The Critically Endangered Pampa Cat (Leopardus munoai) on the Brink of Extinction in Brazil: The Little We Know and an Action Plan to Try to Save It

Abstract

Leopardus munoai, the Pampa cat, is a small felid (ca. 3–4 kg) recently separated from the Leopardus colocola complex. This Pampa cat is endemic to the Pampas grasslands of Uruguay, western Argentina and southernmost Brazil. Originally, the Pampas had a long history of extensive cattle ranching; however, its fields have been exponentially converted mostly to soy fields in the last five decades. Species distribution models have shown a reduction in their area (1997–2022) of 42%, with only 31,808 km2 of suitable habitat remaining. Despite the Brazilian Pampas being surveyed in their entirety, no records of this felid have ever been repeated at the same site in different years since 1997 (50,000 trap-nights; >400,000 km of highway day/night crossing). This effort generated only 32 records (17 road-kills). Despite the huge detection efforts, there has never been a confirmed resident population detected anywhere. The scenario that unfolds is of an extremely rare felid that seems to use the vanishing native herbaceous fields, which are dependent upon cattle grazing, in replacement of the original (now extinct) grazing megafauna. With an expected population of 45–50 individuals, which has become virtually extinct in its original eastern portion, all signs point towards imminent extinction.

1. Introduction

The Neotropical region presents a rich diversity of felines with many species living in sympatry. In the temperate fields of the Brazilian Pampas, the usual feline assemblage is composed of the Geoffroy’s cat (Leopardus geoffroyi d’Orbigny & Gervais, 1844), the Pampas cat (Leopardus colocola Molina, 1782), the margay (Leopardus wiedii Schinz, 1821) and the jaguarundi (Herpailurus yagouaroundi Saint-Hilaire, 1803) [1]. This set of species is unique in the world due to the Pampas being the limits of the northeastern distribution of Geoffroy’s cat, the southern distribution of margay and jaguarundi and a place of occurrence of a disjunct population of Pampas cat that is recognized as a species/subspecies L. (colocola) munoai [2, 3]. Here, we use the term Pampas cat in Ref. to the original broader group, i.e., L. colocola group/complex, and Pampa cat to refer specifically to the species that is endemic to the Pampas biome, i.e., Leopardus munoai.

The Pampa cat (Leopardus munoai) – Figure 1, also known as the Uruguayan pampas cat, is a small wild felid that almost exclusively inhabits the fields of the Uruguayan savanna, a subtropical native grassland ecoregion [4] that is located in Uruguay, the extreme south of Brazil (state of Rio Grande do Sul – restricted area to the Pampas biome), as well as a small area in northeastern Argentina. This field seems to have been historically isolated in this region, possibly due to geographical barriers such as the Plata River to the south, the Paraná/Paraguay rivers to the west and the Atlantic Forest to the north [3, 5, 6, 7]. For Martínez-Lanfranco and González [8], the term pampas cat has traditionally been used to refer to small, non-spotted, Neotropical felines of the genus Leopardus Gray, 1842, which, unlike their spotted congeners that mainly use forest habitats, occur in open environments throughout South America [3, 9].

Figure 1.

Leopardus munoai, the Pampa cat. Top and right-side pictures by Caio Sarmento Belleza.

The region where the Pampa cat lives are formed by a complex of fields that are native to the southern region of the state of Rio Grande does Sul (extreme south of Brazil on the border with Argentina and Uruguay), which is both officially and popularly named as the Pampas biome and is characterized by elements of the Austral-Antarctic flora [10, 11, 12]. In addition, due to the fertile and deep soil favorable for agriculture, this ecoregion is considered one of the most critical conservation priorities for terrestrial vertebrates in the Neotropics [13]. Given this scenario, the Pampa cat has been classified as ‘endangered’ (EN) of extinction in the regional listing of the state of Rio Grande do Sul [14] and as a threatened species with conservation priority in Uruguay [15]. These categorizations, as well as a general overall assessment for the complex L. colocola [16], were performed before this endemic felid was formally recognized as a distinct taxon [3] and were based on ecological data that was more scarcer than what is currently available. In Brazil, it was recently classified as L. munoai and placed in the critically endangered (CR) category. As an aggravating factor, when reviewing the conservation status of this small felid as well as the conservation status of the species’ native fields, Tirelli et al. [17] showed that the 24 demographic scenarios evaluated generated an estimated population size that places the Pampa cat in one of the IUCN in danger of extinction categories. Furthermore, eight scenarios placed it in the endangered category (EN) and five scenarios in the critically endangered category (CR), which indicates that the species may be seriously endangered.

