Workable Alternatives to Conventional Inputs in Poultry Farming

Abstract

The world’s demand for poultry products is increasing at an alarming rate, therefore the need for innovations to mitigate the required inputs for sustaining this demand. The challenges of poultry farming attributed to their health, and nutritional requirement is vital to successful poultry production either at a subsistence or at a commercial level. Feed accounts for about 70–80% of the overall production costs. Meeting the nutritional requirements of poultry impacts positively on their health performance. Adequate feeding enables the birds attain table weight earlier than their counterpart that are poorly fed, which could be profitable or not as it depends on the costs of inputs in each production cycle. The essence of poultry farming to an investor is to make profit; however, should poultry farmers continuously make profit, they need to apply workable alternatives suitable for the conventional inputs such as protein, energy sources, plant extracts for orthodox medication, and brooding materials.

1. Introduction

The world’s population is likely to be 9.9 billion in the year 2050, which is 26.9% of the current population [1]. Agriculture generally plays a crucial role in enhancing food security and reducing poverty compared to other sectors of the economy [2]. It is regarded as unarguably important for economic growth and development, especially in developing economies [3]. Agriculture has been a vital component in the development of many countries in Europe such as Holland, England, and France [4]. The fundamental aspect of the livestock sector is poultry, and it is quite complex. There are many categories in the production cycle involving the breeder farm, hatchery, feed mill, and meat processing industry [5, 6] opined that the poultry industry has grown tremendously over the past five decades with a huge demand for its product. The poultry aspect of livestock production seems to have experienced the fastest growth and development in the livestock industry.

Poultry production is gaining tremendous awareness in less-developed countries as a result of the gap it bridges in protein supply and boosting socioeconomic growth and development in many countries [7]. The cheapest source of protein is from poultry meat and eggs that are easily accessed many impoverished people in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia [8]. In Kenya, 71% of the eggs, and meat produced and consumed is from the indigenous chicken, and this has a positive influence on the lifestyle and enhancing food security of those involved in subsistence farming [9]. In developing countries, livestock production constitutes 25–30% of the agricultural gross domestic product of less-developed countries and may increase by another 25% in about 20 years’ time. The Nigerian poultry industry contributes about 25% of the agricultural domestic products, thereby ranking Nigeria the highest producer of eggs in Africa but fourth in broiler production [10]. The poultry industry has the potential of meeting the supply of animal protein in the short time basis [11]. The major constraint to the expansion of the poultry sector is feed, which accounts for about 70% of the cost of production [12].

Preston [13] reported that the limiting factor to researchers in the tropics is inability to proffer novel feed resources for monogastric animals. The development of cheap alternative feeding materials is currently receiving immense attention by entrepreneurs, nutrition scientists, and other researchers through evaluation of novel or unconventional feed resources such as agro-industrial by-products. This approach is to reduce the cost of production and competition among animals, industries, and humans for conventional foods/feeds without affecting the dietary and reproductive performance of the livestock.

Subtherapeutic use of antibiotics is used in the broiler industry to improve the growth performance indices and also reduce mortality [14]. However, there is an embargo by the European Union on the use of antibiotics as a result of the residues in poultry products and the increased bacteria antibiotic resistance [15], therefore the need for alternatives to improve poultry growth performance. The ancient use of some natural products has been gaining more acceptance [16]. The use of wood shavings/saw dust is not limited to the poultry industry, and there are other factories that use them as raw materials; in the same manner, the chemical contaminants from the used wood shavings and saw dust has necessitated the need for poultry farms to proffer alternative litter materials for commercial poultry production. The potential alternatives that could replace wood shavings without compromising the availability, cost, and ability to absorb and adsorb moisture include corn cob, straws, peanut hulls, rice hulls, newspapers, and gypsum [17].

2. Nonconventional feedstuff

The rivalry between man and livestock, especially the monogastric for the conventional feedstuff, has led to the need of proffering alternative feed resources by using novel feedstuff that can complement the conventional feeds competed for by humans [18]. The essence of poultry production is to convert feeds not edible by man or excess feed resources into table eggs and chicken meat. The anticipated surplus of feed ingredients during the harvest period for poultry production could barely be sufficient for the increasing human population in Nigeria, thereby aggravating the competition between the populace and the poultry industry necessitating the need for inclusion of novel feedstuff in poultry feeding [19, 20].

