Bottleneck in Creating Layer Breeds of Chickens in Nigeria

Abstract

This study was carried out from a retrospective study of all undergraduate and postgraduate researches conducted on chickens in the Department of Animal Science of some Western and Eastern universities (University of Nigeria, Nsukka, and Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, Ibadan, and National Animal production institute, NAPRI, Zaria) in the northern part of Nigeria. The breeding strategies in some world-renowned breeding companies were also studied. The study further compared the various methods utilized for the creation of egg-type chicken by the researchers at the universities and institute with the methods adopted by successful breeding companies for the course of genetic improvement of a pure breed popularly known as the broiler or layer breed. The parameters used for evaluation included scope of breed of chicken (exotic or local), statistical model, heritability, and correlation, variance, mating systems, selection methods, uniformity of research environment, breeding methods (conventional and biotechnology), and emphasis of breeding goals. Finally, the study attempts to recommend a cheaper and a practicable plan to create a layer pureline. There is no gainsaying that that the bottleneck of creating layer breed of chicken in Nigeria has been exhaustively evaluated in this study. The challenges comprises technical, financial, and inertia, and ineptitude of leadership elicits poor funding cum environment lacking the resilient approach and technical know-how ranging from inappropriate models to methods. We recommend firm breeding policy and adequate international funding for the proper alignment with the world chicken breeding strategies to help position Nigerian poultry industry to deliver its SDGs predicted goal of providing food security for the global populace by 2050.

1. Introduction

Man has practiced selective breeding since he first domesticated animals. He understood the idea that traits tend to be inherited not through formal education or from letters of books, but from his keen observation of resemblance of relatives. Man unconsciously performed selection, by choosing, for example, to retain particular productive or fertile animals longer than less productive individuals, if a choice became necessary [1].

Since the history of genetic improvement of poultry, ancient and modern breeders have availed themselves of two tools to bring about genetic improvement of these poultry breeds. Breeders simply change the gene frequency of the native breeds [2] by

1. The choice of individual to be made parent, which is selection.

2. By control of the way in which the parents are mated, which constitutes inbreeding and cross-breeding.

Breeders have consistently adopted a systematic approach that combines inbreeding, cross-breeding, and selection for the improvement of economic traits such as growth and egg production. These breeding systems have global recognition, owing to its considerable merit in poultry industry for many years. Legates and Warwick further emphasized that highly inbred lines have positive potentials. This knowledge is applied in practice by breeders to takes advantage of the genetic potential of highly inbred ones in the popular genetic game called heterosis or crossing of highly inbred lines. The use of inbred lines has resulted in enormous genetic gain, which aided most poultry companies in China, United States, Brazil, Russia, and India to maximize meat production and egg production, hence becoming top poultry-producing countries [3].

Another approach that modern breeding company has adopted today is popularly known as “broad breeding goals or multiple environment selection.” The new selection goal advocates shift from long-term selection of traits in only one environment to use a variety of environments, for selection purposes so that such breed of poultry would have improved performance in a wide range of growing environments across the globe sufficient to make profits [4]. Emmerson [5] reported that such selection strategies currently applied in Aviagen poultry (multi-environment and feed conversion rate) yielded nutritional response and profit in their birds.

The trend in livestock industry recommended by FAO involves whole genome sequence, DNA fragment analysis, microsatellite markers for investigating physiology of diseases, genetic relationships, and breed differentiation. This methodology provides information for preservation of gene pools and marker-assisted selection (MAS). Some breeders, like Dekalb breeders who applied DNA technique in poultry breeding in 1960s, blended B12 gene which has resistance against bacterial and viral diseases with the B21 genes that tended to give very good resistance against viral diseases. The outcome of the combination was that Dekalb developed a parent stock and commercial birds with optimum protection against a broad range of diseases. McAdam [4] reported that the Avigen UK breeding program was not left out in the technology. Avigen has adopted “broad breeding goals and genetic diversity as essential means to achieve a balanced progress in pedigree broiler lines and global market demand”. ISA breeders also have sequenced many of their chickens as well.

In Nigeria, selective breeding has been practiced by subsistent farmers, who retain hens that hatch more chicks and sell hens that had hatched few chicks or fail to incubate their eggs. Natural selection is the major force, since no elite farm with a planned breeding event seems to be found presently in Nigeria. Under the present dispensation, local farmers do not have easy access to improved chickens. Commercial farms import parent stocks that hatch their day-old chicks (DOC). Farmers depend on imported day-old broiler or layer chicks sold by commercial farms, who are profit making companies. Importation of purelines has several limitations which include the following:

1. Difficulty in incurring parent stock in many states which do not have strong international link with foreign poultry breeders. For instance, over 90% of commercial poultry farm with parent stocks are resident in Ogun state because of their proximity to Foreign affairs at Lagos state, while there are no commercial farms with parent stocks in the remaining 35 states. At the moment, farmers across 35 states of Nigeria depend on Ogun parent stock farms for their day-old chicks’ supply.