2. Brief taxonomic overview

Despite previous taxonomic assessments [9] there are currently two taxonomic proposals within the Leopardus colocola complex. Kitchener’s who evaluated previous studies and took into account biogeographic, morphological and genetic aspects, recognized only one species with seven subspecies [2]: Leopardus colocola colocola, Le. c. wolffsohni, Le. c. pajeros (including crucina), Le. c. budini (including steinbachi), Le. c. garleppi (including Thomasi), Le. c. bracatus, and Le. c. munoai. Nascimento et al. [3] using the widest morphological coverage of the Le. colocola complex at that moment, combined with multilocus phylogeny, species delimitation techniques, and ecological niche analyses, stated that treating pampas cats as a single species would underestimate their actual diversity. When analyzing the distribution and frequency of characters along the entire distribution of the pampas cat to detect sharp clines and discontinuities and take into account intra- and interpopulational variation, which are key factors for defining taxa and searching for diagnostic characters [18, 19, 20], the authors claim to recognize five allopatric groups, in which each would have clear diagnostic characteristics and well-defined geographical distribution. The oldest epithets available for the groups would be: Group I = colocola Molina, 1782; Group II = garleppi Matschie, 1912; Group III = pajeros Desmarest, 1816; Group IV = braccata Cope, 1889; and Group V = muñoai Ximénez, 1961. Overall, these analyses demonstrated that specimens with this genotype/phenotype have unique morphological, genetic, and ecological characteristics, and they should be considered a distinct unit for conservation assessment and management actions. Leopardus munoaiis a species that occurs in rural areas with heavy rainfall in the dry season in southern Brazil, Uruguay and northeastern Argentina. There is an urgent need to carry out such conservation planning on behalf of this endemic felid, since the native fields of the Uruguayan savanna have been largely transformed by agriculture (especially rice and soybean crops) and forest plantations (Eucalyptus spp. and Pinus spp.) [21, 22]. These human activities have led to the extinction of several species of local mammals [23], although not endemic species such as the Pampa cat.

Note it has been argued recently that the species name should change from Leopardus munoai [24], to Leopardus fasciatus [25], which is likely to happen [8]. We are not discussing the merit; we are simply using the most currently recognizable and used name in this chapter, Leopardus munoai.

3. Aims and scope

Given the current understanding of its high degree of endemism, taxonomic distinction, scarcity of refined ecological data, and successive exponential reduction of its habitat, which demonstrate an increasingly real scenario of the threat of extinction, we consider it appropriate to present an in-depth assessment of its little-known natural history and conservation situation. To this end, we seek to refine the occurrence records, relate them to the analysis of suitability and habitat loss, and make a profound analysis of the causal factors that have led the species to the threshold of extinction in Brazil, in order to present a proposal for an emergency action plan to try to save it.

4. The setting

The Pampas biome, which has approximately 178,000 km², corresponds to 2.07% of the Brazilian territory, and is restricted to the state of Rio Grande do Sul, though it is the dominant landscape in 63% of the territory of the state [26]. This domain is covered by four geomorphological regions, specifically the Gaúcha Central Depression, the Rio Grande do Sul Shield (Serra do Sudeste), the Coastal Plain and the Plateau of the Campanha [26] – Figure 2.

Figure 2.

Map showing the limits of the pampas biome and the geomorphologic regions of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.

The climate, according to the classification of Köppen [27], is of the humid subtropical type, with precipitation equally distributed throughout the year (Cfa and Cfb). The average temperature for the entire study area varies between 17 and 18°C, where maximum temperatures can exceed 40°C and minimum temperatures fall below −5°C.

The pastures of the region are vegetable formations that are conditioned, mainly, by edaphic characteristics and not so much climatic ones [28, 29]. In addition to edaphic factors, grazing pressure and conversion to agricultural or forestry areas strongly influence these rural formations, thus creating different physiognomies (fields with low vegetation; fields with tall vegetation, subshrubbed or scrubby fields; and mixed fields, fields of Baccharis dracunculifolia or paleaceous fields), as described by several authors [28, 29, 30]. Recently, based on climatic conditions, floristic composition and edaphic characteristics, Menezes [12] concluded that the fields of the Pampas biome could be subdivided into three distinct groups: Pampas Mesic fields, Coastal Pampas and Coastal Pampas pasture.

According to Marchiori [31], the native vegetation of the southwest, which consists of extensive rural areas with forests on the slopes of sandstone plateaus and river banks and park-like formation, still presents areas in its original state, although the complications promoted by anthropic actions have spread exponentially. Verdum [32] reports the natural process of the sandification of the fields, which is currently accelerated, and that the fields are subject to degradation by inappropriate land use such as agrarian expansion and implementation of monocultures.

