The Nature and Patterns of International Migration of Ethiopia

Abstract

International migration of Ethiopia is as old as the country itself. However, it only gained momentum in the last quarter of the twentieth century. The forceful overthrow of the long-lasting monarch in 1974 by a socialist military junta led to the emigration of hundreds of thousands of Ethiopians in the late 1970s and 1980s, mainly to neighboring countries. The emigration during the post-socialist regimes is dominated by economic emigrants due to political stability, a rise in the volume of the labor force, and declining livelihood opportunities in the country. The recent shift from refugee-led to economic emigration shows its momentum to create new emigration destinations in Africa, such as South Africa and Middle East countries, including Israel and Saudi Arabia. Unlike international migration in Sub-Saharan Africa and at the global level, the emigration of Ethiopia is dominated by women migrants. Women outnumber international migrants originating from Ethiopia in the Middle East, North America, and Europe. Ethiopian international migration is characterized by irregular migration to several destinations via eastern, southern, and northern migration routes. On the other hand, immigration in Ethiopia is dominated by refugees from neighboring countries which makes the country one of the largest refugee-hosting countries in Africa. Gambella, Somali, and Tigray are the regions that host three fourth of refugees living in Ethiopia.

1. Introduction

The international migratory flow from and to Ethiopia is not a new phenomenon. Both have gained momentum only in the recent five decades. Notably, large-scale international emigration from Ethiopia has tended to occur during periods of political repression and changes of government. The 1974 Ethiopian political revolution can be considered as defining event in the international migration of Ethiopia. This is mainly because it forced at least hundreds of thousands to flee the country and triggered continuous political instability in the country that brought a more repressive socialist military government to power which further forced millions to flee the country. The 1990s has slightly changed the drivers of international migration of Ethiopia from dominant refugee driven to economic ones because of relative stability in the country and faster growth of the labor force.

The immigration of Ethiopia could be dated back to the Sabaean (ancient people of South Arabia) migration and their settlement between the fourth and fifth century BC into the earliest kingdom of Damon latter Axumite kingdom (present-day Northern Ethiopia). It was one of the considerable migrations into the Ethiopian empire [1]. Following this unprecedented immigration, the migration of Israeli to Ethiopia also dates back more than 2000 years, following the destruction of the First Temple in 586 BC [2]. And immigration of Muhammad’s first followers (the Sahabah) in the seventh century from Mecca, present-day Saudi Arabia [3], and the immigration of Portuguese missionaries, lay Christians, and military personnel in the seventeenth century [4] are the earliest migrations into Ethiopia. Nevertheless, recent international migration in the context of Ethiopia is dominated by its regional migration flows within the African continent and the Middle East. At the same time, international migration beyond the regional destination is reaching its climax in recent years. In this chapter, I elaborate on the recent international migration trends of Ethiopia by discussing emigration from Ethiopia, its migration routes and main destinations, and immigration and the sources of immigrants living in Ethiopia.

2. Recent emigration of Ethiopian migrants

The 1974 Ethiopian revolution resulted in the downfall of the long-lasting Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie (1930–1974) 1974 [5]. The trend of emigration before the downfall of Emperor Haile Selassie was insignificant in the volume of emigrants. For instance, according to [6] only 35 Ethiopians went to live in the west between 1876 and 1922. Between 1922 and 1935, 144 individuals were sent by the imperial regime to study abroad in western world universities with the mission of modernization of administration [7, 8]. Between 1941 and 1974, the volume of emigration had a slight gain, and an estimated 20,000 Ethiopians of an estimated population of 22 million left to complete their higher educations and fulfill diplomatic missions [6]. Interestingly, the rate of return of Western-educated migrants during this period was high, often because these returnees came back to fill important government positions. Comparatively, the number of refugees and asylum seekers was negligible, as the country was generally stable despite the emperor’s political repression and limited freedom [9]. However, pre-1974 emigration was not only limited to western countries rather, but it had also been directed towards neighboring African countries such as Djibouti, Sudan, and Kenya, and Middle Eastern countries like Israel and Saudi Arabia as the main destinations in the 1960s and 1970s [10]. However, the exact number of emigrants during the imperial regime is beyond known figures due to the higher informal emigration. The patterns of emigration of Ethiopia in the 1960 and 1970s show that slightly 50% of Ethiopian emigrants’ destinations were within the African continents. The main drivers of pre-1974 revolution emigrations are either economic and cultural factors or state-sponsored educational factors. The economic factors could include centuries-old trade, commerce, and cultural as well as religious relations with countries in the horn of Africa and the Middle East dominated by temporary emigration. On the other hand, state-sponsored educational emigrations targeted modernizing the country by sending young scholars who would serve the country upon the completion of their studies. The main destination for such emigrations were the United States and other developed western countries.

