Reviving Chinese Pangolin Conversation: A Brief Knowledge Sharing

Abstract

Chinese pangolin is a unique critically endangered small mammal that is covered by scales and feed on termites and ants. It is dark brown or dark gray in color and lives in coniferous and broad-leaf forest, agricultural land, barren land, bamboo forest, grassland Chinese pangolin is widely distributed in the continent of Asia but the detailed studies on population status, ecology, behavior, and illegal trade is lacking. With the developmental activities escalated in Asian countries, the threats to the pangolin population and potential habitats are increasing. Additional athropogenic factors such as deforestation, encroachment, forest fire, over exploitation, hunting, poaching, and illegal trade have caused steep decline in the number of Chinese pangolin in wild. In fact, the pangolin is the most illegally traded animal in the contemporary world. Therefore, it is crucial that we revive and prolong communication regarding the current global and national status, distribution, behavior, illegal trade, and conservation practices across scales to promote the long-term conservation of the Chinese pangolin population and habitat. In the end, this chapter provides some important policy recommendations to promote Chinese pangolin conversation.

1. Introduction

Pangolin is a small mammal that is widely known as a scaly anteater because its body is covered with a tough overlapping scales that is made up of keratin. It mostly feeds on ants and termites using an extraordinarily long and sticky tongue, and in the case of threatened is able to roll itself up into a tight ball quickly [1]. There are Eight species of pangolin distributed globally. The four species are categorized as Asian pangolin and four are African pangolin. The global population of these species of pangolin are unknown whereas under the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species all eight species are marked as globally threatened. Furthermore, the IUCN Red List has declared that the population of all eight species of pangolin is in decreasing trend throughout the world [2]. All species of pangolin are listed in Appendix I in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora [3]. Pangolin is shy, non-aggressive, solitary and burrowing strange mammal that is protected nationally as well as internationally but their biological details are unknown to stakeholders. This chapter reviews the taxonomy, ecology, habitat, population, distribution, conservation status and threats of Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) in detail and provides some recommendations in Chinese pangolin studies.

2. Taxonomy

Based on the morphological and genetic evidences, Chinese pangolin is specified under the genus “Manis” [4]. The name “Manis pentadactyla” is derived from two Latin words, ‘manes’ refers to the nocturnal behavior and unusual appearance of pangolin and ‘pentadactyla’ refers to five fingers on both fore and hind limbs. In Roman belief, the pangolin is known as the spirit of the ghost because of their nocturnal movement [5, 6]. Chinese pangolin is still considered as the sign of bad luck in different parts of the world including Nepal.

3. Ecology

Closely observing the ecological behavior of Chinese pangolin is exceptionally tough because of its lower population throughout the home-ranges and its nocturnal, secretive, shyness, and elusive nature. Therefore, most of the ecological description are based from the researches done in China and Taiwan where the population of the species is comparatively higher than other countries [6].

All species of pangolin including Chinese pangolin sleeps in hollows and logs during the day time and emerges in the evening to forage for ants and termites [1]. Chinese pangolin appears exceptionally different than other mammals. Some of the unique body appearances including large ear pinna, a post-anal depression in the skin and a narrowing near the distal end of the tail distinguish Chinese pangolin from other Asian pangolin [7]. As a defense, Chinese pangolin rolls into a ball and during these configuration soft tissues are protected or hidden by scales [8]. Its fore limbs are powerful and contain large digging claws, while hind limbs are shorter and contain smaller claws. It has a thick and long tail covered with large (40 cm long and 2–5 cm diameter), round overlapping scales formed from fused hair that is dorsally rounded and ventrally flattened, prehensile and very muscular [6]. Its tail is shorter as compared to other pangolin species and is less than half of the total body length [9]. The body of the species is entirely covered with the scales made up of keratin that grown from the body skin forming a grid that grow continuously [10]. The purpose of the scales is to cover and save the surface of head, trunk, lateral surfaces of trunk, limbs, and tail from external injuries and attacks. The color of Chinese pangolin is usually dark brown or dark gray (Figure 1) [10]. Whereas, the facial skin is yellow-pinkish gray [7].