4.1 Data collection

All possible types of records were compiled from those used in surveys of Neotropical carnivorous mammals. These included the use of camera traps, capture traps for radio collar placement and collection of biological material, recording footprints and faeces, random visual observations, and/or in night-time transections. A search was also carried out for individuals run over on highways in the Pampa biome or killed specimens (firearms or domestic dogs) as a form of retaliation for attacking poultry farms [33].

The information collected, provided by third parties (colleagues and farmers) and systematic searches for the Pampa cat began in 1997. This generated an effort of 50,000 trap-nights, 7000 hours of active searches in night transections, 1100 live-catch traps/night, in addition to 300,000 kilometers of highways traveled in the search for individuals that had been run over. Camera trapping followed standard and well-established protocols that targeted small cats (for a detailed description see [34, 35, 36]). In 2021, at the Saicã site, which covers 51,000 hectares and is located between the municipalities of Rosario do Sul and Cacequi (RS), we deployed 6–9 camera traps spaced at ca. 500 m (400–600 m) from each other that focused on the native fields that have been free from agriculture for at least 40 years. Thus, cameras were placed specifically targeting the Pampa cat’s presumed preferred habitat.

Live-captures followed strict protocols, such as those of the American Society of Mammalogists [37], all with proper licenses from environmental agencies (IBAMA/SEMA), none of them were conducted for the purpose of this work, and all of them to attend the legal requirements of the aforementioned environmental agencies. All records refer exclusively to the Brazilian Pampas biome (part of the Uruguayan savanna ecoregion in Brazil). All the municipalities that belong to the domains of the Brazilian Pampas were included in the searches, with the area covered and time effort varying between areas. Additionally, in 2023, all of the points where the records of the species occurred between 1997 and 2022 were visited again, as a form of in-person assessment of the state of conservation of the habitats. In order to determine the relative abundance index (RAI), we considered only one record/hour [38].

4.2 Data analysis

We modeled the habitat suitability of the Pampa cat in Rio Grande do Sul state using the maximum entropy algorithm in Maxent 3.4.4 [39]. This algorithm uses presence-only data as well as background points obtained from a geographical area defined a priori. In our case, we defined our sampling area as the areas of Rio Grande do Sul state in the Uruguayan savanna ecoregion [4]. Using the species locations and the covariate values, the algorithm estimates the target probability distribution by using the principle of maximum entropy (i.e., finding the distribution that is closest to uniform). Maxent has been widely applied for modeling species distribution and habitat suitability, and thereby identifies priority areas for conservation as well as delineating species ranges.

We contemplated 19 bioclimatic variables [40] and land cover [41]. All bioclimatic predictors were checked for multicollinearity, and a PCA was performed to select the three variables that maximized variability among the locations where the Pampa cat was registered. The variables selected were mean annual precipitation (bio12), annual temperature range (bio7), and isothermality (bio3). Since our records date back to 1997, and given the fast rate of habitat loss in the Brazilian Pampas, suitability for the species was modeled using land cover data for the year 1997. We then estimated the current suitable habitat that is left by removing areas that were transformed between 1997 and 2021.

5. Natural history traits of an almost extinct species

5.1 Diet

Analysis of the stomach contents of 14 specimens that had been run over [42] indicated that rodents represent 63.2% of the diet, followed by birds (31.6%) and amphibians (5.2%). Of the species of prey, Brazilian guinea pigs (Cavia aperea 549 g) comprised 33.3% of all prey consumed, followed by the small rice rats (22 g; 19.1%), Passeriformes (10–20 g; 14.3%) and tinamous (350–550 g; 9.5%). The average mean weight of mammalian prey (MWMP) was 287 g. Prey of 500 g appears to be important both numerically and in terms of biomass consumed by this small felid. Compared to other felines found in the Pampas, their diet had greater similarity to that of the jaguarundi (which also makes use of open environments), with lesser similarities to those of Geoffroy’s cat and the margay [42]. These findings give support to the old reports that described the species preying mostly on cavies and ground birds [43].

5.2 Notes on habitat, activity and reproduction

The rare reports made by authors from the late 19th to the early 20th centuries already mentioned the species rarity and its “favored” habitat, the native tall grasslands [44, 45]. Based on prey habits [42], it is possible to infer that Pampa cats prefer open fields with shrubby cover and edges of bogs to forage for terrestrial prey in the savannas of the Brazilian Pampas (Figure 3). Further support comes from the alternative ways to unlock the species habitat before telemetry information can properly elucidate this issue. A road-killed young male Pampa cat had a tick (Amblyomma tigrinum) whose life cycle is associated with weeds present only in virgin native fields. Casual observations lead us to assume that, although the species presents a greater diurnal activity, it would also present nocturnal activity (FD Mazim, pers. obs.), unlike the northern species of the country, Leopardus braccatus, whose activity is mostly diurnal [46, 47].

