Nutrient Management of Maize

Abstract

This chapter presents a comprehensive overview of nutrient management practices tailored for optimizing maize production. It covers critical aspects, including soil testing protocols, advanced fertilizer application methods, organic and inorganic amendments, precision nutrient management approaches, integrated strategies, and conservation agriculture-based practices. Recognizing maize’s significance for global food security and economic prosperity, the chapter emphasizes efficient and sustainable nutrient management to achieve high yields. Precision technologies enable targeted fertilizer applications, while organic and inorganic amendments enhance soil fertility and nutrient cycling. Integrated nutrient management reduces environmental risks and improves long-term soil fertility. Conservation agriculture-based practices, such as reduced tillage and cover cropping, positively influence maize yield and sustainability by enhancing nutrient retention and water management. Overall, adopting appropriate nutrient management practices is crucial for maximizing maize production while ensuring food security and environmental well-being.

1. Introduction

Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important cereal crop globally, with a production of over 1.1 billion metric tons in 2020 [1]. Maize is not only a staple food for humans but also an essential feed for livestock. In addition, it is widely used for the production of biofuels and industrial products. Therefore, increasing maize productivity is crucial for food and nutritional security, as well as for economic growth. Nutrient management is one of the critical factors that can significantly affect maize yield and quality. Proper nutrient management not only ensures an adequate supply of essential nutrients but also improves soil health and reduces environmental pollution. The nutrient management practices for maize production can vary depending on soil fertility, climatic conditions, crop management practices, and other factors. In recent years, several studies have focused on improving nutrient management practices for maize production. These studies have explored various approaches such as balanced fertilization, precision nutrient management, integrated nutrient management, and the use of organic and inorganic amendments to improve soil fertility and nutrient use efficiency [2, 3, 4, 5]. Studies have shown that conservation agriculture-based practices such as zero-till flatbed (ZTFB) and permanent beds (PNB) can produce greater maize grain-equivalent yield (MGEY) compared to conventional tillage (CT). Similarly, nutrient expert-based application (NE) and recommended fertilization (RDF) have been found to increase MGEY compared to farmers’ fertilizer practices (FFP). Furthermore, these practices have been shown to enhance soil properties, including bulk density and microbial biomass carbon. Integrated nutrient management involves customizing nutrient use by considering contributions through residue retention, atmospheric nitrogen fixation, and residual nutrients. This approach has been shown to enhance maize yield, nutrient uptake, and economic returns, compared to using only organic or inorganic fertilizers. These approaches have shown promising results in enhancing maize yield, reducing input costs, and promoting sustainable agricultural practices [6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. This chapter aims to review the latest findings on nutrient management practices for maize production and their implications for sustainable agriculture. The chapter will cover various aspects of nutrient management, including soil testing, fertilizer application methods, timing, and rates, as well as the use of organic and inorganic amendments. The chapter will also discuss the challenges and opportunities for improving nutrient management practices in maize production. Overall, this chapter intends to provide insights into how nutrient management practices can contribute to sustainable maize production and food security.

2. The importance of maize production

Maize, also known as corn (Zea mays L.), is a highly versatile crop with a long history of domestication dating back 9000 years ago. Its global production has been increasing rapidly over the past few decades due to technological advancements, yield improvements, and area expansion driven by rising demand. Maize has become the most widely grown and traded crop and is currently the leading cereal in terms of production volume [11]. Maize plays a crucial role in global agri-food systems as a multi-purpose crop. It is primarily used as a feed for livestock, but it is also an important food crop, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America, where it serves as a staple food for millions of people [12]. Additionally, maize is used in many non-food products such as biofuels, starches, and sweeteners [13]. Maize production has the potential to address several pressing global challenges, including food and nutritional security, water scarcity, and climate change. In sub-Saharan Africa, maize is an essential crop for smallholder farmers and provides a vital source of income and food. It is estimated that maize is cultivated on over 33 million hectares of land in sub-Saharan Africa, with over 300 million people relying on it as a source of food and income [14]. Maize is also a crop with wide adaptability under different ecological scenarios, making it an essential crop for sustainable agriculture. In India, the conventional rice-wheat cropping system (RWCS) has been the dominant production system in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGPs). However, this cropping system has faced several sustainability challenges due to the high water requirement, soil fertility degradation, and inefficient input usage [15]. To address these challenges, conservation agriculture (CA) practices based on maize production have been introduced to enhance resource use efficiency, restore soil fertility, and improve crop yields. Maize production is critical for global food and nutritional security, with its versatile uses making it a vital component of the agri-food system. Maize also has the potential to address sustainability challenges, such as water scarcity and climate change, making it a crucial crop for sustainable agriculture.