Figure 1.

Chinese pangolin. Source: Tulsi Laxmi Suwal [11].

Male Chinese pangolin is larger than female ones. The mass of Chine pangolin ranges from 2.35 kg (young, sexually matured female) to 7.0 kg (fat male), similarly body length ranges from 545 mm (young female) and 795 mm (male) [8]. However, some Chinese pangolin weight exceptionally heavy (i.e. more than 8 kg) [6]. Chinese pangolin usually digs two different kinds of burrows based on their use. The resident burrows are used for resting and sleeping purpose and the feeding burrows are used for feeding on ants and termites existing under the earth’s surface [12]. Usually it uses the feeding burrow for a shorter period of time as compared to resident burrows where they spend longer time for resting and sleeping purposes. The Chinese pangolin prefer sunlight in the winter. For this reason it digs resident burrows on a steep land with a slope between 30 and 60° covered with dense shrub, canopy cover, near to water sources and that receives direct sunlight [13]. The study done by [14] also found the similar behavior of Chinese pangolin in Nepal.

4. Habitat

The potential habitat of Chinese pangolin ranges from tropical plain landscape to hilly regions. In some cases, the habitat is also found in high mountains like the northern parts of Nepal. This species is found in a wide range of habitats that include primary and secondary tropical forests, lime stone forests, bamboo forests, grasslands, agricultural fields, limestone, hill forests, broad-leaf forests in lower altitude and coniferous forests in higher attitudinal zones [6, 14, 15, 16, 17]. The habitat is generally found in red soil at open forest with less coverage in south, south-east, and south-west facing slopes [18]. Both protected areas and areas outside of protected areas are the potential habitats of Chinese pangolin. However, most of the potential habitats are found outside of protected areas as the species is present mostly in cultivable land (Figure 2). Agricultural land, human settlement areas, and parts of private forests are potential habitats of Chinese pangolin. Unlike arboreal Sunda pangolin, Chinese pangolin is entirely terrestrial and digs own burrows [19, 20].

Figure 2.

Burrow of Chinese pangolin found near the settlement area. Source: Author.

The suitable habitat of Chinese pangolin ranges within the section of mid-hills [11, 14, 16, 17]. However, some studies have found that the burrows of the species in lower altitude of below 100 m in Taiwan and exceptionally high altitude of 3000 m from sea level in eastern Nepal [2]. These studies depict that Chinese pangolin are distributed in wide range of habitats. Chinese pangolin tolerates some kind of human disturbances, therefore it prefers burrowing in the habitats near to human settlement and agricultural lands [14, 19, 21, 22]. The study conducted by [14] recorded the presence of burrows in grasslands and croplands near human settlements. Similarly, the species was sighted in evergreen coniferous forest such as pine forest, broad leaf forests such as teak (Tectona grandis) forest, bamboo forest, and scrubland [13, 21, 23].

5. Population

Because of the species’s nocturnal, elusive, secretive, and solitary nature, the direct observation is very rare unlike other mammals due to which estimating the exact number of Chinese pangolin population is extremely tough [2, 6]. Across the scales (global through local) the information on the population of Chinese pangolin is very rare along with the studies on habitat and abundance of species. This species gets little care in studies and conservation compared to other big mammals, therefore the immediate information on the population status is very low.

Unlike Taiwan, where the Chinese pangolin population is exceptionally stable and increasing [2], other home countries have faced sharp decline in the number of Chinese pangolin because of over-exploitation of habitat resulting to extirpation of original population [23, 24]. For instance, the population of Chinese pangolin in China was dramatically declined by 94% between 1960s and 1990 due to anthropogenic factors including over exploitation [9]. China harvested around 160,000 individual of Chinese pangolin every year between 1960 and 1980 for consumptive purpose that ensued in extinction of species for commercial purpose in 1990s [25]. China estimated the population of the species to be approximately 50,000–100,000 in 2002 [26] but the National Forestry Administration (now National Forestry and Grassland Administration) estimated the population of 64,000 individuals. However, in the same year [27] resulted that the population of Chinese pangolin was declined to 25,100 and 49,450 individuals.