2.1 Suitable levels for replacing conventional feedstuff in poultry

2.1.1 Evaluation of selected agro-industrial waste wheat offal, maize offal, and rice bran in poultry diet

The use of agro by-products in feeding chickens varies in the growth performance of the birds mainly as a result of the feed quality, varieties, period of storage, and the atmospheric condition. Many authors had earlier reported the safety of agro by-products in the diet of broilers in the tropics [21, 22]. Makinde and Inuwa [23] reported the growth performance of grower’s turkey fed agro by-products each at 15% involving wheat offal, rice bran, and maize offal. The growth indices (feed intake, weight gain, and feed conversion ratio) and carcass characteristics were similar with their counterpart fed the control diet. In conclusion, they affirmed that the dietary inclusion of 15% wheat offal has no detrimental effect on the growth, carcass, and health of the birds.

2.1.2 The use of graded levels of cassava peels in poultry

A lot of literature has shown that cassava peels can replace maize in poultry rations without any marked adverse effect on the performance of the birds. Although cassava has some anti-nutritional factors mainly cyanogenic glycoside, which could limit the use in poultry diet; however, different processing methods have being proffered such as soaking and sun drying, which has enhanced the use in poultry [24, 25]. Since the adoption of alternative feeds for livestock would likely meet such a requirement, cassava peel is found useful considering its large supply. According to Ogunwole et al. [26], dietary inclusion of cassava grits obtained from TME 419 and TMS 01/1371 varieties of cassava did not affect the growth performance of the broiler chickens. In the study conducted by Nwangwu and Ogah [27] on the effect of cassava peel meal on the hematological parameters of cockerels, the authors reported that dietary inclusion of 20–30% of cassava peel meal is the optimum level required to maintain homeostasis with a highly packed cell volume and hemoglobin levels in the blood. The higher hematological values recorded in the cassava peel meal-based diets with respect to the packed cell volume and hemoglobin values reflect a good physiological status of the birds.

2.1.3 The inclusion level of cassava grits in poultry

One of the potential alternative feedstuffs is cassava grits, and there seems to be paucity of information using cassava grits in layer’s diet. Cassava grits are one of the by-products of cassava during the production of flour with a considerable energy content as its consumption is less competitive in view of cassava flour and maize as a suitable replacement for maize. Tewe [28] had earlier reported the use of cassava grits and chips as alternative sources of energy in poultry. Ajide et al. [29] reported the optimum level in which cassava grits could be used to replace maize in the diet of laying hens at 0, 20, 40, and 60% without affecting the production performance. The proximate composition of cassava grits was found to be high in energy and low in protein making it a suitable novel feed for replacing maize as an energy source in the diet of laying hens. The ether extract, ash, crude fiber, and nitrogen-free extract contents recorded in the test diet were 5.87, 2.76, 4.61, and adequate for meeting the nutrient requirement for laying hens as presented in Table 1. Table 2 presents the production performance of the laying hens. The average daily feed intake of the laying hens across the dietary treatments was not significantly (p > 0.05) affected by the introduction of cassava grits when the birds attained the age of 55–57 weeks. The same trend was observed in the feed conversion ratio, egg production, and egg weight. The pattern in the egg production revealed that the birds on the control diet recorded higher values but not statistically significant in relation to their counterpart fed the dietary cassava grits. The in-consequential effect of the cassava grits following the introduction in the diet of the hens from 20 to 60% implies that it may not impact negatively on the monetary returns of the farmers and could be leveraged upon during the off-season.

Dry matter	88.18
Crude protein	4.96
Ether extract	5.87
Ash	2.76
Crude fiber	4.61
Nitrogen-free extract	69.98

Table 1.

Proximate composition of cassava grits.

		T R E	A T M	E N T	S
Parameters,%	0	20	40	60	SEM	P value
FI, g/bird/day	116.68	113.38	110.94	113.68	2.23	0.3995
FCR	1.47	1.73	1.60	1.62	0.14	0.6528
Egg prod., %	79.36	67.06	69.11	71.43	5.13	0.4035
Egg weight, g	57.13	62.62	60.72	57.69	1.60	0.4955

Table 2.

Effect of replacing maize with cassava grits on the performance of laying hens.

SEM = Standard error of mean; (P > 0.05); ADFI = Feed intake; FCR = Feed conversion ratio; Egg prod. = Egg production.