2. Farmers purchase their chicks at an expensive cost leading to high cost of production and less net profit.

3. Nigerian poultry farmers incur huge total cost and minimal net profit than they would have made assuming Nigerian has an indigenous broiler and layer purelines.

4. Poor sustainability. Many government policy or international trade policy may lead to Bann on importation of poultry eggs or parent stocks.

5. Scarcity of chicken meat and protein malnutrition are imminent problems facing a rapidly growing population whose poultry industry is stagnant.

6. The average performance of the Nigerian local chicken remains relatively (300 g) of meat in 8 weeks [6, 7], while broiler chicken yield 3,400 g of meat in 8 weeks and the fairly improved chicken (heavy ecotype) yielded 510 g. The local chicken lay an average eggs of 141/year (47 eggs in 4 months) [8], while the layer chicken lays up to 300 eggs/year in 1998.

Breeders efforts have consistently lead to improved growth performance of chicken. Changing broiler meat yield from 2 kg of meat in 13 weeks to 2 kg of meat in 6 weeks from 1960 to 2005 (% change of 60%) from 1960 to 2005. The change in layer egg production is from 230eggs/year to 300eggs/year (% change 30%) from 1960 to 2005 [9].

It is necessary to acknowledge that Nigeria has produced a breed, “Shika brown.” It should also be stressed that the Shika breed has not entered the market till now and the breed has not got all the requirement to be classified a breed. Small population of “Shika brown” necessitated the intervention of West African Productivity Programme, (WAPP) Grants, a United Nation program dedicated to the multiplication of the “Shika breed” by Researcher and NGOs.

The ongoing researches in the Animal production departments of the Nigerian Universities and Colleges of Agriculture were again viewed alongside the activities of breeders in the US and some other developed countries. The following observations were made:

1. Chicken meat reserved for festive periods. Despite ongoing researches since the past three decades, Nigerians still cannot afford chicken meat except during festive periods a situation that prevailed in the US before 1950s. Prior to World War II, chicken was reserved for special occasions. At that time the arrival of visiting relatives meant roast chicken for dinner. Sunday dinner with the family was often graced with chicken and peas. Farm flocks were generally the domain of women and children to earn some cash-selling eggs. Flock sizes grew from a rooster and few hens to some flocks with 10,000 or more chickens, but it was not until the 1950s and 1960s when vertical integration of the broiler industry occurred and chicken factories with hundreds of thousands of birds appeared. Scarcity of chicken meat and protein malnutrition are direct effect of the failure of the Nigerian poultry industry to develop an indigenous pureline.

2. Some countries have over 50 breeds of chickens. Secondly, the studies so far in the Universities appears to be unproductive considering that at the moment Nigeria has not developed an indigenous pureline, when some countries have over 50 breeds of chickens. Modern poultry house now have 25,000 capacity man by one man, while modern farms now contract farms to farmer in and allow family members to maintain the farms [10].

3. US Per-capita broiler consumption is 82.3 pounds in 2010 and it continues to be more than beef and pork; US generated 6.8billion on broiler export and retail price per pound of broiler ($1.8) continues to be less beef and pork ($4.4 and $3.2) respectively in 2010 [10].

4. Backward in advanced technologies. Researchers are yet to que into the recent trend in biotechnology and integrated breeding. A recent report by Ndofor-Foleng et al. [11] blamed low productivity of the local poultry resources on factors including the neglect of the local chickens by animal research scientists in preference for exotic breeds, insufficient feed supply and problem of diseases and social behavior [12], poor funding among other factors.

5. A single poultry farm, like Tyson Foods Inc. located in USA, produces more chicken than Nigerian entire chicken population. Tyson is located in Springdale, Arkansas, and with revenue of US $ 8.89 billion, producing 37.4 million birds, owns 34 slaughter houses, 115,000 employees, 36 hatcheries for the purpose of egg production. Nigerian poultry sector was estimated to be worth 700 billion naira (NGN) or around US$3.4 billion [13].

Within the last few decades, the civilized countries like USA and China have experience amazing success in their poultry industry, producing several poultry breeds of fast meat-growing chickens, high egg-laying breeds, and highly productive dual purpose birds. These achievements were not possible without resilient visions, dynamics of breeding skills consisting of the conventional breeding method and biotechnology, feed intelligence (feed efficiency), among other factors. Today, the story of the American and Chinese poultry industry is both interesting and attractive. A multimillion Dollar business and international business transacted round the globe, poultry industry in many developed economy has also graduated from a one man business to a very complex and integrated system providing solution to unemployment. Improved poultry system has increasingly made substantially economic impacts of many developed countries in areas of job creation, salary and wages, export trade, per capita consumption, revenues.

Considering tremendous achievements recorded in major poultry companies’ worldwide, it becomes imperative to “analyze what factors have made creation of layer Purelines difficult for Animal science departments of Nigerian Universities and Animal production institute, despite “long research” on poultry improvement.” A retrospective study on methodology and skills adopted for creation of breed by researchers working at some Nigerian universities and Animal production institute have been compared to those of some breeding companies approach to improvement. The main objective of this study is to expose the bottleneck in the development of a pureline layer breed in Nigerian.