Taiwan experienced substantial reduction in the population of Chinese pangolin between 1950s–1970s due to over exploitation from hunting and poaching [28]. However, some parts of Taiwan has recovered the population remain stable at this time as hunting and poaching are not the major threats. Vietnam hosts a few number of Chinese pangolin population. Although, the species is seen rarely, the population of Chinese pangolin faced steep decline in the last two decades (1990s and 2000s) [20]. In Lao PDR, the spices was observed in Nam Theun Extension PNBCA (Proposed National Biodiversity Conservation Area) and in a village in Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA during 1994–1995 [6, 29]. However, the sighting of the species is exceptionally rare at this time as the population is nearly extinct due to extreme hunting of species.

In Thailand, Myanmar, and Bhutan the information about the Chinese pangolin is little or no information is available as the population has sharply declined to extinction. Similarly, Nepal has faced decline in the population of Chinese pangolin due to hunting, poaching, habitat fragmentation, and illegal trade. The survey conducted in early 1990s estimated that the population of the species was good in number in the Royal Nagarjung Forest in Kathmandu. The national population was estimated be approximately 5000 individuals, however, current population is estimated to be declined due to several anthropogenic factors including over exploitation of resources and illegal trade [11, 16, 30, 31, 32]. The similar trend is seen in India and Bangladesh. The population of Chinese pangolin is severely decreasing in Northeast India [33] and in southern part of Bangladesh due to illegal trafficking, over exploitation, hunting, and poaching [23]. Chinese pangolin population has been expected to be disappeared to extinction in southeast Bangladesh but the existence of the species is still recorded in Chittagong Hill Tracts.

6. Distribution

Chinese pangolin is very widely distributed in the continent of Asia. The distribution mostly occur in East Asia, northern Southeast Asia, and some parts of South Asia (Figure 3) [2]. Broadly the population of Chinese pangolin is distributed in Nepal, India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, China, Taiwan, Vietnam, Myanmar, Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), and Thailand.

Figure 3.

Distribution of Chinese pangolin [2].

To be confined within the nations, Chinese pangolin is widely distributed in Nepal. The species is widely distributed in the mid-hills of Nepal that ranges between 500 and 1500 m [11, 17] and is exceptionally distributed at the higher altitude of 3000 m [2]. Their existence is also recorded in the southern plane with a lower altitude. Chinese pangolin is distributed throughout the county (central, eastern, and western regions) and are highly recorded in 25 districts [34]. Some of the potential areas of Chinese pangolin distribution in Nepal are Bardia, Chitwan, Makalu Barun, Parsa, Sagarmartha and Shivapuri-Nagarjun National Parks and Annapurna, Gaurishankar and Kanchenjunga Conservation Areas [34, 35]. In addition, Nepal’s geographical range distributes Chinese Pangolin in Taplejung, Ilam, Pachthar, Sinduli, Ramechhap, Kavrepalanchowk, Kathmandu, Gorkha, Bhaktapur, and Dhading [11, 16, 17, 35].

Similarly, in India Chinese pangolin is distributed in northern part of the country that is mostly bordered to Nepal. The record of the species distribution is found in West Bengal, Sikkim, Bihar, Assam, Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram, and Meghalaya [36, 37, 38]. The distribution of this species is confined to northwest and southeastern regions of Bangladesh. The Lawachara National Park, Thakurgaon region, and Chittagong Hills have record of Chinese pangolin [23]. The study conducted by [20] has recorded the distribution of this species in northern and central Vietnam some protected areas including Cuc Phuong National Park, Khe Net Nature Reserve, Ke Go Nature Reserve, and Ba Na National Park.