2.1.4 The use of different varieties of sorghum, millet, and residues for maize in poultry

Bulus et al. [30] reported the use of two different varieties of guinea corn and millets for replacing maize completely on the growth performance and nutrient retention in broiler chickens. Five dietary treatments were formulated involving the control, white guinea corn, yellow guinea corn, pearl millet, and finger millet as treatments 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The crude protein in the diets were 23.5%, 21.5% having a metabolizable energy of 2,800, 2,900 respectively at the starter and finisher phases. The birds on diet 4 (pearl) and 5 (finger) millets had higher final live weight, average daily weight gain in both phases. The best feed conversion ratio and cost per kilogram live weight were recorded in diet 4. The feed intake was higher in the birds fed the yellow guinea corn at the starter phase. The growth indices were generally lower in Diet 2 (white guinea corn) in comparison with other dietary treatments. The authors concluded that the use of millet and yellow guinea corn can be successfully used in replacing maize in the diet of broilers without affecting the growth performance parameters and nutrient retention.

Igwebuike et al. [31] evaluated the effect of replacing maize with spent sorghum grain on the performance of broiler finisher chickens. The growth indices revealed that the final live weight, average daily weight gain, feed intake, and feed conversion ratio were similar in the spent sorghum diet compared with the maize-fed control diet. The feed cost per kilogram was cheaper in the diet compounded with spent sorghum grain. It was concluded by the author that the profit margin in broilers fed spent sorghum grain was higher than the maize-fed control diet. Diarra et al. [32] substituted the use of wheat bran for millet bran, the authors concluded that the birds receiving the diet formulated with millet bran in place of wheat offal were not affected, and feed cost per kilogram was also cheaper.

2.1.5 The use of sesame seed meal as protein source in poultry

Sesame seed meal is a by-product of sesame after its oil extraction. Although sesame seed meal is lower in lysine, isoleucine, leucine, and valine when compared with soya bean meal, it has substantial levels of the sulfur-containing amino acids, especially methionine. Previous studies revealed that sesame seed meal can be used as substitute for corn and soya bean meal when synthetic methionine is included in the diet. It was reported that sesame seed meal can make up 10–12% of broiler diet without any side effect on the growth performance of the birds [33]. The crude protein, ether extract, soluble carbohydrate, and ash contents in the sesame seed were reported to contain 18–25%, 44–58%, 13.5%, and 5%, respectively [34]. Similarly, Olaiya and Makinde [22] conducted a study to determine the growth performance and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens fed different methods of processing sesame seed. In the experiment, five diets were compounded, diet 1 was the control, and the remaining diets 2, 3, 4, and 5 were processed by sun drying, roasting, boiling, and soaking. Each processing method was included in the diet at 15%, respectively. The final body weight and average weight gain were significantly influenced by the treatments. Birds fed the control, roasted, boiled, and soaked diets showed better feed utilization compared to birds fed the sun-dried diet. The average daily feed intake was significantly (P < 0.05) higher among birds fed soaked diet. The study concluded that birds fed diets containing 15% roasted and soaked sesame seed meal compared favorably with birds fed the control diet in terms of growth performance.

2.2 Common plant extracts and additives used for orthodox drugs in poultry production

The use of plants with medicinal properties is receiving global attention with respect to livestock production and human health due to the resulting resistances from the use of antibiotics in both humans and animals. Some of these microbes/bacteria have developed resistances posing a potential risk to the welfare of man and livestock [35]. Several phytobiotics have proven to be useful for improving growth, nutrient absorption, gut integrity, and immunity [36, 37, 38]. Presently, the use of herbs is not limited to humans alone but finding acceptance in many poultry farms. Low-income or subsistence farmers prefer the use of herbal medicines vis a viz the use of orthodox drugs in poultry farming, which are very expensive [39]. The call for restraint in the use of antibiotics for therapeutic and preventive measures against disease pathogens in poultry have necessitated the need for the use of alternatives that could serve the same purpose as it were in the application of antibiotics [40]. Some plants and their extracts have secondary metabolites that are useful in enhancing the performance of the birds. The increasing cases of antibiotic resistances in livestock production are attributed to the low sensitivity of these disease parasites from the use of these conventional drugs [41].