2.1 Nutrient management basics

Nutrient management involves managing the amount, source, placement, form, and timing of the application of plant nutrients and soil amendments to optimize plant growth and yield while minimizing environmental impact. Integrated nutrient management (INM) is a recommended practice that involves using both organic and inorganic fertilizers to improve soil productivity and crop productivity. This approach, along with the integrated use of major plant nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash), organic carbon sources (animal manures and plant residues), and bio-fertilizers (beneficial microbes), has been shown to significantly enhance maize growth, yield, and yield components, as well as grower’s income. Conservation agriculture (CA) practices, including zero-till flatbed (ZTFB), permanent beds (PNB), and conventional systems (CT), have also been found to increase farm profits and improve soil properties. Nutrient expert-based application (NE), recommended fertilization (RDF), and farmers’ fertilizer practice (FFP) are recommended CA-based nutrient management practices that can further enhance productivity and profitability [2, 6, 16]. Maize production heavily relies on adequate nutrient management, with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium being the most critical nutrients. Nitrogen is vital for vegetative growth and grain yield, but its mismanagement can cause environmental problems such as nitrate leaching and greenhouse gas emissions. Various nitrogen management practices, including split applications during planting and vegetative stages, have been found effective in improving maize yields and nitrogen use efficiency. Similarly, phosphorus plays a critical role in root growth, flowering, and grain filling, and its deficiency can result in poor crop quality and reduced yield [17, 18, 19]. Phosphorus management practices, such as soil testing and banding phosphorus fertilizers, have been found to enhance phosphorus availability in the soil and improve maize productivity. Additionally, potassium is essential for osmoregulation, enzyme activation, and photosynthesis, and its deficiency can lead to reduced yield and increased susceptibility to biotic and abiotic stresses. Effective potassium management practices include soil testing, potassium fertilizer application, and applying potassium fertilizer at planting and during the vegetative stage. Research has shown that these practices can improve maize yield and potassium use efficiency [4, 20, 21]. Understanding the nutrient requirements of maize, as well as the nutrient content of the soil, is essential to develop a nutrient management plan that balances these needs with available resources.

2.2 Soil testing for maize production

Soil testing holds a pivotal role in optimizing nutrient management specifically tailored for maize production. By analyzing soil samples, farmers gain invaluable insights into the soil’s nutrient content and pH levels, enabling them to make well-informed decisions regarding fertilizer application. Recent research papers have extensively highlighted the profound significance of soil testing in this context. In a notable study conducted between 2015 and 2016, the focus was on bridging the maize yield gap and enhancing soil properties in coastal saline soil. The researchers explored the efficacy of a combined application of flue gas desulfurization gypsum and furfural residue (known as CA). Intriguingly, the post-harvest CA treatment exhibited remarkable outcomes, with notable increases observed in calcium (Ca2+) and soil organic carbon (SOC) contents, while simultaneously reducing sodium (Na+) content and pH levels in the upper soil layer. Consequently, maize crops experienced significant enhancements in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium accumulations, alongside a decrease in Na accumulation when compared to the control group [22]. Another noteworthy study delved into the dynamics of global maize production, consumption, and trade, aiming to decipher evolving trends over the past 25 years and their consequential impact on research and development (R&D), with a particular focus on the Global South. The study emphasized the pressing need for augmented investments in R&D endeavors to fortify maize’s pivotal role in ensuring food security, sustaining livelihoods and effectively intensifying production, all while adhering to the constraints imposed by planetary boundaries [23]. These research findings substantiate the indispensability of soil testing in the realm of maize production. Moreover, they underscore the necessity for further exploration to develop innovative and more potent methodologies aimed at improving soil properties and elevating maize yields. As such, these insights reinforce the critical role that soil testing plays in optimizing nutrient management strategies, customizing fertilizer application practices, and addressing the overarching global challenges associated with maize cultivation. Soil testing occupies a central position in the intricate web of nutrient management for maize production. Recent research profoundly accentuates its significance in fine-tuning fertilizer application, ameliorating soil characteristics, and ultimately bolstering maize yields. By diligently incorporating soil testing into their agricultural practices, farmers can aptly discern the most optimal courses of action, thereby maximizing nutrient utilization, mitigating environmental repercussions, and fostering sustainable and prosperous maize farming [24, 25, 26, 27].