Figure 3.

Views of the Pampa cat’s (Leopardus munoai) suitable habitat, its latrine (bottom middle) and tracks.

During four encounters with observations of females with cubs, the number of cubs varied between 1 and 2, with an average of 1.25. Birth estimates would be for early summer, late summer and early spring, and late spring/early summer (Figure 4). When they detect danger, the cubs enter armadillo burrows (Euphractus sexcinctus), or they crouch down to the ground, as do adults when hiding from an imminent threat.

Figure 4.

Rare views, Pampa cat (Leopaurdus munoai) mother and cub playing (photo: Caio Sarmento Belleza) and a cub that was playing with a piece of tyre by the side of the highway (photo: Michel Correia).

6. The rarity of the species: Carnivores and the pampas

The summarization of the records obtained in the last 25 years was sufficient to obtain only 32 concrete records of the Pampa cat within the Brazilian Pampas. These comprised 2 (6.25%) camera-trap records, 9 (28%) visual observations, 17 (53%) road-kill specimens and 4 (12.5%) hunted individuals (Table 1). This would lead to an average of only 1.28 records per year. The overall relative abundance index (RAI) for all areas was a paltry 0.004 ind/100 trap-nights. Comparatively, rarity in terms of abundance of photographic records for Neotropical mammals was considered at 0.300 ind/100 trap-nights [63]. The inexorable rarity of Leopardus munoai is confirmed by comparing it with the observations of other sympatric cats, as well as other grassland carnivores for all indices – Table 1. Ironically, the Pampa cat is the rarest felid in the Pampas, 100 times rarer than Geoffroy’s cat and even the margay, a species that is notorious for living in the forests though present in a mostly grassland biome.

Species	RAI-Pampa (ind./100 trap-nights)	Cam-trap records	Visual observations	Road-kills	Captures
Leopardus munoai; Pampa cat	0.004	2 (0.001%)	9 (0.79%)	21 (0.89%)	0 (0%)
Leopardus geoffroyi; Geoffroy’s cat	0.442	221	34	88	103
Leopardus wiedii; Margay	0.432	216	17	75	78
Herpailurus; yagouaroundi; Jaguarundi	0.024	12	6	18	4
Pseudalopex gymnocercus Pampas fox	1.430	715	422	935	473
Galictis cuja; Lesser grisson	0.184	92	111	94	23
Conepatus chinga; Molina’s hog-nosed skunk	0.434	217	534	1103	67
Total		1475	1133	2334	748

Table 1.

Records of the Pampa cat (Leopardus munoai), other sympatric felids and carnivores in the Brazilian pampas between 1997 and 2022.

RAI = relative abundance index.

At the Saicã site, two records were obtained after 1080 trap-nights or 25,920 hours of camera trapping that focused on the native fields free that have been from agriculture for at least 40 years. This would yield a relative abundance of 0.185 ind/100 trap-nights in the supposedly prime L. munoai habitat, which is far below the threshold of 0.300 ind/100 trap-nights proposed as the rarity index for medium-large Neotropical mammals on camera [48]. Considering the additional camera trapping carried out at other habitats not favored by the species (e.g., forest formations and crop edges), the relative abundance after 1975 trap-nights would drop to 0.101 ind./100 trap-nights, far below those presented by Geoffroy’s cat (1.266 ind/100 trap-nights) and the margay (0.608 ind/100 trap-nights) in the same area. Nevertheless, L. munoai’s index was on par with that reported for its sister species, Leopardus braccatus, in the northern savannas (0.119 ind/100 trap-nights; [34]). Perhaps the Saicã estimate would be more appropriate in areas where the species might still be found.

In the 19th century, the Pampa cat was already considered rare by Ihering [44] and Araújo [45], both citing the species as being in population decline in the Coastal Plain and in the Serra do Sudeste (currently the municipalities of Pelotas, Canguçu, Morro Redondo, and Arroio do Padre), eastern-central portion of the Pampas, with a tendency to isolation in the native fields of the western border of the state of Rio Grande do Sul. Salvini [49] emphasized that in the fields of the extreme southeast of the Coastal Plain, between the municipalities of Santa Vitória do Palmar and Chuí, the species was practically extinct due to retaliatory and sport hunting by chicken farmers and the increasing reduction and degradation of native fields. In addition, it is a species that, since its type registration carried out in 1923, has less than 200 independent records throughout its entire geographical distribution zone [8, 17], which equates to less than two records per year, notably of individuals killed, run over, or hunted. The species became so scarce everywhere that any signs of it are becoming subject of publication [50].

