. Methodological approach

2.1 Research design and approach

The research and design approach was conducted through an in-depth analysis of selected documents related to land use and mangrove conservation and management. These include publications on the UN Conventions and Annual Reports from the Mangrove Restoration Project under the National Agricultural Research and Extension Institute (NAREI), Guyana. Further, literature surveys on scholarly research undertaken on coastal land use, land use management strategies, mangrove ecosystem conservation, coastal environmental issues and geospatial applications were reviewed, and ArcGIS Pro and remote sensing were applied to illustrate how they can be used for the subject matter. The case study area was selected based on four criteria outlined below in the section on ‘Land use management strategies for addressing mangrove ecosystem degradation at Mon Repos’. The conceptual framework in Figure 1 outlines the main concepts and various issues associated with land use and mangrove ecosystems management.

Figure 1.

Conceptual framework for land use and mangrove management. Data compiled by the author.

2.2 Application of geographic information system and remote sensing for zoning and regionalization

Despite the relatively huge body of literature on the use of various applications for spatial and biological diversity studies in general, few have provided overviews on the current state of play about the use of the applications to study coastal environments and to identify potential avenues for further research [10]. The myriad of environmental issues facing coastal ecosystems today, ranging from pollution, erosion and sedimentation, and sea level rise to biodiversity loss have a spatial dimension and as such surmounting them without the aid of geospatial technologies (e.g., GIS and RS) and information technology (IT) has proven to be very challenging [20, 21, 22]. This holds true in the context of mangrove ecosystems.

The rapid development and use of such technologies have led to a better understanding of some geophysical and ecological systems that were once difficult to map, track and monitor [23]. It is the geospatial information (GI) system connected to computer science that created the digital product for managing the physical environment in any part of the world. In fact, there is a very strong connection between geospatial technology and information and communication systems. Prior to their existence, data access and data application scales were limited also. While some researchers explained that Geomatics fields such as GIS and RS can be facilitated by information and communication technologies (ICT) tools for database management, data sharing, networking, computer graphics and visualization, some other authors posited that the technologies and ICT are inseparable [2, 10, 24].

The emerging applications that integrate the two groups of tools are based on wireless network of geo-sensors that detect, monitor, and track environmental phenomena and processes [10]. One aspect that matters to scientists, planners and environmental managers is the application of various geospatial technologies and interpretation and communication of the outputs to enhance knowledge about the biophysical environment for current and future use [25, 26].

Many studies conducted to date have used GIS and RS-based techniques to track vegetation and ecosystems change temporally, automate the process of waste planning and management, and make predictions about their future [22, 23]. These are three of the many possible uses of the technologies in this context [27]. In contrast, there has been much less research concerned with using GIS and RS to simulate mangrove geographical distribution and change based on landscape classifications, ecosystem degradation by natural and anthropogenic means, mangrove ecosystem dynamics in a changing coastal environment, and ecological risk assessment for the adaptation of different mangrove species to a changing environmental condition [28, 29].

There are even fewer studies that focused on modeling periods of favorable environmental conditions for mangroves such as estimating the rates of forest fragmentation and the overall health of mangroves, validating ecological theories, classifying vegetation types based on the underlying geology using GIS, and delimiting units/areas into sub-regions for better management [2]. These are made possible due to the capability of GIS, which is enhanced by various software, such as Arc GIS, GRASS GIS, gvSIG, ILWIS, JUMP GIS, uDIG, Capaware, FalconView, TerraView, and Geosoft, and modern GIS digitization which is the most common method for collecting and analyzing the data.

2.3 Zoning

Zoning is the process whereby compatible land uses and related activities are aggregated and regulated, and the character of an area/community is preserved. It deals with the demarcation of areas into small units for the purpose of different land uses. Several criteria such as topography, soils, climate, and vegetation can be used to subdivide a large area into zones. For zoning, satellite data obtained through RS are used to demarcate suitable mangrove areas and monitor and manage the vegetation. For instance, the Forest Survey of India (FSI) used Linear Imaging Self Scanning Sensor (LISS-III) and PAN in their study of mangroves. The LISS-III technology is an optical sensor that works in four spectral bands (green, red, near infrared and short-wave infrared) and covers a 141 km wide swath with a resolution of 23v meters in all spectral bands. Landsat TM images were used to locate and measure the accreted mudflat areas along Cox’s Bazar coast of Bangladesh and then land suitability classification was done considering the important spatial criteria for zoning the area and managing mangrove plantation. Other cases include the coasts of Indonesia, Iran, Brazil, Mexico, Thailand, and Malaysia where mangroves exist in significant proportions and are under constant research and monitoring [30, 31]. RS-based satellite techniques such as IRS LISS II and LISS III, LANDSAT TM consist of the modern and advanced databases which are boosting the application of mangrove management strategies in a virtuous manner [32, 33].