The specific objectives are as follows:

• To undertake retrospective analysis on approach implemented by Nigerian University research in poultry improvement.

  • To access the specific breeding methods of some breeding companies (Aviagen, Hubbard, Babcock, Dekalb, and Hendrix).

  • To compare approaches implemented by Universities and poultry breeding companies.

• To provide a more practical breeding plan for government and international funding.

1.1 Justification

1. The composition of the Nigerian chicken population will suddenly change from 80% subsistence farming to 80% intensive farming system initiating highly productive and efficient poultry sector.

2. The production of local chicken breeds in Nigeria, which is the largest economy in Africa, will play triple significant roles of stupendously increase local animal protein intake and per capita production and permanently address protein malnutrition in Africa where two out of every three individual are malnourished.

3. The Nigerian Elite farm will proffer substantial support for the growth of the poultry industries of other African countries in other that they may collectively meet FAO [14] prediction to meet the MDGs goal and provide global food security through the adequate management of their rich natural resources.

4. Establishment of Elite farms in Nigeria will increase foreign exchange earnings from the exports of Parent stock to other African countries and bring an end to foreign exchange spending on importation of Pullet Parent stocks and other poultry products.

5. It will be imminent to scale up to the poultry industries of civilized countries. For instance, it can gradually grow to Brazil, China, and European Union (EU), which in 2021 exported 14,400,000 metric tons 14,300,000 metric tons and 10,920,000 metric ton, respectively, out of 100,931,000 world chicken export. This is equivalent to N46,080 trillion ($57.6 trillion), N47,760 trillion ($57.2 trilion), and N34,880 trillion ($43.6 trillion) annual export for Brazil, China, and EU, respectively, at the rate of $4 per kilo of chicken meat.

6. A veritable option for diversification of Nigerian economy given the expected high positive economic impact accruing from a flourishing poultry industry. The exponential growth will turn the Nigerian poultry industry into a multitrillion business venture.

7. Unlimited job creation, which is a core goal of Animal science discipline, would be achieved through several breeding and several allied companies that will spring up.

8. Nigerian small-scale and large-scale poultry farming will be more profitable and more attractive, since the cost of production will be drastically reduced.

2. A review of the scope of genetic study in Nigerian universities and institution

Methodology

This studies was carried out through a retrospective study of all undergraduate and Postgraduate researches conducted on chickens at some selected Departments of Animal science of Western and Eastern Nigeria (University of Nigeria Nsukka and Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, Ibadan) and some works carried out on the “Shika breed” at the National Animal production Research Institute (NAPRI), Zaria. Researchers visited the Libraries of both universities for collection of all available research (project) works with chicken and genetic improvement as their main interest. The Proceedings of National Society for Animal production (NSAP) were used to source genetic studies conducted at NAPRI. The study further compared the various genetic methods adopted by these researchers for improvement with breeding companies. The genetic parameters considered include Heritability, Correlation, Variance, Cross-breeding, Inbreeding, Selection methods, Uniformity of research environment, and emphasis of breeding goals. Finally, the study attempts to recommend a cheaper and pragmatic plan to create a layer pureline.

Limitations

Some limitations of this work include the following:

1. Limited research work materials in the area of genetic improvement of chickens of Nigeria.

2. Variation in environments.

2.1 Genetic studies at University of Nigeria Nsukka from 1980 to 2005

2.1.1 Post-graduate studies on improving chickens at University of Nigeria Nsukka (UNN)

The growth traits and estimates of heritability have been studied by Agbo, Ogbu [15], Ohagenyi et al. [16], Ndofor-Foleng et al. [11], Momoh and Nwosu [17], Ebangi and Ibe [18], Nwosu et al. [19] at the University of Nigeria Nsukka. The egg traits of the heavy and light ecotypes of the Nigerian local chickens were also estimated for their egg-laying traits by Agu et al. [8] and Oleforuh-Okoleh [20]. The population of the heavy ecotype local chicken has undergone six generations of selection by Ogbu [15] and Agbo. The studies by Asuquo [21] and Omeje [22] evaluated the growth traits of crossbred chickens. Table 1 below presents the results of some postgraduate studies at UNN.

Traits	Ages WOA	Heritability estimates	Correlations estimates	Authors
Body weight	4–20	0.32–0.58	0.99 to 1.00	Ebangi and Ibe [18]; Ndofor et al. [23]; Ohagenyi et al. [16]; Momoh and Nwosu [17]
Body length	4–20	0.80–0.06		Ohagenyi et al. [16]; Momoh and Nwosu [17]
Shank length	4–20	0.14–0.80		Ebangi and Ibe [18]; Ohagenyi et al. [16]; Momoh and Nwosu [17]
Breast width		0.36–0.58		Ebangi and Ibe [18]
Average body wt gain	4–20	0.28–1.00	0.00–1.00	Ohagenyi et al. [24]
Thigh lengt,		0.13 to 0.52		Agu et al. [8] Agu et al. [8]
Back-width	4–20	0.23 to 0.40		Agu et al. [8]
Neck length	4–20	0.10 to 0.52		Agu et al. [8]
BW, EW EN Selection for 3 generations	0–39	0.13 ± 0.49 to 0.25 ± 0.31		Ogbu [15]
EN, EWAND BWFE Selection for 3 generations	0–39	0.12–0.20, 34–0.43 and 0.57–0.69
EN, EWAND BWFE Selection for 3 generations	0–39	0.13–0.65		Oleforuh-Okoleh [20]

Table 1.