2.2.1 The use of herbal medicines for the treatment and control of gastrointestinal parasites

The various herbs used in the control and treatment of gastrointestinal parasites has its foundation in ethnoveterinary medicine found relevant till date in different parts of the world [42]. Garlic, onions, and mint are found useful in treating animals or birds infected with gastrointestinal parasites. The leaves, flowers, and oil of a shrub (Chenopodium ambrosioides) with its origin in Central America are used as an anthelmintic [43].

2.2.2 Plant and extracts used for alleviating Coccidiosis in poultry

Some secondary metabolites in some plants and parts, such as the roots, bark, seeds, leaves, and stems containing alkaloids, tannins, terpenoids, saponins, and flavonoids, have therapeutic effects against coccidiosis. Coccidiosis is capable of wiping out a flock completely if not alleviated timely. Some strains of Eimeria spp. have developed resistances and insensitive to some orthodox coccidiostats and consequently leave their residues in the animal products. The inclusion of flaxseed either whole or the oil in the diet of day old chicks was found to decrease lesions associated with Eimeria tenella. There is a particular plant in India known as Holorrhena antidysentrica (kurchi) and it is antiprotozoal. Its extract is mixed with that of other plants such as allium spp and berberis making it a good coccidiostat [44, 45, 46, 47]. Alicin, the main constituent of garlic, was extracted and was found to inhibit the sporulation of Eimeria tenella in an in vitro study [48, 49, 50, 51, 52]. The extract of green tea (Camelia sinensis) effectively constrains the sporulation of coccidial oocysts. The selenium and polyphenolic content in green tea was reported to deactivate the enzymes that enhance the sporulation of coccidial oocysts [51, 52]. The leaves of Carica papaya (pawpaw) also hinder coccidial oocysts [53, 54].

2.2.3 Antibiotics and alternatives in poultry production

Antibiotics are synthetic or natural compounds that are usually administered orally, topically, or parentally in humans and animals for the control and treatment of diseases [55]. The use of antimicrobial agents is dated back to the 1950s [56]. The administration in medicine has been found to be very impactful [57]. The prophylactic and therapeutic effects of antibiotics improve growth in livestock production [58]. There are some antibiotics that act as growth promoters; they are applied at low subtherapeutic levels to decrease or control the population of bacteria in livestock [59]. Clostridium, salmonella, and mycoplasma bacteria cause huge losses, which affect the profit margin in poultry business [56, 60, 61].

Researchers are poised to proffer credible alternatives to the use of antibiotics in poultry production with the aim of reducing or eliminating the residues in animal products and consequently its effect on human health [62, 63, 64]. The alternatives to be used in place of antibiotics should not be toxic to the animals, easily eliminated from the body and biologically available to the animals. The public health as well must not be at risk and environmentally friendly [64, 65]. There is an array of possible alternatives to the use of antibiotics in livestock production, and they include probiotics, enzymes, phytogenic feed additives, and bacteriophages [66, 67, 68]. Phytobiotics are compounds extracted from the plant that improve the growth and performance of the animals. It is a useful alternative to antibiotics [66, 69]. The constituents in the phytobiotics are made of active organic compounds that could prevent or limit antibiotic resistances [70].

Certain secondary metabolites, such as polyphenols and polypeptides, are produced during the plant’s metabolism; they have antimicrobial agents and exhibit immunomodulatory activities making them suitable phytobiotics that are used as feed supplements in poultry production [71, 72]. Phytobiotics promote growth, reduce stress in the chickens, and boost their immune system [73]. They also aid the activities of the intestinal microbiota, improve the uptake of nutrients, and prevent subclinical infections in poultry [74, 75].

2.2.4 The use of essential oil as an alternative to antibiotics

There are plants identified as important antibiotic growth promoters in poultry production [69]. Some herbs, spices, and essential oils have bioactive compounds and the method of processing engaged determines their effectiveness [76]. There are different parts of the plants that are used for the extraction of essential oils. Essential oils are natural, aromatic, and volatile oily fluids produced from the plants [77]. The combination of essential oils with other plant extracts from lemon grass, Oreganum aetheroleum, Oregano and thyme, carvacrol and thymol, garlic and Oregano oil, cinnamaldehyde and thymol, Allium sativum, Echinacea purpurea, and Ocimum basilicum oil is effective against parasites and bacteria. They have antioxidant properties and are used as growth promoters. Some essential oils exhibit antimicrobial activities against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, yeast, and mold as presented in Table 1 in the comprehensive review on essential oils as green alternatives to antibiotics [78].