2.4 Regionalization

Regionalization in the context of this study refers to the practice of delineating regions into smaller units for administrative purposes and the application of management strategies at a smaller scale [34]. Having borders is not a requirement for the units to be demarcated. Each unit consists of certain criteria of its own and has its own characteristics that differentiate it from other units. Regionalization also allows for demarcating areas/zones into units based on parameters such as soil classification types, elevation, vulnerability to floods and potential for developmental activities, among others [35, 36]. Separating an area into units has its advantages, such as facilitating better management and fostering local community and household involvement in coastal resources management as custodians and stewards, but it also has disadvantages since it could result in the units having similar, overlapping representations, and coinciding with administrative/political boundaries.

2.5 Land use and mangrove ecosystems management in coastal Guyana

Land use and coastal ecosystems management in the country is impacted by the lack of zoning and planning control mechanisms visible in the choice of location for development activities. Evidently, limited use of geospatial technology and poorly guided planning decisions regarding land use are major factors contributing to the difficulties experienced in protecting many coastal ecosystems in the country. Urban expansion has also brought about many environmental problems not only in urban locales, but also in surrounding rural areas. These include illegal disposal of waste and land degradation [37, 38, 39]. Further, coastal mangrove management is complicated by the issue of land ownership in many areas. Private land ownership creates problems for policy implementation as owners of the land often do not comply with regulations and demand compensation from the authorities before complying with rules and regulations for land use.

In an attempt to address the issues locally, the Guyana Mangrove Restoration Project (GMRP) has embarked on an impressive drive over the last decade to protect and where necessary rehabilitate and restore mangroves in various sections of the coast, in addition to seeking the collaboration of private landowners. The goal is to promote mangroves for coastal protection and to facilitate livelihood initiatives by using ecosystems-based approaches [40, 41]. From 2010, the GMRP laid out plans for the establishment of sustainable mangrove ecosystems. Between 2012 and 2019, several mangrove sites have been brought under the control of the Project Office [40, 42]. In many instances, however, the activities have been constrained by inadequate technological resources and a paucity of staff capable of utilizing geospatial technologies and techniques for scientific data collection and analysis.

While tremendous efforts have been made, both public and private sector agencies, such as Sea & River Defense Department (S&RDD) of the Ministry of Public Works and Conservation International Guyana Inc. (CI) respectively, and local communities to intensify mangrove ecosystems management activities, not all of the activities have been well-sustained [39, 40]. The result is that the targets set for mangrove ecosystems management have not been fully materialized and some of the challenges persist today [38, 43, 44]. The Guyana Forestry Commission, which has the legal mandate for mangroves, has begun to utilize geospatial technologies to aid forest management in the country. If geospatial technologies are not utilized in a highly efficient manner in land use and ecosystems management, coastal mangroves will continue to be exposed to various risks and vulnerabilities, such as land degradation and sea level rise [17, 45].

3. Land use management strategies for addressing mangrove ecosystem degradation at Mon Repos

The focus of this section of the study is to examine the ways in which the application of zoning and regionalization can contribute the sustainability of the mangrove ecosystem at Mon Repos, Guyana.

3.1 Location and site selection criteria

The study area, Mon Repos, is located on the 1,803,312 ha Coastal Plain which is a narrow strip of land adjacent the Atlantic Ocean or on the north-eastern coast of Guyana, South America and in the Demerara-Mahaica Administrative Region/Region 4 (Figure 2). Its Geographical coordinates are 6.8064° N Latitude and 58.0523° W Longitude, and it is found approximately 17 km from the capital city of Georgetown. Mon Repos is bounded to the west and east by the villages of Triumph and Goed Hope respectively and to the north by the Atlantic Ocean. It extends for about 5 km inland (southward) from the coast.

Figure 2.

Location of the study area, Mon Repos. Source: Compiled by the Author.

The study area is part of the coast which experiences wave height above 3.5 m only about 2% of the time when unusually high spring tides occur; 2 m from December to June and 1–1.5 m from July to November. Wave energy is therefore considerably reduced on the coast because of the continental shelf that stretches for an average distance of 140 km. Similar to other areas along the coast, Mon Repos is influenced by tropical climatic conditions with two wet (May–August and December–January) and two dry seasons (February–April and September–November) experienced annually. Annual rainfall averages 2200 millimeters (mm) with an average of 200 coastal rain days annually. Humidity is high all year round, and there is a narrow range of temperature (26–28°C) [37].