7. Assessing the current species range and the expected population size

The model results were robust, with high predictive power (AUC = 0.89), low omission rate of test samples (o.r. = 0.13), and were highly significant (P < 0.001). The top three variables that influenced Pampa cat distribution were annual temperature range (% contribution = 44.6), mean annual rainfall (% contribution = 26.5), and isothermality (% contribution = 25.4). Suitability increased with mid values of annual temperature range (22–23°C, Figure 5A), rainfall (1350–1400 mm, Figure 5B), and increased isothermality (Figure 5C). Model results indicated a suitable area of 54,860 km² in 1997, which by 2021 had declined by 42%, resulting in 31,808 km² of suitable habitat left for the species in the Pampas region of the state (Figure 6). The bulk of this region is located in the central-southern portion of the state, along the Uruguayan border. Given the very few recent records of the species, it is likely that the Pampa cat is in fact absent from most of the suitable remaining habitat. On the other hand, if properly protected, the remaining suitable habitat is still large enough for reintroduction programs aided by ex situ conservation. Given the current rates of habitat loss in the Brazilian Pampas, it is expected that this suitable area will be even smaller as of 2023. Modeling conducted for Uruguay showed higher suitability for two main areas, both wetlands, while Tirelli’s prediction indicated Rio Grande do Sul with most part of the suitable area remaining [17].

Figure 5.

Predicted habitat suitability of the Pampa cat (Leopardus munoai) in response to: A) annual temperature range; B) mean annual rainfall; C) isothermality.

Figure 6.

Suitable habitat for Pampa cat in 1997 and 2021. Potential suitable habitat in 1997 was derived from Maxent models. Suitable habitat in 2021 was obtained by removing areas in which natural habitat was lost between 1997 and 2021.

Considering all the suitable areas remaining and the lower levels of population densities known for small Neotropical cats, 0.01 ind./km² and 0.0014 ind./km² [51], we would expect a total population of 45 to 318 individuals in Brazil. With a higher likelihood towards the lower values. The field-based best estimate of total population of no more than 50 individuals matched the lower predicted value. As such, we would consider the total remaining adult population of Pampa cat in Brazil to be 45–50 individuals. No field-based estimates and population information is available for Uruguay and Argentina. Bou et al. [52] estimated 144,483.3 km² of suitable habitat for the species in Uruguay, however with only 42 records in the country, it is likely that large swaths of otherwise suitable habitat are in fact devoid of Pampa cats.

From this conversion of the native matrix into agricultural areas, assuming that the same has happened in the registration points of Tirelli et al. [17], based on the 24 demographic scenarios evaluated, which, in various estimates, indicated that this feline might be critically endangered, the best-estimated scenario resulted in a population of 8866 mature individuals, which would decline to 1064, and which differs from the reality observed in the field, while the worst estimated scenario resulted in 62 mature individuals, currently reduced to eight mature specimens throughout its geographical distribution. Our current lower estimates of 45–50 individuals fall within similar levels of the worst scenario cited by Tirelli et al. [17]. Possibly relictual individuals survive as nomads, thus decreasing the chances of reproductive encounters and increasing the chances of being run over and exposure to predation by domestic dogs. To date, records of the species, especially visual observations and camera trapping, have never been repeated at the same point or location, at least in Brazil. Even in the five rare events in which individuals were observed with pups, they were never seen again in those same spots since these places had already been converted into soybean fields. Based on the difficulty involved in finding records, the rarity of herbaceous fields, the exponential conversion of native virgin fields into fields for crops, highway losses, hunting as a form of retaliation, predation by domestic dogs, possible contamination by diseases transmitted by domestic animals (dogs and cats) and possible problems of genetic stochasticity, it is believed that the most negative scenario is the most accurate. Not to mention that the conversion of native fields into soybean crops is widespread throughout the Brazilian Pampa, where arable fields are present, with deep and non-rocky soil. Considering the rarity of records and predictions for Uruguay [52], the projections of Tirelli et al. [17] and our field-based estimates, the total worldwide population of the Pampa cat would unlikely be much above 100–120 individuals, which is still very critical.

As an aggravating factor, there are no concrete records of the Pampa cat in conservation units in the Brazilian Pampas [53], and it is only mentioned that throughout its geographical distribution some protected areas have habitat suitability to support its presence [17]. At the same time, there is no allocation of government funds to create new protected areas nor intention to do so, which leaves populations at the mercy of the impacts or at the mercy of the management of private properties. However, within the current scenario, even if new conservation units are implemented, the disappearance and degradation of the fields leave the protected areas isolated. At the same time, since we do not know the minimum size of the species’ territory and other basic aspects of spatial ecology and natural history, there is a risk that the size and place of implementation of a protected area are in regions that are not favorable for the maintenance of the species.