Heritability estimates of traits at University of Nigeria Nsukka.

Heritability estimates varied and ranged from low to high. The studies indicated that the chickens varied significantly in all traits, an indication that mass selection was the best option for improving the Nigerian chickens. Positive genetic response obtained from six generations of mass selection conducted by Ogbu [15] and Agbo attested to this fact. Ohagenyi reported that 25 SNPs and diversity at the ghrelin (GHRL) locus of four Nigerian indigenous chicken populations.

2.1.2 Undergraduate research on chickens’ at University of Nigeria Nsukka

Table 2 presents a summary of studies conducted by postgraduate and undergraduates students at UNN from 1980 to 2005 academic session. Various studies evaluating the performance of the Nigerian LC show that the LC although recorded low performance in growth rate, egg number, and egg size than the exotic chicken and their crosses had similar performance with exotic chicken in feed efficiency. The LC also laid its first egg earlier that the exotic.

Academic sessions	Postgraduate studies	Undergraduate studies	Exotic chickens	Local chickens
1980–1985	2	17	2	17
1986–1990	0	15	10	5
1991–1995	0	19	14	5
1996–2000	0	4	1	3
2001–2005	9	27	20	16

Table 2.

Students research on chickens’ at University of Nigeria Nsukka from 1980 to 2005 academic years.

Nine out of 19 studies on chickens from 1980 to 1985 academic sessions were on local chickens. Two were postgraduate studies, while 17 were undergraduate studies. During 1986–1990 academic sessions, 15 studies were carried out on chickens, 5 out of which were on local chickens. During 1991–1995 academic sessions, 5 out of 19 studies on chickens were on local chickens. During 1996 to 2000 academic sessions, four studies were on chicken, while three are on LC. During 2001 to 2005 academic sessions, 20 studies were conducted on exotic chicken. Sixteen studies were on LC. Nine were postgraduate studies, while seven were undergraduate studies.

During the entire period of 25 years (1980–2005) of academic studies at the Animal Science Department of University of Nigeria, a total of 343 studies were carried out by both postgraduate and undergraduate students. A total of 122 out of the studies were on various types of chicken, and only 31 studies representing less than 10% of the entire study in the department was devoted to the local chickens. The result of this study agrees with [11] who blamed low productivity of the local poultry resources on the neglect of the local chickens by animal research scientists in preference for exotic breeds were on LC.

2.2 Genetic and genomic studies at University of Nigeria Nsukka from 2006 to 2020

The recent studies on chicken with genetic improvement as its main focus are also considered in this section for the purpose of illuminating how the research interest of scientists in these universities and Animal Production Research institute aligns with the global genetic improvement goals and genetic principles. Three cycles of mild selection are for three generations each for growth and egg traits using index selection, which lead to genetic progress in the egg and growth traits of the Nigerian heavy local chicken ecotype that was achieved in the last decade. Estimation of genetic parameter, breeding values, and inbreeding mating system have been employed within the period to achieve improved performance of the Nigerian chicken (Agu et al. [8], Ohagenyi et al. [25], Ohagenyi et al. [26], Ohagenyi et al. [27, 28], Okochi [29], Ezugwu, Emmanuel-Udeozor Ohagenyi et al. [30], Eze [31]).

This last decade has witnessed growing interest and involvement in advanced genetic improvement of the Nigerian chicken. Researcher have embraced genomic studies on local chickens comprising polymorphism of genes (Ghrelin, Ovocalyxin, Ovocledin, Growth factor, and Prolactin) and gene expression (toll-like 5 and NRAMP 1) (Ohagenyi et al. [27, 28, 32], Ikeh [33], Egom [34, 35], Tchoupou [36], Nwapku and [37]). These studies elicited genomic selection as an option for expedite the genetic improvement and creation of new chicken breeds.

The reports of heritability estimates on growth and egg traits of the local chickens and their crosses by Ohagenyi et al. [27, 28], Okochi [29], Ezugwu, Emmanuel-Udeozor Ohagenyi et al. [30], Eze [31], Olatunbosun [38], Olatunbosun [38], Amusan [39], Akpan [40], Ebangi and Ibe [18], Ndofor et al. [23], Ohagenyi et al. [24] and Momoh and Nwosu [17] ranged from low to high, while genetic correlation were positive and significant in many combination of traits indicating that the local chickens and their crosses could be improved through mass selection.