The northeast trade winds affect the area with an average wind speed of 12.2 kilometers per hour (kph). The coast accommodates unique ecological niches and habitats for a variety of marine and terrestrial animals, and it is at risk of inundation due to sea level rise. Its level of vulnerability increases following projections of sea level rise for the country of as much as 0.88 m by the end of the century [37]. Increases in storm surges of about 5 m are expected to affect more than 22,000 hectares of the coastal zone, leading to further inundation and erosion [37, 17]. Mangroves function as natural breakwaters along the coast and represent an important natural sea defense for Guyana [46, 47].

Soils found there originated from different types of parent materials, but they are predominantly impervious clays and pegasse soils (fluvio-marine deposits) which become inundated during high tides. Despite the presence of an elaborate drainage network and mechanical drainage facilities, the area floods from heavy and continuous rainfall. The area is protected by a portion of the 69 km of masonry sea walls and the 78 km of sand banks which exist along the coast, and several hectares of mangroves as well. No marked change in land use has been identified over the past decade, except the expansion of residential and light commercial zones and mangrove proliferation naturally (Figure 3a and b).

Figure 3.

(a and b) Main Land uses identified at the study area. Note: Google Earth Images, June 2023. Source: Compiled by the Author.

Four criteria were used in the selection of the study site for data collection. These are:

1. Ecological consideration: the need to identify a site where mangroves have colonized naturally and profusely so that research on the conditions could be considered for replicability; and

2. Environmental condition: the need to identify a polluted mangrove site for the issue of waste management to be addressed.

3. Accessibility of site: the proximity of the study area to the main transport route allowed for relative ease of visits to the site.

4. Proximity of mangrove study area to densely populated area: this creates potential for land use conflict and presents a scenario that occurs almost throughout the coastal Regions of 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, thus allowing for the development of a model that could be widely replicated in Guyana

3.2 Data collection, procedure and process

Landsat TM image was used to locate and measure the mangrove area at Mon Repos in 2013 and 2022, then land use classifications were identified considering important spatial criteria for better planning and scientific management of the mangrove ecosystem. Mangrove cover and land-use maps were created using ArcGIS Pro and Landsat images. Landsat imagery covering the study area was downloaded from the USGS Earth Explorer and ancillary data were gathered from additional datasets such as digital elevation models (DEMs) and existing land-use maps. Radiometric calibration was done to the downloaded Landsat images to convert digital numbers to reflectance values using appropriate band-specific calibration coefficients with Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS Sensor: Band 4 (Red): Calibration coefficient = 2.0000; Band 5 (Near-Infrared): Calibration coefficient = 1.2500; Landsat 7 ETM+ Sensor: Band 3 (Red): Calibration coefficient = 2.0000 and Band 4 (Near-Infrared): Calibration coefficient = 1.2500. Correction was also done to remove atmospheric effects.

For mangrove mapping, Supervised Image Classification techniques were applied to the preprocessed Landsat images in ArcGIS Pro. This involved assigning different land cover classes to the pixels based on their spectral characteristics. An accuracy assessment of the matrix was done to validate the accuracy of the classified image by comparing a representative sample of classified pixels with ground truth data.

The mangrove cover map and ancillary data on existing land use were used to create a comprehensive land-use map for the two years. This involved digitizing and classifying different land-use types. To validate the land-use map, images (pictures) of the area were used as reference.

3.3 Zoning, regionalization and Mangrove ecosystem degradation at Mon Repos

Attempts have been made in the past to allocate specific sections of the community to specific uses. Over the years, Mon Repos has benefited from basic infrastructure upgrading, facilitating a thriving market, commercial banks, super marts, and small businesses. The surrounding land uses recognized from the mapping exercise are residential, commercial and infrastructure (roads and seawalls). These social and economic units are in proximity to the mangroves as shown in Figure 3. Population growth in the community has led to encroachment on and removal of mangroves especially along the south-western section of the mangrove areas. It is well-established that any adverse land use in proximity to mangroves could lead to their destruction thereby affecting the ecosystem as well as the integrity of the coastline in that location.

The study revealed that approximately 53.0 hectares of apparently healthy mangroves existed at Mon Repos as of June 2023. This figure represents 11 times the number of hectares of mangroves when compared to 4.7 hectares in 2013 (Figure 4). This is a relatively significant amount of mangrove cover, given the size of the community. The significant difference in changes in mangroves between the two years highlight the relevance of more detailed and local studies to understand the processes leading to the proliferation of the vegetation despite encroachment and removal of the vegetation in some sections.