Likewise, the distribution record of Chinese pangolin is very few in Lao PDR and Thailand. In some parts of north and central Lao PDR, the species is sparsely distributed [29]. A few distribution has been recorded from Changwat, Chiang Mai, and Chiang Mai in Thailand in early though mid ninety [2]. In Bhutan, Chinese pangolin is distributed mostly in southern regions. It is distributed in Samtse (southwest), Sarpang, Tsirang (central south), and Samdrup Jongkhar (southeast) in Bhutan. In Myanmar, there are records of the species distribution in northern part but the clear distribution record is not confirmed [39].

In China, the Chinese pangolin is widely distributed across southern regions. The distribution extends from Changjiang to the provinces of Yunnan, Fujian, Hunan, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Guizhou, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Huibei, Chongqing, Shanghai, and in the Autonomous Regions of Guangxi Zhuang, Tibet, and Hainan Island [2, 40]. In addition, in China the distribution of the species has been recorded in the Funiu mountain district that is located in north of Changjiang with no detailed verification and requiring further investigation [2, 6, 41]. The distribution of Chinese pangolin in Hong Kong is recorded in the periphery of lower altitudinal zone [42]. The distributional record shows that the species is found in the central and northeast New Territories and Lantau Island [6]. Unlike Hong Kong, the Chinese pangolin is distributed very widely in Taiwan. The species is found in cultivable land in lower altitude below 1000 m, and Central, Western, and Eastern Coast Mountain ranges that extends to upper limit of 2000 m [15]. The species is also distributed in the Olympics, the Taoyuan Tableland, the Tatun Volcano Group, Puli Basin, Taipei Basin, and the Pingtun Plain [2, 6, 15, 28].

7. Conservation status

With the increasing threats to the Chinese pangolin population to extinction, the global, national, and some local authorities have initiated conservation of the species. At the global scale, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species has listed the Chinese pangolin under the Critically Endangered category [2]. Similarly, the Chinese pangolin is listed in Appendix I in the CITES. Nationally, in Nepal the species is categorized as an Endangered species and is listed as the protected species under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (NPWC) Act 1973 [30, 43]. Moreover, under CITES, Nepal has registered under Appendix I to restrict all kinds of wild killing and commercial use. In 2018 the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation in Nepal developed a Pangolin Conservation Action Plan for Nepal (2018–2022) to promote mitigating illegal trade and the conservation of Chinese pangolin in Nepal by implementing immediate action in identifying potential habitats and the regular monitoring of populations and suitable habitats [16]. In addition, several Community Forests User Groups (CFUGs) have initiated pangolin conservation through their operational plan including the Rani CFUG in Hetauda Nepal.

Likewise, China has listed the species under Critically Endangered category on its National Red List [44]. India has listed Chinese pangolin in protected list by listing it in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 and under Appendix II of CITES [33]. These conservation steps in India restricts for the wild catch and commercial trade of Chinese pangolin within and outside of country. Similarly, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Bangladesh, and Myanmar have listed Chinese pangolin under protected species list. The primary intention of these countries to protect the Chinese pangolin is to reduce wild catching, killing, poaching, and illegal trade for commercial purposes within the country and outside the national boundaries [2, 6].

8. Threats

Despite several conservation efforts implemented across scales (international, national, and some local) for a long time, Chinese pangolin population is under the severe threats that could result to the extinction of species in the near future. There exist certain natural threats, however, anthropogenic factors are primarily responsible for the steep decline in the population of Chinese pangolin and destruction of their habitats. Anthropogenic threats including illegal hunting, poaching, illegal trade, deforestation, forest fire, agriculture expansion, forest encroachment, traditional beliefs, over-grazing, and developmental activities on haphazard manner are the major reasons behind the dramatic decline of Chinese pangolin globally, nationally, and locally.

8.1 Hunting and poaching

Chinese pangolin has been poached and hunted in wild for both household and commercial purposes for several decades. At the local level the species is killed as a source of meat in some parts of the world where as the killing is done primarily for illegal trade at national and international levels [2]. The habitats that are near the human settlement and agricultural lands are highly vulnerable because hunters have easy access and they often poach and hunt Chinese pangolin in these areas (Figure 4) [17, 27]. Evidences and studies claim that Chinese pangolin has been historically exploited for medicinal, cultural, spiritual, and nutritional purposes [2, 23, 24, 45]. Local people consume on Chinese pangolin with a traditional belief of medicinal values that heals several kinds of diseases such as skin disease, back pain, gastrointestinal disease, pain killer during pregnancy, and cardiac problem [46].