The study further reveals that all local researches at UNN, Abeokuta, and Shika Zaria laid more emphasis on population performance [8, 17, 18, 23, 24, 38, 39, 40]. Many breeding companies lay emphasis on both group and individual.

2.3 Self-funded and on-going research on genetic improvement of Nigerian chicken population at UNN Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta (FUNAAB)

It is with a deep sense of urgency and sorrowful heart that I cry out for assistance to TETFund innovation to save my genetically improved chicken population, a rare gene pool, that is being improved for six generations from 2018 till date from total wipe. I have lost 90% of this special chicken population, due to nonpayment of salaries, which has been my major source of fund for my genetically improved chicken.

It is highly commendable and interesting report that two on-going research teams dedicated to creating a breed of chicken were identified in the course of this study at UNN and Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta (FUNAAB). These research team at the University of Nigeria Nsukka has doggedly embarked on self-funding of the genetic improvement of the Nigerian indigenous chicken by inbreeding, since 2018. The UNN genetic team is led by Dr. Ifemma Emmanuel-Ohagenyi has produced a rare gene pool that is being improved for six generations, while Prof A.O Adebambo led the genetic team of FUNAAB. The research team at Federal university of agriculture Abeokuta is driving the course of genetic improvement of local chicken through cross-breeding notwithstanding the general notion that breeding is the most expensive and technically advanced section of animal science. The resilience of these researchers has made remarkable progress in the improved populations.

This ongoing research is being self-sponsored by the grossly insufficient salary and my student’s meager support. Six generations of the Nigerian chicken have been evaluated for growth and egg traits, genetic parameters, and genetic correlations. Information on estimated heritability and genetic correlation has informed the method of the selection, specifically index selection in this case. The superior individuals used as parents of the next generation have yielded genetic progress in meat and egg performance traits of the progeny during these generations. These researches at the University of Nigeria Nsukka Animal science farm has progressively increased the growth performance of the Nigerian chicken from 300, 400, 500 to 700 g at 8 weeks of age [27, 28, 29]. The egg traits of the inbred chicken have also witnessed genetic progress with a present egg weight of 60 g and egg number 210 egg per annum. The Ghrelin gene and Ovocalyxin gene polymorphism studies among Nigerian chickens have showed that the Nigerian chicken can been developed into broiler and layer breed through genomic selection [32]. The genetic progress recorded in the recent studies are indicative of the high predictive accuracy as well as trusted expertise of our adept research team and revealed that these fairly inbred chicken are not far from becoming a breed, if granted adequate local or international funding. Figure 1 below shows the photo of the genetically improved chicken at UNN.

Figure 1.

Parents of Nigerian inbred chickens. Source: Parents of inbred chicken reared by Dr. Ohagenyi I.J., Okochi desire, Nwankwo favor, and Ijeoma Onyishi at the experimental poultry farm, University of Nigeria Nsukka.

This work though driven by the passion to pencil Nigeria in the annals of history and save her the embarrassment of inability to boast of a standard breed of chicken despite its superfluous local chicken resource is earnestly daunting. This research has witnessed several setbacks including the following:

1. Funding genetic improvement with a meager salary.

2. Shortage of finance to buy feed, drugs, vaccine, and payment of farm attendant.

3. Every production cycle of these five cycles have witnessed zero egg lay for a period of 2 months due to inability to buy feed.

4. Some superior sire and hens were lost at those moments of starvation.

5. These are limiting factors to the timely realization of our ultimate goal of developing an indigenous layer and broiler breed in Nigeria.

6. Resistant strains of pathogen that defy most coccidiosis medications.

7. High probability for complete loss of gene pool, due to irregularity of salaries. For instance, my research team has lost 90% of this special chicken population, due to nonpayment of salaries, which has been my major source of fund for my genetically improved chicken.

8. Unavailability of hatchery.

9. Low hatchability.

2.4 Postgraduate studies on local chicken improvement at Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta from 1980 to 2005

Heritability and genetic correlations: The genetic studies conducted at the Federal university of agriculture Abeokuta and University of Ibadan by Ige [41], Adeleke et al., Ogunsola [42], and Ajayi [43] showed that heritability estimates for body weight, body length, and breast girth were 0.30–0.62, 0.97, and 0.97, respectively. Heritability estimates for semen volume and motility ranged from 0.01 to 0.46.

The phenotypic correlation coefficients between body weight and other ranged from 0.13 to 0.92. Genetic correlation coefficient was high and positive and ranged from 0.40 to 0.99 and 0.43–0.99 between body weight and other traits [41, 42]. Highly significant correlation coefficients indicated that meaningful improvements can be made through selection of pair of traits that were positive and significant.

Crossbreeding: Several studies at the University of Nigeria Nsukka, University of Agriculture Abeokuta, and NAPPRI Zaria evaluated the performance of cross-bred chickens. The results of those studies revealed that the exotic and their crosses had better performance in body weight and semen volume than the local chickens (Adebambo et al. [44]; Akpan [40]; Akanni [45]; Adeleke et al. [46]; Adeleke et al. [47, 48], Adeleke et al. [49] and Sandaa et al. [50]).