2.3 Fertilizer types and application methods

Nutrient management plays a vital role in optimizing maize production and selecting appropriate fertilizer types and application methods is crucial for achieving optimal crop yields [28]. Maize requires specific nutrients, including nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), as well as secondary and micronutrients, to support its growth and development. Nitrogen fertilizers, such as urea, ammonium nitrate, and ammonium sulfate, are commonly used to supply the essential nutrient nitrogen to maize. Nitrogen application should be split into multiple doses to match the crop’s demand throughout the growing season [29]. Phosphorus fertilizers, such as diammonium phosphate (DAP) and triple superphosphate (TSP), are beneficial for root development and overall plant growth. These fertilizers are typically applied at planting time, either broadcast or as a band near the seed, to ensure efficient uptake by the developing root system. Potassium fertilizers, such as potassium chloride (KCl) and potassium sulfate (K2SO4), are crucial for enhancing maize yield and improving drought tolerance [30]. The application of potassium can be incorporated into the soil before planting or applied as a side dress during the early stages of crop growth. Additionally, secondary nutrients like calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S), along with micronutrients like zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and boron (B), and molybdenum (Mo), play significant roles in maize production [31]. These nutrients can be supplied through soil amendments or foliar applications, based on soil test results and crop nutrient requirements. Appropriate fertilizer application methods, such as broadcasting, banding, side-dressing, and foliar spraying, should be employed to ensure efficient nutrient uptake and minimize losses. By following recommended nutrient management practices, including split applications and considering the specific nutrient requirements of maize, farmers can achieve higher yields and sustainable crop production [31, 32, 33].

2.4 Timing and rates of fertilizer application

Timing and rates of fertilizer application are crucial factors in optimizing maize production and ensuring efficient nutrient uptake. Nitrogen (N) is a key nutrient for maize, and it should be applied in multiple doses to meet the crop’s demand throughout the growing season [33]. The first application of nitrogen can be done at planting time, with subsequent doses applied during the early vegetative stage and at the onset of the rapid growth phase [34]. Phosphorus (P) is essential for root development and overall plant growth. It is recommended to apply phosphorus-based fertilizers, such as diammonium phosphate (DAP) or triple superphosphate (TSP), at planting time either as a broadcast or band application near the seed [35]. The application of potassium (K) is beneficial for enhancing maize yield and improving drought tolerance. Potassium fertilizers like potassium chloride (KCl) or potassium sulfate (K2SO4) can be incorporated into the soil before planting or applied as a side-dress during the early growth stages [32]. Additionally, secondary nutrients such as calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S), along with micronutrients including zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B), and molybdenum (Mo), are important for maize production. The application rates of these nutrients depend on soil test results and crop nutrient requirements [36]. Generally, it is recommended to follow regional fertilizer recommendation guidelines to determine the appropriate rates of nutrient application for maize [37]. By carefully timing and applying fertilizers at the right rates, farmers can ensure an adequate nutrient supply for maize and maximize crop productivity.