Figure 4.

The scales of locally killed Chinese pangolin. Source: Badri Binod Dahal.

The meat of Chinese pangolin is consumed as a source of protein. Similarly, the study done by [46, 47] have recorded a significant number of respondents were aware about the protection status of Chinese pangolin but they were had also eaten the meat of the species. Likewise, in the eastern Nepal the Limbu community have negative attitude towards Chinese pangolin and perceive it as a symbol of bad luck and kill it wherever they see the species [46, 48]. Some tribal communities in northeastern India consume the meat of at the community level and they use scales for several medicinal purposes [33, 45]. The scales of the species was also used to make decorative items, rings, musical instruments, and bags at the community level that has enhanced the threats to the Chinese pangolin population. In China and Vietnam, the scales of Chinese pangolin is considered as a source of traditional medicine for treating skin diseases, treating cancer, blood circulation, and stimulating milk secretion in lactating women [2, 45].

8.2 Illegal trade

Illegal trade of a live and dead Chinese pangolin along with its body parts including scales and meat is the primary threat to the remaining population of this species [46]. Usually the illegal trade of Chinese pangolin happens at the international scales because of an excessive demand of the species in China. The local hunters work actively and with full effort in catching the Chinese pangolin alive or killing to supply the demand across the scales that has very sharply declined the number of the species in the past few decades [6, 32, 47]. There is a long chain of hunters and traders in most of the countries that host Chinese pangolin and they are connected internationally to promote illegal hunting, trafficking and trading of the species that has led the species in the verge of extinction in the contemporary world (Figure 5) [32, 49].

Figure 5.

Local hunter with dead pangolin. Source: Author.

In the last 21 years, the population of Chinese pangolin has been estimated to be declined by more than 90% because of escalated anthropogenic activities, illegal trade in particular. Pangolin is the most widely illegally traded species in the southeastern Asia because of its demand in China for multiple purposes. Historically the illegal trade of the species has been recorded by CITES. A large population of Chinese pangolin declined in mid-1990s due to unrecorded internationalized illegal trade of a live species that had occurred between Southeast Asia and China along with other species [2, 20, 50]. Most of the illegally traded Chinese pangolin to China originates from Myanmar and Nepal [32, 51]. During the decades of 1980s and 1990s, CITES reported that international trade of more than 50,000 (estimated) Chinese pangolin were internationally traded [6].

Although CITES banned in illegal trade of Chinese pangolin in 2000 by introducing zero export of this species following the severe decline in the Chinese pangolin number in wild due to escalated illegal trade, illegal trade and trafficking of the species has continued post-2000 that is governed and driven by market demand of live individuals in China from Southeast and South Asia [49, 51]. In the time difference of 3 years (between 2000 and 2013), the seizure records of Chinese pangolin show that more than 50,000 Chinese pangolin were internationally trafficked [49, 52]. The high demand and conspicuously consumption of Chinese pangolin as a luxury wild meat dish among opulent consumers in China and Vietnam has driven illegal international trade of the species in high prices [2, 49].

8.3 Over exploitation and habitat fragmentation

Apart from illegal trade, hunting and poaching, anthropogenic factors are highly responsible for over exploitation of resources and habitat fragmentation that has resulted in the extirpation of Chinese pangolin from different regions including Bangladesh and some provinces of China [6, 23]. Most of the countries in Asia that are also the home countries to Chinese pangolin are currently on a developing phase that results in over exploitation of resources such as forests, wetlands, agricultural lands, grasslands, and shrub-lands for constructions and other developmental activities. These commercial developmental activities resulting to over exploitation of resources either destroy the potential habitats of the species entirely or fragment into parts that will directly result in the decrement of Chinese pangolin population in the wild [6, 53].