The frizzling and naked neck genes conferred better feed conversion, growth rate, feed efficiency, and dressing percentage than the normal feathered chicken [43].

Cross-breeding/combining ability: Adebambo et al. [44] reported that Anak Titan had the best general combining ability (GCA) and some traits were found to be the most discriminating variables to separate the chicken genotypes [51].

Molecular technique: Little has been done on the molecular characterization of the indigenous chicken in Nigeria. It is, however, interesting to note that the two pioneer studies on molecular characterization of the indigenous chicken in Nigeria and DNA loop analysis at Abeokuta Adebambo et al. [52], Adebambo [52], and Ohwojakpor et al. [53] found no significant differences in genetic distance of indigenous chicken from three populations (Southwest, Northwest, and Northeast ecological zones) of Nigeria.

2.5 Genetic studies at National Animal Production Research Institute 2005

The program for breeding in Nigeria started in 1985 at the National Animal Production Research Institute, Zaria [54]. Some studies at Zaria have evaluated the performance of “Shika breed” under different nutritional regime [55, 56, 57]. Apno et al. [58] reported continuous differences in almost all the measurable parameters of Adamawa State chickens.

3. Genetic improvement strategies or attributes of world breeding companies

Breeding companies are formal institutions that pursue the genetic improvement of livestock as key goals. This process involves a conscious effort to improve the growth performance, reproductive, and fitness traits of the animals. This study is concerned with the breeding activities of poultry breeding industries. Their main targets comprised production of a meat type chicken, an egg type chicken or a dual purpose chicken. These processes require basically same strategies with limited differences, as they all follow same fundamental principles of genetics, which was revealed to the world by the study of Gregor Johann Mendel, the German Monk. No wonder then that most poultry breeding companies exhibit enormous affinity in breeding goals and attributes. Several characteristics of the world poultry breeding companies identified in this study are highlighted below.

1. Complex selection index or genetic index: All the information of economic value recorded on an individual basis is integrated into the pure lines genetic index evaluation by R&D staff using complex statistical analysis (Emmerson, [5]).

2. High performance of genetically improved flocks. According to ISA [59], each pure line bird is accountable for approximately 250 million commercial eggs.

3. Welfare and sustainability: Welfare and sustainability is prioritized by breeders. At a meeting that attracted 180 poultry industry experts and producers from around the world between 18 and 20 June 2013. Aviagen [60] outlined the need for welfare and sustainability components in broiler breeding.

4. a. Small beginnings: Most breeding farm were not the richest at the beginning of their business career. Breeding companies started very small. Babcock Searcy farm began on an acres with two 40x400ft laying houses, an egg room, and a tenant house. It grew to 500 acres after 30 years.

   4b. Few birds: Babcock breeding operation was centered around four Cornish and six White Rock strains. These were the result of 6 years of selection and were the best lines that had evolved from the selection program [61].

5. Profitable enterprise: Babcock become one of the largest breeders of laying stock in the world during 1964 to 1974, with sales of their own of $20 million a year and worldwide sales from franchise distributors of about $80 million a year.

6. Massive investment policy: Most breeding companies have numerous diversifications. Babcock started with B 300 and later established pig, vaccines, and vaccine delivery equipment, and feed additives.

7. Breeding companies built a number of pens for best combining ability. Breeding companies as a rule tested for the best matching mating. These often yielded the pest performance. Extensive buildings with numerous pens are built for this purpose. For instance, Babcock built 112 research pens for the purpose of evaluating the combining abilities of superior breeding chickens.

8. International and multimillion dollar business: Most world poultry companies export frozen chickens and poultry products to many companies. In 1991, the U.S. government helped sponsor the first shipments of frozen poultry leg quarters to the Soviet Union. Russian consumers called them “Bush legs” in honor of the first President George Bush [62]. ISA Breeder produced parent stock (PS) day-old chicks that are supplied to 300 distributors around the world [59]. Babcock sold parent stock to their franchises all throughout the U.S. and all over the world from Ithaca [61].

9. The most advanced scientific technology: The industry employs the most advanced scientific technology available and is constantly seeking new methods (genomics and Radio Frequency Identification) to ensure wholesomeness and enhance quality for the consumer [62].

10. Mission statement: Every company has a mission statement and ways of achieving its mission statement. Babcocks has primary business philosophy yesterday, today, and tomorrow. “Supply the poultry businessman the type of breeding he wants at a reasonable price and deliver healthy birds on schedule to any customer anywhere in the world” [61].

11. Diversified mating system: Breeding companies systematically combined inbreeding, cross-breeding, and selection in each improvement plan [63].

12. Test marketing: Purelines are first tested marketed for years before released to open market by breeding companies. This practice was confirmed by the following report of the president of US Cobb-Vantress, A high meat yield, roaster type of chicken, the Cobb 700 has been test marketed in the USA for more than 2 years, and parent stock is now available in limited quantities to customers around the world [64].