Figure 4.

Mangrove Coverage in 2023 and 2013 . Note. Images created from ArcGIS Pro. Landsat images, digital elevation models (DEMs) and existing land-use maps. Source: Compiled by the Author.

The risk of conflicts at the community level, particularly because of the population encroachment on the south-western periphery of the mangrove site and potential mangrove conservation efforts, can be addressed by establishing functional zones in which zoning control mechanisms are applied for optimal coastal land and ecosystem utilization. In zoning this area, two aspects ought to be considered. These are the quantity to be assigned for different land-use activities and how to allocate different amounts of land use in the space available (spatial allocation). This can be achieved by using a framework of land-use suitability evaluation and a cell-based approach to allocate residential, commercial, infrastructure and wetland (mangrove) land uses in land-use spatial zones (LUSZ) or functional zones at Mon Repos. In this case, land suitability maps become necessary to guide all land use decisions. If this is avoided, the result could be viewed as a spatial optimization problem.

While the study area has fostered mangrove colonization over the years, contiguity and compatibility of land-uses appeared to be an issue. For instance, huge volumes of solid waste (both biodegradable and non-biodegraded) were observed in the mangrove stands (Figure 5). Here the applications of GIS and RS are relevant and suitable decision-support tools for monitoring of the mangrove site. This is likely to solve the spatial optimization problem at the study area and prevent degradation of the ecosystem there. The study showed that RS with a high spatial resolution can assist with the (a) acquisition of information at relatively small spatial scales such as Mon Repos and (b) production of repeated measurements for the site.

Figure 5.

Mangroves and Domestic and Industrial Effluents at the Study Site, May 2023. Note: Picture was obtained from the National Mangrove Restoration Project, NAREI, Guyana.

Regionalization was performed based on land-use in and around the study site and its potential (recreational, tourism) and ecological service (forest utilization, material production, faunal habitats) interpreted from the Landsat images. These were analyzed in accordance with the integrity of the ecosystem status quo. As it relates to proximity, the mangrove ecosystem was found to be surrounded by three natural functional units, which are marine ecosystem, offshore tidal flat, and estuary/ocean waters.

It appeared that the mangrove ecosystem has not been under the control of sub-region/Neighborhood Democratic Council (NDC) or the Mangrove Project Unit at NAREI. This could have been one reason for encroachment of the site, destruction of the mangroves and solid waste disposal issue. Having the site under sub-regional control could result in a high-density mangrove stand, better application of management strategies, control of waste pollution, and encourage community participation. A caveat though is that while having mangroves under sub-regional protection is an idealistic approach, it could be counter intuitive since the lack of updated zoning regulations and standards and enforcement of outdated ones could result in governance issues and conflicts over mangrove ecosystem use. There are other factors that need to be considered too. These include limited coordinated effort among relevant agencies to maximize benefits from the application of regionalization, limited technical skills to collect and analyze scientific data using GIS and RS technologies.

3.4 Main challenges associated with the effective management of the Mangrove ecosystem at Mon Repos

Despite the proliferation of mangroves at some sections of the study site, there are several key challenges confronting the effective management of the mangroves. Among them are the following:

1. Obtaining more accurate, up-to-date, and scientific data such as anthropogenic activities, tidal movement, and erosion and accretion, on the mangroves at the site—research revealed that there is lack of level data on the mangrove ecosystem at Mon Repos has proven to be a hindrance to sound planning and decision-making.

2. Conducting research to determine whether there is compatibility between the designated use of the mangrove site and the national policies and plans for the study area—huge sums of money are expended to revegetate and protect coastal mangroves while activities, such as dumping of solid waste, that are detrimental to the mangrove rehabilitation sites are allowed to occur.

3. Determining alternative sites for solid waste management activities that are incompatible with mangrove ecosystem management—policies must be clearly identified and defined with suitable legal and institutional framework for enforcement to allow for cost-effective investment in coastal mangrove ecosystem management.

4. Reforming the regulatory and policy frameworks to address solid waste management and pollution–Solid Waste Management as a deliberate policy has been largely limited to the municipalities, but the Local Authorities, which fall under the Neighborhood Democratic Councils (NDCs) are responsible for domestic waste collection and disposal. While the Mon Repos/La Reconnaissance NDC has been able to improve the garbage collection system over the past years, with assistance from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the extent to which it can address the pollution issue is restricted in part by the loopholes in the regulations and absence of a policy framework and limited financial resources.