In 17 years of rules of the socialist military junta, the emigration of Ethiopians reached the registered peak in modern history. During this period, 1974–1991, 1 in 20 Ethiopians left the country because of political turmoil and wide-scale drought [11]. The two prominent events that resulted in mass emigration during this period were the Ethio-Somalia war (1977–1978) and the 1984 drought. The Ethio-Somali war (1977–1978) alone resulted in 2.5 million of Ethiopia’s 30 million citizens fleeing the country, mainly to neighboring Somalia, Djibouti, and Sudan. By the summer of 1980, nearly 750,000 migrated to Somalia [6]. The 1984 drought, and subsequent famine, displaced many hundreds of thousands within Ethiopia and sent many others into neighboring countries. As a result of the drought, an estimated 100,000 individuals migrated to Somalia as refugees, 10,000 to Djibouti, and more than 300,000 to Sudan as refugees [12]. Between the 1970s and 1980s, the conflicts and droughts in Ethiopia made the country the largest refugee sender in the horn of Africa. For instance, the Ethiopian refugees living in other Horn of Africa countries were 89.2% in 1977 and 83.5% in 1987 of the refugees residing in these regions. In early 1972 and 1982, more than 99% of refugees in the Horn of African region originated from Ethiopia [13]. However, the emigration during this period was not only taken place because of conflicts and drought. Other factors, such as the American passage of the 1980 Refugee Act, which was the first formal policy the United States adopted toward African refugees, increased the number of Ethiopians emigration to the United States. About 25,000–40,000 Ethiopians left for the United States early in the 1980s that making Ethiopian immigrants in the United States the largest voluntary African immigration group after the slave trade [14]. At the end of the socialist military regime in 1991, the number of Ethiopian migrants to the United States rose by an estimated 50,000–75,000 [15]. Another voluntary emigration that took place during this period was the emigration of Ethiopian Jewish decedents to the Israeli state. For instance, about 55,000 Ethiopian Jews, locally known as (Beta Israel) were airlifted to Israel in 1984 and 1991 [11]. During these periods, the destination of Ethiopian migrants was dominated by neighboring African countries, the Middle East, and the United States.

The downfall of the socialist military regime in 1991 resulted in two important events in the last decade of the last century in Ethiopian international migration. First, the return of more than 970,000 Ethiopian refugees who fled to nearby countries under the socialist dictatorship. And secondly, continuous outmigration due to political repression, ethnic violence, and the Ethio-Eritrean war (1998–2000) [16]. Emigration in the 2000s and 2010s shows a shift from refugee-driven migration of the 1980s to different forms of labor migration, mainly due to the relative political stability and growing demands to change in livelihood situations [4]. Post-1990 resulted in an influx of both skilled and unskilled migrants to different destinations [16].

3. Destinations of Ethiopian emigrants

Although some sources estimate Ethiopian emigrants to be about three million, the latest reports of the UN Population Division estimate only one million. The primary destinations for Ethiopian emigrants are countries in North America, the Middle East, Africa, Australia, and Europe. From North American emigration, the United States remains the biggest historic destination for Ethiopian emigrants for the last five decades. The bulk of voluntary emigrants to the United States came after 1974, when a repressive regime toppled the ancient monarchy and took control of the Ethiopian government. Many refugees initially fled to settlement camps in neighboring Sudan before moving on to the United States [17]. The American passage of the 1980 Refugee Act, which was the first formal policy the United States adopted toward African refugees, increased the number of Ethiopians emigration to the United States; for instance, according to [18], in 1991, an estimated 50,000–75,000 Ethiopians migrated to the United States (see to Figure 1 for details). The emigration of Ethiopians to the United States has grown rapidly in the last 40 years. It has grown from only 10,000 in the 1980s to over 251,000 by the 2010s [19].