Moreover, another immediate negative factor, and a currently growing one in the rural matrix of the Pampas, is the passing of fields to the heirs of families that have traditionally been cattle breeders, and end up belonging to generations that settle in the urban area, and tend not to follow in the cultural footsteps of their ancestors in the gaucho cattle ranching tradition. These abandon traditional livestock farming and, after inheriting the fields, often opt to lease the land for the cultivation of rice and soybeans, since it is more profitable.

8. The dooming of an endemic species

There have been massive mammal extinctions in the Brazilian Pampas, such as those of the jaguar (Panthera onca), tapir (Tapirus terrestris), giant river otter (Pteronura brasiliensis), marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus), collared peccary (Dicotyles tajacu), white-lipped peccary (Pecari tajacu) and giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla). Additionally, there are only relictual populations of puma (Puma concolor), maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus), and Pampas deer (Ozotoceros bezoarticus). All this coincides with the replacement by the agriculture of the traditional gaucho culture of cattle-raising in native fields [23, 44, 45, 49]. Thus, the Pampas is considered the Brazilian biome that loses more native vegetation than any other. At the same time, one in four hectares of native vegetation in the Pampas is secondary formation, i.e., one that has already been suppressed at least once and ended up regenerating [41].

The current agricultural exploitation, mainly the cultivation of soybeans and rice, has mischaracterized the native rural matrix of the Pampas in Brazil and also in the Uruguayan Pampa (natural formations forming the Uruguayan savanna), thus restricting continuously and annually the availability of favorable fields for the occurrence of the Pampa cat. This fact seems to be the main motivator of the records of the species along the highways, even the visual ones, since in the vast majority of cases, the domain bands (linear land space, present between the highway and private properties) are not suppressed and are impacted by grain plantations. This condition allows the development of vegetation that is typical of native fields and the presence of their natural prey, which becomes the only fields that are preserved with aspects close to the original configuration in most regions of the Pampas. At the same time that the domain lanes of the highways offer conditions for the maintenance of the population of the Pampa cat, they result in direct mortality due to road accidents, since it brings individuals closer to traffic and restricts them from living near vehicle traffic. Another historical and cultural impact on the Pampa cat and other felines of the Pampas refers to hunting motivated by prevention or retaliation, as a way of controlling alleged predators of domestic birds [53, 54].

It is crucial to emphasize that most of the Uruguayan savanna ecoregion is categorized as having the greatest future threat of conversion, with virtually all acreage severely altered by agriculture [55]. As an example, between 2002 and 2016, a 190-kilometre stretch of highway (BR-293), located between the cities of Pinheiro Machado and Dom Pedrito, in the extreme south of the Pampa biome, recorded 11 individuals run over and, as of 2017, this repetition or concentration was no longer evidenced, since two individuals were counted. Notably, this occurred in a period when native fields with livestock had accelerated replacement by soybean crops [41].

In Brazil, the Pampa cat lives in the smallest and most-degraded ecosystem and biome, that also has the greatest disregard in terms of the release of government resources for surveillance and research. This is perhaps motivated by the fact that the Pampas biome does not have the environmental lobby and charisma that the Amazon, the Atlantic Forest and the Pantanal have, both nationally and, above all, globally. This scenario also reduces the chances of financing via private initiatives. The natural absence of large forest cover (showcase of conservation) makes the Pampas biome (as well as the Uruguayan savanna) not very emblematic, added to the absence of charismatic species such as the jaguar as well as other large mammals that became extinct in the 19th century [44, 56, 57].

Since 2008, the Pampa cat is no longer recorded in the southern and central portions of the Coastal Plain of the Pampas biome (state of Rio Grande do Sul). However, before this period, only two confirmed records were obtained in this region, both on the edges of the BR-116, one in 2002 from a visual observation (municipality of Cristal) and another in 2008 from an individual found run over (municipality of Jaguarão). It is in this region of the extreme east of the Pampas biome that the Patos/Mirim lagoon complex is located, which has the phytophysionomy of a floodplain and water-logged fields, with natural environments converted almost entirely into rice crops since the 1940s, though with greater intensity from the 1970s onwards. There the shallower water-logged fields were drained for rice planting, which, as of 2010, has been replaced by soybean crops.