13. Highly inbred line: At Dekalb breeding company, Hendrix and Euribrid breeding companies, highly Inbred lines form the backbone of poultry improvement [63].

3.1 Challenges of breeding companies

Hubbard [65] lamented that the breeding industry is challenged by more and more difficult and complex circumstances consisting of the following:

1. To keep the Elite level purelines flocks under top conditions. One of the biggest challenges that geneticists are facing is running breeding programs where the Elite level purelines flocks are kept under top conditions (in order to maximize the expression of the genetic potential as well as guaranteeing a disease-free status) and, at the same time, breeding for robustness and the ability to perform under a variety of environments. This difficult equation is solved within.

2. Climate change and the aftermath of COVID-19.

3. To make the poultry industry more sustainable over time.

4. To be able to continue to feed the growing world population.

5. The strong increase in the cost of raw material.

6. Ongoing disease challenges around the world.

7. Increased pressure on animal welfare and use of antibiotics, and

8. Uncertainties about market developments in some regions/countries [65].

3.2 Challenges facing animal science researchers in Nigerian universities

Some of the problems facing researcher in the Universities and Colleges of agriculture have been highlighted by numerous authors in the past. These problems include the following:

1. Continuity.

2. Poor infrastructures.

3. Poor funding from government and industries.

4. All Animal improvement and Agricultural Policies are neither instituted nor effective.

5. Pathological problems.

6. High cost of feed.

7. Lack of state of-the-art research skills.

8. Social behavior.

9. Preference for exotic breed.

4. Informal way of creating breed of chicken. (how novices can create breeds of chickens)

4.1 Things a novice must do after arrival

Beeken [66] has shown that novices can develop a new breed following the methods below.

1. Settle the foundation stock in as normal, and wait to see them happy in their new surroundings.

2. Ensure that the foundation stock has grown used to your new environment so that you have no fertility issues caused by stress.

3. Devout 1 year to hatching and rearing as larger quantity as possible to enable you to have the widest selection to choose during the next breeding cycle when you set up your next breeding pens.

4. Firstly cull any chicks showing serious faults or illness. By this action you will be breeding for vigor.

5. Closely monitor the youngsters regularly to enable you get familiar with the different rates of growth both in body and feather in other that you will identify the different stages and be able, with practice, to recognize the good from the bad at an earlier age.

6. Decision to show will also be much easier. And on the subject of shows is worth considering entering one in the late summer/autumn to get an idea of how they work and get yourself known, Do not be disappointed if your first effort do not result in a rosette, use it as an opportunity to talk to the judge, and get further advice on how your stock is doing [66].

4.2 Conventional breeding methods

The moment a breeder sets out to create a meat-type (broiler) or an egg-type (Layer) breed, it has an intention of changing the genetic composition of the population. This implies change of gene and genotypic frequency of that population. It can also be explained as changing the gene frequency of a superior gene from a low value (0.1 to 0.5) to a high value or fixation (1). Firstly, the breeder carefully considers the appropriate genetic model. The breeder examines the causal effects of the population variance to enable him determine the genetic parameters, consisting of heritability, repeatability, and genetic correlations. Genetic parameters further illuminates the breeders decision on best selection option that is necessary for improved performance or genetic progress. The result of heritability estimates provides the framework for evaluation of the performance of individuals, popularly known as the breeding values. The breeding values ultimately reveal individuals of superior genotype that must be selected for necessary improves performance of genetic progress among the progenies.

4.3 Genetic gain or response (R)

• Genetic Gain or response (R) is simply a product of heritability and selection differential expressed in the following equation;

  $$\mathrm{R}={\mathrm{h}}^2\mathrm{S}$$E1

• Selection brings about genetic progress per generation. Offspring selected have better performance than the average population performance. This improved performance is known as selection differential, S.

• Selection differential (S) = Mean Offspring - Pop mean

4.4 Computation of a selection index

A statement of the breeding goal is the first information needed. The concept of merit based on a single trait must be replaced by merit based on combination of traits which are economically important and which have sufficient additively genetic variance to give a reasonable response to selection.

The worth, W, or value of an individual or group is defined as

$$\mathrm{W}=\left(\mathrm{W}-\mathrm{W}\right)=\mathrm{W}=\left(\mathrm{W}-\mathrm{W}\right)=\mathrm{W}+{\mathrm{a}}_1{\mathrm{x}}_1+{\mathrm{a}}_2{\mathrm{x}}_2+\dots .{\mathrm{a}}_{\mathrm{n}}{\mathrm{x}}_{\mathrm{n}}=\left\{\text{aixi}\right\}$$E2

where a_i are the relative increases in net worth expected from one unit of improved merit in the trait X, independent of the improvement in the other traits in w.