2.3 Alternative litter materials

There is need for considering other useable bedding materials for commercial poultry production in view of the high demand for wood shavings and saw dust as raw materials in some industries. The credible alternatives for consideration are those that have the ability to absorb moisture, relatively cheaper, and readily available. Maize cobs, rice hulls, and peanut hulls have been found to be useful in bridging the gap except for newspapers that is usually recycled but could be used where available [79].

2.3.1 The use of rice hull as litter material

Rice hull is produced from paddy rice during processing. It constitutes about 25% of the rice paddy [80, 81]. Rice hull is a complete waste as the disposal is usually a challenge in rice milling farms. This has necessitated its use for consideration as an alternative litter material for wood shavings and saw dust [82, 83]. The inclusion of rice hulls in poultry feed is limited because of the high silica and lignin content making it available for use as bedding material [84].

2.3.2 The use of corn cob as litter material

Corn is rated the highest cereal crop produced globally with a value of about 875 million tons annually [85]. Maize cob is a residue produced during the processing of corn grains. The by-product accounts for about 200 kg per ton of grains threshed [86]. The use of corn cob is limited for use as building material and activated carbon [87, 88]. Maize cobs constitute more environmental problems in areas where corn is produced commercially [89]. The cellulose and hemicellulose content in maize cob is high except the lignin content that is low [90]. The ability for corn cob to absorb moisture makes it a high good bedding material for use in poultry [91, 92].

2.3.3 The use of shredded newspapers as litter material

Newspaper is found to be useful as litter material, and despite the availability of soft copies, there is still a substantial availability of hard copies. In areas, where not recycled, it is a good source of bedding material in poultry [93, 94]. The decomposition of paper is fast following its ability to absorb moisture [95]. The use of newspaper as litter material is not associated with any health impediment as it is free from dust, disease pathogens, and contaminants. Lien et al. [96] reported the need for newspapers to be processed into chips or smaller pieces in order to improve its ability to hold moisture and enhance evaporation.

2.3.4 The use of peanut hulls as litter material

The world’s peanut produced was estimated to be 40 million tons as at the year 2015 [97]. The projected peanut hulls are 10 million tons amounting to 25% of the world’s production having variable quantities of threshed kernels [98, 99]. In countries, where peanut is cultivated commercially, the hulls are usually discarded and allowed to decompose thereby making it suitable for different purposes [100].

3. Conclusion

In countries, where there is competition between man and livestock for conventional feed, especially poultry, certain practices could be engaged to enable the farmers make optimum profit due to the escalating prices of the feedstuff. Since the first 4 weeks or starter phase is critical in broiler production, farmers can feed ad libitum using quality conventional feed ingredients for feeding the birds to boost their growth. As the birds attain the finishing phase, the major feedstuff, especially the energy source, can be replaced with proven novel feedstuff that is readily available provided the phytochemicals, or secondary metabolites are treated below the levels they can exert detrimental effect on the performance of the animals such as soaking and sun drying for cassava peels. The use of protein feedstuff for birds at the finishing phase in broilers or even in layers is lower compared to energy source. Therefore, sesame seed cake to a level of 10–12% will not compromise the quality of the feed. For the laying hens, 20–60% cassava grits can conveniently be used in replacing maize in the diet of layers in the plateau or declining phase without affecting the performance of the birds. Residues from sorghum can equally serve as an energy source in poultry. Agro-industrial by-products, such as wheat offal, corn bran, and rice offal, could be included in the diet of broiler turkey to a level of 15% in the feed formulation. Some plant extracts having antiparasitic agents, such as onion, garlic, mint, C. papaya leaves, and flax seed, contain therapeutic effects against coccidiosis in poultry. In the same manner, some essential oils from Oreganum aetheroleum, mixture of Oregano and thyme, garlic and oregano, cinnamaldehyde and thymol, carvacrol and thymol, and Lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus) would serve as antibiotics in poultry production, thereby reducing the consequences of antibiotic resistance among humans. Litter materials, such as corn cob, rice hull, shredded newspapers, and peanut hulls, will serve as an alternative to wood shavings. The practice of these workable alternatives to feed, drugs, and litter materials will bring about a considerable reduction in the overall cost to poultry farmers and also promote healthy meat and eggs for consumption.