It is important to highlight that, since 2010, the two main highways (BR-101 and BR-116) that cover 100% of the surface of the Pampas Coastal Plain (north-south direction) are monitored daily by expert consultants and traffic operators of the highway concessionaires in the search for run over specimens, as condition of the environmental license that was granted. However, even with this daily effort, the Pampa cat has not been recorded.

Another scenario that is capable of revealing the rarity of the species is in the official records of the supervisory agencies. In all the records, only two individuals of Pampa cat have been admitted to fauna rehabilitation centres in Brazil, and both were orphaned cubs, one male specimen in the early 2000s (municipal zoo of Cachoeira do Sul) and the other a female in 2014 (CETAS/IBAMA/RS and then sent to the zoo at Gramado). In Uruguay, three individuals are currently part of an ex situ conservation program, as part of the M’bopicuá BioPark, with the aggravating factor that two specimens are siblings, thus reducing opportunities for non-parental crosses, in other words, the species may become rapidly and concomitantly extinct in nature and on the planet.

The doomsday scenario presented, although referring to Brazil, in great part would also reflect the remaining areas of its range, and the little information known does not differ from what is presented here. As such, the road to extinction that is portrayed for the Pampa cat in Brazil likely reflects its overall scenario [17, 52]. The last extinction of a felid species are known only from the time of the Pleistocene, when sabre-tooth tigers, cave-lions, the American cheetah and others disappeared [58]. There have been unfortunate extinctions of several large felids, such as the South China, Java and Bali tigers, and the Atlas lion, but these refer to subspecies/populations and not of an entire species. There are certainly other small and large felid species and subspecies on the road to extinction, such as the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus), the tiger (Panthera tigris), the Borneo bay cat (Catopuma badia), the flat-headed cat (Prionailurus planiceps), and the Andean cat (Leopardus jacobita), to name a few [59, 60, 61, 62], but none of them are remotely close to the situation portrayed here for the Pampa cat. The Iberian lynx was the species that got the closest to becoming extinct, but after a massive effort to protect and expand its population, the species recovered from a few 100 or so to nearly 400 individuals and is currently on the rise to the point of having been downlisted from critically endangered to endangered [59]. Unfortunately, the Pampa cat is in a worse situation than that of the Iberian lynx in the late 1970s. There is no known population established anywhere (not to mention in protected areas), and no strong financial support, particularly because the species has not been even properly recognized as such by the IUCN, nor does it have strong financial support from the European Union that the Iberian lynx had. Without taking immediate and forceful action, as the old saying goes, “all roads lead to Rome”, the road will soon lead to extinction, the first one of a full species in the modern age!

This sad journey should serve as a warning lesson for two other small felids from Brazil that are also found in agricultural lands and that have already suffered considerable habitat losses, so far being pushed along the same path towards extinction as the Pampa cat. These are the Brazilian Pampa cat (Leopardus braccatus), its sister species, and the savanna tiger cat (Leopardus tigrinus), both found in the dwindling savannas of Brazil. There is still time for these two; however, in order to avoid the demise of the remaining Pampa cats, a conservation action plan needs to be put into place immediately.

9. Conservation action plan for immediate implementation

The main conservation action for the Pampa cat should be the protection of its habitat, the native herbaceous fields. However, for the protection of these fields, management is necessary, which fundamentally includes the presence of extensive grazing (cattle or sheep) without confinement. From the moment the cattle are removed from the fields, the configuration of the field vegetation becomes shrubby. On the other hand, with large stockings or confinement, the configuration of the fields is reduced to a thin carpet of grasses. Therefore, a field without livestock or with a high stocking of cattle tends to result in the absence of the Pampa cat.

As a crucial measure to maintain the extensive form of breeding, there is an urgent need to create and implement environmental quality seals that value animal protein (green beef) produced extensively in virgin native fields or those in an advanced stage of recovery. This would be an alternative to add value to livestock, encouraging the rural producer not to migrate and convert the fields into soybean crops. The scope of these programs to monetize the protein produced in the native fields should cover the cross-border scope between Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay, especially in the international corridors of more connected natural areas, as suggested by Tirelli et al. [17].

The creation of the seal of quality must include the name of the Pampa cat. Given that the species occurs in an environment intended for food production, its presence should leverage monetization; otherwise, it may be viewed negatively, and accelerate the process of converting fields into crops, since landowners, upon becoming aware of the rarity of this species, may associate and fear that the presence of the Pampa cat on their properties will result in the embargo of their fields. In summary, the presence of this feline must be seen as a possibility of increasing income, in other words, making livestock economically competitive with purely agricultural activities (soybean and rice crops).

A certification program for soybean and rice crops also appears as an alternative arrangement, especially in the subsidy of agricultural areas with the planning of field corridors between crops, thus subsidizing the areas with the presence of the Pampa cat.