The additive genetic value for worth then becomes gw in contrast to g for the I trait and it can be defined as

$${\mathrm{g}}_{\mathrm{w}}={\mathrm{a}}_{\mathrm{i}}{\mathrm{g}}_{\mathrm{i}}+{\mathrm{a}}_2{\mathrm{g}}_2+\dots ..+{\mathrm{a}}_{\mathrm{n}}{\mathrm{g}}_{\mathrm{n}}=\left\{{\mathrm{a}}_{\mathrm{i}}\mathrm{gi}\right\}$$E3

4.5 Development of breeding goals and breeding plans

In the words of Legates and Warwick, any breeder with the intention of developing or improving livestock must be able to mesh together the fundamental principles tampered with livestock experience and economic realities of animal production. Many early breeders like Babcock have confirmed this as the created purebred without academically specializing in genetics and animal breeding. Beeken [66] in his writings showed that even novice can create a pureline. Demonstrating the prerequisites for genetic improvement aided us to understand the reason behind the failure of Nigerian farmers, animal breeders, and animal scientists.

4.6 Prerequisites for genetic improvement

Two major conditions were underscored by the following.

Firstly, be able to assess the genetic merit of our present animals by keeping accurate records of performance of known ancestry.

Secondly, the influence of the animals with the desired genes must be extended and made available especially through AI and Embryo transfer.

Thirdly, developing a breeding goal embodied in an efficient Selection index, laying emphasis on the following factors,

1. Consumer choice.

2. Prediction of population in future.

3. Per-capita income.

4. Competition of human and animal in cereal grains.

5. Place emphasis on quality of poultry product to stimulate consumption and stand competition.

6. Admitting that the research and development costs of a poultry breeding operation are very high.

7. Think of the world as its market to be able to make sufficient profits.

5. Comparison of Nigerian institutions and world breeding companies on adopted strategies for genetic improvement of chickens

Given the numeric strength of the ongoing researches in the Nigerian Universities, there is no gainsaying that they have been actively involved in genetic research of their chickens. However, chicken breeding research in Nigerian Universities and institute has maintained basic genetic principles aspect in scope and operation of the breeding companies, although it has evaluated genetic merit of our present animals through artificial selection.

The result of this study showed that researchers at the Universities used adequate sample size, since breeding companies at the beginning used few animals of different breeds.

The findings of this study further showed close to zero funding of chicken breeding research; thus, personal funding is the available option for the majority. Consequently, few passionate breeders have remained attracted. Those who are passionate devise the approach of early breeders. They raise 20 to 50 chicks per generation. They often suffer great mortality, poor growth and delayed egg production emanating from shortage of feed, scarcity of drugs, and other environmental factors. They struggle to keep this small population, which were affordable and capable of creating generation of inbred lines, while eggs and chicks reared each generation would offset most cost of production. This approach, though may be efficient, slows down genetic progress.

No existing policy on funding was recorded in any of the chicken breeding researches in Nigeria, an aberration to breeding operation, which are known to be expensive.

Nigerian researchers use majorly SAS, SPSS statistical procedure, while breeding companies use complex animal models for analysis and bioinformatics for genetic improvement studies.

The result revealed the profit-driven goals upheld by breeding company in effort to sustain production. There seems to be no profit-based genetic researches at the universities.

Researcher at Nigerian universities and Institution has embraced genomic selection and conventional improvement strategies; however, it is far less comprehensive than the breeding companies.

Only a few performance traits are measured in Nigerian chicken breeding programs, while breeding companies measure up to 40 performance traits [63].

This study showed that very little attention to inbreeding and development of highly inbred lines by Nigerian universities and institute, although it is the basic element for breeders.

The study revealed that no research was reported on market testing of sibs in any of the universities, although it is a prerequisite before a breed enters a market.

Furthermore, this study showed that all breeding companies as a necessity bred many strains simultaneously [67]. However, no such attempt was found in Nigerian universities.

A comparative study of the method of chicken improvement at the Nigerian universities studied and the breeding companies showed that AI and Embryo transfer, which is the backbone of multiplication of foundation stocks in breeding companies [63] was not done at any of the Animal science department of the universities (UNN, FUNAAB and Shika Zaria).

The result of this study showed that ownership of breeding companies is passed from generation to generation, [63]. This is not common in the Nigeria institutions.

6. Summary and conclusion

There is no gainsaying that the bottleneck of creating layer breed of chicken in Nigeria has been exhaustively evaluated in this study. The challenges comprises technical, financial, leadership, policy, and pathological problems.

The inertia and ineptitude of leadership elicits poor funding cum environment lacking the resilient approach that characterizes breeding companies.

Finally poor technical know-how consisting of inappropriate models, inadequate number of performance traits, economically inefficient selection goals, wrong use of hybrid vigor, multiplication of foundation stock, absence of many strains, and poor AI facilities are the major factors responsible for the belated creation of layer breed in the Animal Science Department of the Nigerian universities.

6.1 Recommendations

We recommend further study on the scope of very recent chicken breeding researches in Nigerian universities and institution, a vibrant breeding policy and adequate international funding for proper orientation and alignment with the of world chicken breeding strategies to help position Africa and Nigerian poultry industry to deliver its SDGs predicted goal of providing food security and animal protein for the global populace by 2050.