2.5 Organic and inorganic amendments

In maize nutrient management, the use of organic and inorganic amendments plays a crucial role in improving soil fertility and providing essential nutrients for optimal crop growth [33]. Organic amendments, such as farmyard manure (FYM), compost, and green manure, are valuable sources of organic matter and nutrients [38]. These amendments enhance soil structure, water-holding capacity, and nutrient availability, thereby promoting maize growth and productivity. Incorporating organic amendments into the soil before planting or as a top dressing during the growing season can effectively supply nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium [39]. In addition to organic amendments, inorganic fertilizers are widely used to supplement nutrient requirements in maize production. Nitrogen-based fertilizers, such as urea, ammonium nitrate, and ammonium sulfate, provide readily available nitrogen for optimal plant growth [40, 41, 42]. Phosphorus fertilizers, such as diammonium phosphate (DAP) and triple superphosphate (TSP), are important for promoting root development and enhancing yield potential. Potassium fertilizers, including potassium chloride (KCl) and potassium sulfate (K2SO4), are essential for improving maize yield and stress tolerance [43]. Applying inorganic fertilizers in a targeted manner, such as banding or side-dressing, can maximize nutrient uptake and minimize losses. The combination of organic and inorganic amendments in maize nutrient management can optimize nutrient availability, improve soil fertility, and support sustainable crop production [44]. It is important to consider the nutrient requirements of maize, soil nutrient levels, and local agricultural practices when determining the appropriate application rates and timing of organic and inorganic amendments. By implementing effective nutrient management strategies using a combination of organic and inorganic amendments, farmers can enhance maize productivity while minimizing environmental impacts [45].

2.6 Precision nutrient management

Precision nutrient management for maize plays a pivotal role in optimizing crop productivity while minimizing environmental impacts associated with excessive fertilizer use. Precision nutrient management refers to the precise application of fertilizers based on the specific nutrient needs of the crop, considering factors such as soil variability, crop growth stage, and yield potential [46]. This approach involves utilizing advanced technologies such as remote sensing, geographic information systems (GIS), and variable rate application (VRA) systems to spatially and temporally tailor nutrient application rates. Precision nutrient management helps to optimize fertilizer use efficiency and reduce nutrient losses through targeted application, thus improving crop performance and minimizing environmental risks [47]. Remote sensing technologies, including satellite imagery and aerial drones, provide valuable information about crop health and nutrient status. These technologies enable the identification of nutrient deficiencies or excesses in specific areas of the field, allowing farmers to apply fertilizers precisely where they are needed [48]. GIS-based soil mapping and soil nutrient testing further assist in identifying nutrient variability across the field, enabling site-specific nutrient recommendations. Variable rate application systems enable farmers to apply fertilizers at different rates within a field, based on site-specific recommendations. By adjusting fertilizer rates based on the variability of soil nutrient levels, farmers can ensure that nutrients are provided in optimal quantities, maximizing crop uptake and minimizing losses. This approach also helps to avoid the over-application of nutrients in areas where they are not needed, reducing the risk of nutrient runoff into water bodies. Generally, precision nutrient management for maize offers a sustainable and efficient approach to fertilizer application. By utilizing advanced technologies and tailoring nutrient application rates to the specific needs of the crop and field, farmers can achieve higher yields, reduce fertilizer costs, and minimize environmental impacts associated with nutrient losses. Implementing precision nutrient management practices can contribute to the long-term sustainability and profitability of maize production systems [20, 49, 50].

2.7 Integrated nutrient management

Integrated nutrient management (INM) plays a crucial role in optimizing maize production by adopting a holistic approach to meet crop nutrient requirements efficiently [2, 3]. INM involves the integration of various nutrient sources, including organic manures, inorganic fertilizers, biofertilizers, and crop residues, to enhance soil fertility and promote sustainable crop growth. Organic manures, such as farmyard manure (FYM) and compost, are valuable sources of macro and micronutrients, as well as organic matter, which improve soil structure and nutrient availability. Incorporating organic manures into the soil at recommended rates not only supplies essential nutrients but also enhances soil health and microbial activity. Inorganic fertilizers, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilizers, are often used in combination with organic manures to supplement nutrient deficiencies and achieve balanced nutrition. Biofertilizers, including nitrogen-fixing bacteria, phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, and mycorrhizal fungi, can be applied either as seed inoculants or through soil application to enhance nutrient uptake and improve soil nutrient cycling [51]. Additionally, incorporating crop residues into the soil as green manure helps enhance soil organic matter content and nutrient availability. INM practices also include precision nutrient management based on soil testing to determine nutrient deficiencies and adjust fertilizer application rates accordingly. Adopting balanced fertilization practices through INM not only ensures optimal nutrient supply to maize but also promotes environmental sustainability by minimizing nutrient losses and reducing the risk of pollution [5, 38, 42]. By integrating organic manures, inorganic fertilizers, biofertilizers, and crop residues, along with precision nutrient management, farmers can achieve improved maize productivity and maintain soil fertility in a sustainable manner. While SSNM (site-specific nutrient management) is able to be tailored to the requirements of a site or field, for a broader purpose, INM provides better nutrient management [52].