5. Changing the non-compliance culture—penalties for non-compliance are limited and, in some cases, non-existent, leading to continuous disregard for the impact of the solid waste on the mangrove ecosystem.

6. Promoting public awareness among local stakeholders—while numerous interventions with respect to education and awareness in the Mon Repos community, careless use of the coastal mangrove ecosystem has been a perennial problem. More robust education and awareness programmes must be considered in harmony with the legal and institutional framework.

These challenges threaten the integrity and resilience of the mangrove ecosystem and if they remain unattended will in the long-run lead to degradation and destruction of the mangrove ecosystem and other related consequences, such as intrusion of saline water and soil degradation and damage to crops and other near shore developments from flooding.

4. Conclusions

Mangrove ecosystem protection and management has been a problematic and difficult undertaking across Guyana for several decades. Apart from the natural processes associated with ocean currents and tidal changes that compound the issues, there are a range of social, economic, and environmental areas of concerns that are also involved. Many of the local coastal communities continue to degrade the coastal environment and destroy mangrove forests with impunity. Overall, the problem does not appear to point to a single solution. In a sense, lack of collaboration among the stakeholder groups seems germane to the problem.

This study focused on the community of Mon Repos as a case study of the nature, context, and possible directions in which the authorities and local community members need to go if meaningful actions are to be taken to deal with mangrove ecosystem management. One of the key areas identified in the study is the application of GIS and Remote Sensing technologies to undertake real-time scientific data for zoning and managing the site and monitoring the mangrove ecosystem. However, the study alludes to the fact the technology while it exists in some of the key agencies in Guyana, there is no coordinated effort to maximize benefits from its use. There is the problem of limited technical skills and financing and fragmentation to enable proper coordination and maximization of efforts to address the problem. There is still a long way to go before real progress can be made to manage the site effectively.

Finally, several actions/strategies have been proposed in the paper to address the issues that confront mangrove ecosystem management at the study area of Mon Repos. These include collecting more accurate, up-to-date, and reliable scientific data supported by GIS a RS technologies to conduct in-depth study of mangroves at Mon Repos and preparing a multiple use conservation zoning plan to preserve the multiple ecosystem services that the mangroves could provide for the community. Some of these suggestions are not only applicable to the study area but also several other mangrove sites along the coast. Reference has been made to Regions 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. While specific timelines and costings have not been provided in the paper, Table 1 provides some guidance on the line of thought that could give an insight into policy direction to address this difficult issue. Greater inter-agency collaboration seems to be one of the actions that need to be undertaken urgently.

Strategies needed to overcome the main challenges	Cost for addressing the challenges	Beneficiaries
Collect and analyze scientific data supported by GIS a RS technologies to conduct in-depth study of mangroves at Mon Repos	Conducting training of local stakeholders engaging personnel with GIS and RS skills to support local agencies through training	Government agencies, such as NAREI and the local authorities as they would save from reduced expenditure on soil and crop damage from floods from the sea
Undertake research to determine whether there is a need for expansion of the mangrove site, identify appropriate land use/s, and establish whether there is compatibility between the designated use of the mangrove site and the national policies and plans for the study area	Establishing and strengthening collaborative arrangements with various agencies to support mangrove restoration and expansion	Guyana, residents of Mon Repos, volunteer organizations; Planning agencies such as CH&PA, Guyana Lands and Surveys Commission (GLSC)
Reform and strengthen the regulatory and policy frameworks to address pollution and solid waste management in local authority areas	Hiring technical personnel to prepare and up-date regulatory and policy framework (Legal skills)	Government agencies. FEES students and staff, Workshop participants,; NAREI, Local community
Prepare a multiple use conservation zoning plan for Mon Repos to preserve the multiple ecosystem services that the mangroves could provide for the community	Organizing meetings, workshops, and community seminars to mobilize for local participation	Mon Repos and Region 4 communities
Change the non-compliance culture	Virtual and face-to-face training sessions, TV programmes, print and distribute informational material	Residents of Mon Repos community, Government agencies
Promoting public awareness among local stakeholders	Assisting local stakeholders in identifying and developing and managing alternative solid waste site; organize community groups to overseen protection of site	Local and Regional Authorities

Table 1.

Proposed strategies to address the challenges of the Mon Repos mangrove ecosystem.

Conflict of interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

Thanks

Gratitude is extended to Ms. Kim Chan and Mr. Muzzammil Mohabir for the support rendered.