In the countries like Nepal, India, and Bangladesh, the rural areas are in the phase of rapid conversion to semi-urban or urban areas by destroying forests, agricultural lands, and barren lands that are primary habitat of Chinese pangolin [11, 16, 22, 23, 53]. In addition, the human settlement has expanded by encroaching nearby forests and agricultural lands. These activities at the household and developmental scales have exploited resources beyond limits in one hand and increased severely threats to the habitat on the other hand that has resulted in reduced number of Chinese pangolin. Some examples of developmental activities such as large scale road network constructions, industrial areas construction, infrastructure construction, mining etc. have fragmented or entirely destroyed the potential habitats of Chinese pangolin. The study done by [17, 53] revealed that the Balthali village is currently suffering from speed conversion of forest and agricultural lands into resorts, hotels, and road constructions that have fragmented the habitat of Chinese pangolin and this has resulted in decline of population. In addition to these threats, the excessive use of pesticides, insecticides and other chemicals in the agriculture lands with pangolin burrows is a severe threat to both Chinese pangolin and its habitat [6, 53].

9. Recommendations in Chinese pangolin studies

There are considerable studies done on Chinese pangolin in different parts of Asia where this species is found. For instance, the studies in distribution based on direct and indirect signs of pangolin, conservation, threats, spaces abundance, illegal trade based on seizure records, and habitat preference have been conducted. In addition, the conservation efforts to conserve the species have been implemented at international, national, and some local levels. Despite these studies and efforts, the information on multiple dimensions of Chinese pangolin still lacks in research arena and the threats to conservation of the species is still up-scaling. This section in this chapter tries to provide certain recommendations in Chinese pangolin studies and conservation.

1. Most of the researches on Chinese pangolin has concluded that the studies on the population is lacking. It is very important to have a scientific data on the population of the species to support all kind of research and focus conservation efforts. Therefore, a comprehensive study on the population of Chinese pangolin is of a dire need.

2. There is a lack of behavioral studies of Chinese pangolin because of its unique nature. However, further researches should be able to develop a new techniques and methods to comprehend the ecological and other behaviors of Chinese pangolin. This will also help to understand the distribution, habitat preference, and abundance of the species based on the direct signs as most of the current studies are based on indirect signs.

3. Although the issue of climate change in all sectors are alarming, there is no single study on the impacts of climate change on Chinese pangolin population and its habitats. It is a crucial topic that should be studied immediately in the contemporary world that is apparently facing multiple impacts of climate change in environmental sectors and biodiversity including small mammals like Chinese pangolin and its habitats.

4. As the conservation of wildlife species have become a clear political agenda, the political dimensions of Chinese pangolin conservation is very crucial subject of research. In addition, the Chinese pangolin might be threatened at local level as the local/national politics might influence local level poaching and hunting and national/international political sphere might influence the global market of illegal trade and trafficking.

5. The clear records on the current illegal trading of Chinese pangolin and the estimated projection of future illegal trade is lacking. Future researches should focus on comprehensive research in quantifying hunting pressure and use of the species at local, national, and international scales.

6. The conservation efforts should be designed and implemented for an impact results in conserving the species and its habitat rather than just being limited within the texts. For example, Nepal developed a Pangolin Conservation Action Plan (2018–2022) to identify potential habitats, regularly monitor population and habitats, mitigate illegal hunting and trading. However, the comprehensive review of the action plan to understand the impacts of the plan over its planned objectives has not been publicized yet. In addition, the conservation output from implementing expensive conservation action plan has not been produced yet. Therefore, the conservation efforts should be designed and implemented for an effective outputs.

7. Community based/initiated conservation programs should be designed and implemented rather than imposing conservation programs designed by authorities. This will encourage community people and enhance their understanding capacity regarding Chinese pangolin conservation. Handing over of the power and authority in developing, implementing, and monitoring local action plans will enhance sustainable conservation of the species.

Conflict of interest

The author declare that there is no any conflict of interest.