2.8 Conservation agriculture-based practices

Conservation agriculture (CA) is an approach that promotes sustainable and environmentally friendly maize production while enhancing soil health and crop resilience [7, 15]. Several CA-based practices have proven effective in maize cultivation. One key practice is minimum soil disturbance, which involves reducing or eliminating conventional tillage to preserve soil structure and prevent erosion [53]. Zero tillage, where seeds are directly planted into untilled soil, has shown positive effects on maize yields by improving water infiltration and conserving soil moisture [6, 7]. Another important practice is residue management, where crop residues are left on the soil surface instead of being removed or burned. This practice enhances organic matter content, improves soil fertility, and reduces weed pressure [15]. Cover cropping is also integral to CA in maize systems, where non-commercial crops are grown during fallow periods to protect the soil from erosion, suppress weeds, and improve nutrient cycling [54]. Additionally, crop rotation is a key component of CA, as it breaks disease and pest cycles, improves soil structure, and enhances nutrient availability [55]. Intercropping, the simultaneous cultivation of two or more crops in close proximity, is another beneficial CA practice that optimizes resource use and diversifies farm income [56]. Precision nutrient management, including site-specific fertilization based on soil testing and variable rate application, helps optimize nutrient use efficiency while minimizing environmental impacts. Effective weed management through integrated approaches, such as using cover crops, mechanical methods, and targeted herbicide application, is essential in CA maize production to reduce weed competition. By adopting these CA-based practices, maize producers can achieve sustainable crop production, improve soil health, and mitigate environmental risks [57, 58].

2.9 Best practices for nutrient management in maize production

Implementing best practices for nutrient management is crucial for optimizing maize production and ensuring sustainable crop yields. Firstly, conducting regular soil testing is essential to assess nutrient levels and pH, providing valuable information for fertilizer recommendations [5, 6]. Splitting nitrogen (N) applications throughout the growing season based on crop demand is highly recommended to improve nitrogen use efficiency [25]. For phosphorus (P) fertilization, applying diammonium phosphate (DAP) or triple superphosphate (TSP) at planting time, either broadcast or as a band near the seed, promotes root development and overall plant growth [20]. Potassium (K) fertilizers should be applied either as a pre-plant incorporation or as a side-dress during early crop stages to enhance maize yield and improve drought tolerance. In addition to N, P, and K, secondary nutrients (calcium, magnesium, and sulfur) and micronutrients (zinc, copper, iron, manganese, boron, and molybdenum) play vital roles in maize production. Soil amendments or foliar applications can be utilized to address deficiencies based on soil test results and crop nutrient requirements [49]. Employing appropriate fertilizer application methods such as broadcasting, banding, side-dressing, or foliar spraying ensures efficient nutrient uptake and minimizes losses [38]. Moreover, adopting conservation practices such as cover cropping, crop rotation, and precision farming techniques can improve nutrient cycling, reduce nutrient runoff, and enhance soil fertility. Multiple studies have linked the impact of biochar on crop productivity to various factors, including enhanced cation exchange capacity (CEC) and the subsequent retention of nutrients, elevated pH levels and increased base saturation, augmented availability of phosphorus, and improved water accessibility for plants [59]. Regular monitoring of crop health and adjusting fertilizer applications based on visual symptoms or plant tissue analysis is crucial to avoid over or under-application of nutrients. By adhering to these best practices, farmers can optimize nutrient management in maize production, leading to increased yields, improved resource use efficiency, and environmental sustainability [60].