• Program 1: Create and implement a monetization program (valorization $) of animal protein that comes from livestock raised in native fields (green beef).

• Program 2: Create and implement a program to monetize (valorization $) soybeans and rice by decreasing planted areas while preserving native field corridors between properties and highway domain strips.

• Program 3: Create and implement an ex situ breeding program of the Pampa cat (increase genetic variability) in different institutions, as well as zoos, conservation centres and private properties, considering the risk of tragedies from fire, flood, and theft, among others.

  • Subprogram 3.1. Capture and take free-living individuals to centres included in the ex situ conservation program.

• Program 4: New census and refinement of possible relictual populations or individuals with the established territory.

• Program 5: Characterize the basic needs of the species (spatial ecology, habitat use, activity, genetics, zoonoses, and reproduction).

• Program 6: Set up a consultancy service with exclusive dedication to the execution of the tasks of the action plan.

  • Subprogram 6.1: Set up a multidisciplinary consultancy team (professional feline specialist, wildlife veterinarian, agronomist and professionals in the field of communication, marketing, economics, and culture).

  • Subprogram 6.2: Multidisciplinary consultancy service working in an integrated way with the relevant agencies (IBAMA, State Secretariat, Public Prosecutor’s Office, Environmental Military Police).

  • Subprogram 6.3: Multidisciplinary consultancy service working in an integrated way with parliamentarians linked to agricultural cooperatives to improve relations between rural producers, researchers, and public managers.

10. Concluding remarks

Based on the exponential conversion of native fields, initially into rice plantations, and currently mostly in soybean crops, and the relation to the annual reduction in records, we can infer that the Pampa cat will not survive extinction per se and require immediate human intervention. Unfortunately, measures such as environmental education do not offer guarantees of changes in the current situation – which are necessary after the start of the conservation action plan – because the Pampa cat lives in an environment that is destined to become a voluminous and profitable economic area of production (the fields) and, if its presence in native fields with extensive livestock is not a clearly advantageous income alternative, as or more profitable than soybeans, its preferred habitat will inevitably be annihilated.

Associated with exponential habitat loss, another main factor in the struggle of the Pampa cat against imminent extinction, is its specialist ecology in terms of quality and physiognomies of the fields, where, although its concrete bioecological needs and its basic spatial ecology are still unknown, the records of two decades demonstrate that the species depends on specific typologies of native fields, especially virgin fields, without shrubby vegetation or simply summarized as sparse grassy fields. In a preliminary way, its records have an association with virgin herbaceous native fields, composed of weeds in the dry areas and straw in the humid areas, both with moderate grazing (livestock fields), since the withdrawal of cattle grazing makes the fields shrubby, and thus results in the disappearance of this feline. It is important to report that, in fields without cattle breeding, where shrubby vegetation is formed by grazing, the species was not recorded. The same is observed in fields with large numbers of cattle, which are restricted to a sparse configuration composed of grasses.

Therefore, it is recommended that the actions proposed as an attempt to reduce the imminent risk of extinction of the species should be used concomitantly (research and conservation), with the main focus on the monetization of livestock in the native fields, through the creation of environmental seals. This guarantees the presence of physical spaces (fields) that are favorable to the species, in order to be seen as a feasible guarantee of income by landowners; otherwise, there will be no justification for maintaining the fields, given the great profitability generated by soybean crops. Another consequence of the loss of native fields is the annihilation not only of the Pampa cat and the biodiversity associated with it, but also of an intangible anthropological heritage, notably the culture of the gaucho people, which was forged by cattle breeding.

The conservation of native fields for livestock is the most sustainable campesino economic system for the conservation of rural biodiversity and, fundamentally, for the regional culture (gaucho), since livestock farming in the Pampas does not result from deforestation, and, since its beginning around 1620 [63], it has been conducted on natural pastures. In summary, this is the most appropriate economic vocation of the Pampas and is the most sustainable and responsible for maintaining regional biodiversity and culture. Unfortunately, the current scenario reveals that new farmers or field heirs tend not to continue the socioeconomic practices conducted by their livestock farming ancestors, and they are inclined to convert native fields into crops in order to achieve greater financial returns.

The negative factors regarding the Pampa cat have been reported for at least a century and indicate an increase in this pressure every year, which restricts Leopardus munoai to a species composed of relictual and perhaps nomadic individuals, possibly with inbreeding occurring. In this way, the current scenario allows us to postulate that the Pampa cat is in fact the most threatened feline on Earth and may become extinct without even being formally recognized and known. Unfortunately, if the current scenario is maintained, this endemic feline of the Pampas will be extinct in the wild in less than a decade.