2.10 Challenges and opportunities for improving nutrient management practices

Effective nutrient management is essential for sustainable agriculture and maximizing crop productivity, but it faces several challenges and offers opportunities for improvement. One major challenge is the improper use of fertilizers, resulting in nutrient imbalances, environmental pollution, and economic losses [61]. Over-application of fertilizers can lead to nutrient runoff, causing water pollution and eutrophication [62]. On the other hand, insufficient fertilizer application can result in nutrient deficiencies, limiting crop yields. Another challenge is the lack of soil testing and nutrient analysis, which hinders precise fertilizer recommendations based on the specific nutrient requirements of crops. Inadequate knowledge and awareness among farmers regarding nutrient management practices further contribute to suboptimal fertilizer use [16, 31, 39]. However, there are opportunities for enhancing nutrient management practices. The development and promotion of precision agriculture technologies enable site-specific nutrient application, optimizing fertilizer use efficiency [63]. Integration of organic farming practices, such as cover cropping, crop rotation, and the use of organic amendments, can enhance soil fertility and reduce the reliance on synthetic fertilizers [64]. Additionally, implementing conservation practices like conservation tillage and nutrient management planning can minimize nutrient losses and improve nutrient use efficiency [50]. Education and extension programs play a crucial role in increasing farmers’ understanding of nutrient management principles and practices, encouraging adoption of sustainable approaches. Furthermore, research efforts are focused on developing advanced fertilizers with slow-release mechanisms and improved nutrient uptake efficiency. By addressing these challenges and embracing the opportunities, sustainable nutrient management practices can be achieved, promoting environmentally friendly agriculture and ensuring long-term food security [65, 66].

3. Conclusion

In conclusion, effective management of fertilizer types and application methods is crucial for maximizing maize productivity. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, secondary nutrients, and micronutrients play vital roles in supporting the growth and development of maize plants. Splitting nitrogen applications throughout the growing season to match crop demand and using fertilizers like urea, ammonium nitrate, and ammonium sulfate can ensure optimal nitrogen supply. Phosphorus fertilizers such as diammonium phosphate and triple superphosphate are beneficial for root development and should be applied at planting time either through broadcasting or banding near the seed. Potassium fertilizers like potassium chloride and potassium sulfate can enhance maize yield and improve drought tolerance and should be applied before planting or as a side-dress during early crop growth. Additionally, the application of secondary nutrients and micronutrients, based on soil test results and crop requirements, can significantly contribute to maize production. It is important to consider appropriate fertilizer application methods such as broadcasting, banding, side-dressing, and foliar spraying to ensure efficient nutrient uptake and minimize losses. Farmers should follow recommended nutrient management practices and tailor their fertilization strategies to meet the specific needs of their maize crops, as this will lead to higher yields and sustainable crop production. Regular soil testing and monitoring can provide valuable insights for adjusting fertilizer types and application methods to optimize maize nutrient management and improve overall productivity.

Nomenclature

N	nitrogen
P	phosphorus
K	potassium
Ca	calcium
Mg	magnesium
S	sulfur
Fe	iron
Mn	manganese
Zn	zinc
Cu	copper
B	boron
Mo	molybdenum
pH	soil pH level
OM	organic matter
EC	electrical conductivity
ANR	annual nutrient requirement
TSP	triple superphosphate
DAP	di-ammonium phosphate
MAP	mono-ammonium phosphate
NPK	nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium
CAN	calcium ammonium nitrate
UAN	urea ammonium nitrate solution
FYM	farmyard manure
DCT	deep placement of fertilizer
SSNM	site-specific nutrient management
FFD	full fertilizer dose
LCC	leaf color chart
CF	crop factor
ICM	integrated crop management
VRA	variable rate application
DSS	decision support system
RZWQM	root zone water quality model
UAV	unmanned aerial vehicle
GIS	geographic information system
RUSLE	revised universal soil loss equation
NUE	nutrient use efficiency
EONR	economic optimum nitrogen rate
BMP	best management practices
NIRS	near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy
PSNT	pre-sidedress soil nitrate test
RTK	real-time kinematic