Figure 1.

Ethiopian emigration to the United States increased from 1930 to 2008. Source: Department of Homeland Security, Yearbook of Immigration Statistics, 2008.

Most Ethiopian migrants (about 60%) living in the United States arrived during or after 2000. By comparison, 36% of the overall United States foreign-born population arrived during this period. Most of the Ethiopian immigrants in the United States are productive young generations, i.e., 86% of first-generation Ethiopian immigrants were of working age (18–64), and 11% were under the age of 18. Although Ethiopian-born immigrants in the United States are the second biggest immigrant group from the Sub-Saharan Africa region, it only accounts for 0.5% of the total United States foreign-born population [19, 20]. The Washington region is home to the largest concentration of Ethiopians outside of Africa [21]. Other large communities are in Los Angeles, Dallas, Houston, Seattle, and Atlanta. In the context of migration to the United States, most Ethiopian immigrants come to the United States for educational purposes as part of the African country’s immigration policy, the Diversity Visa Lottery—an immigration agreement with countries that have low immigration rates to the United States. The female population of Ethiopian immigrants in the United States has grown substantially since the 1990s, with the female population at 49.5% by 2007, only slightly outnumbered by the male population at 50.5% [18].

Canada is the second largest destination for Ethiopian emigrants in North America, next to the United States. However, the volume of Ethiopian immigrants in Canada is much smaller than in the United States, even though immigration in both countries has demonstrated the highest picks since the 1980s due to the political revolution and instability in Ethiopia since 1974. The 2016 census of Canada indicates that about 44,065 Ethiopian immigrants live in Canada. The 1976 Canadian Immigration Act, which recognizes Canada’s international obligation to refugees, the displaced, and the persecuted, has played a key role in the high number of Ethiopian immigrants in the country [22]. The same source indicates that the largest group of Ethiopians in Canada is that of Toronto. As of 2016, approximately 15,990 people of Ethiopian descent live in Toronto, followed by Calgary (6355 immigrants), Edmonton (5210 immigrants), and Ottawa (2850 immigrants) in the same period. Census data of Canada also indicates that the volume of Ethiopian women immigrants outnumbers males in Canada.

Migration to European countries is not significant compared to destinations in North America, the Middle East, or the African continent. For example, according to [23], in 2016, about 15% of all Ethiopian emigrants (753,492) left for Europe and roughly one-third to Northern America, particularly the United States. According to [24], the top three destinations of Ethiopian migrants in the EU in 2016 were Sweden (17,944), Germany (18,425), and Italy (7772). According to [25], as of 2020, about 20,465 Ethiopian-born immigrants are living in Germany, which was only 10,980 seven years back in 2013 (see Figure 2 for details). The 2020 report of the German statistical office shows that more slightly 75% of total Ethiopian immigrants living in Germany are aged between 15 and 65 years [25]. Male immigrants have slightly started to dominate females since 2015 though women were larger in volume from 2007 to 2014 [26].

Figure 2.

Number of Ethiopian immigrants residing in Germany, 2013–2020.

Ethiopian immigrants in Italy are slightly less than immigrants living in Germany. However, when comparing the share of female migrants to male migrants, Italy attracted more female migrants than Germany. Rome, Milano, and Parma are the Italian cities with the highest number of Ethiopian residents. But the size of Ethiopian immigrants living in Rome greatly outnumbers the size of immigrants in Milano and Parma combined. Nearly 30% of the Ethiopians residing in Italy live in Rome (Figure 3) [27].

Figure 3.

Ethiopian immigrants in Italy.

Another top destination for Ethiopian migrants in Europe is Sweden. In 2016 about 17,944 Ethiopian migrants reached Sweden, and the average share of women immigrants was approximately 49% between (2006 and 2016) (Figure 4).

Figure 4.

Ethiopian immigrants in Sweden.

The Middle East, particularly oil-reach gulf countries and Israel, are growing and very significant destinations for Ethiopian migrants. The emigration to Israel can be understood as a special one as it has been widely sponsored by the state of Israel with the aim of taking Ethiopian Jews to the state of Israel since the establishment of the country in 1948. Since the state formation of Israel in 1948, the Israeli state-sponsored emigration of the Ethiopian Jew community, who are usually known as ‘Beta Israel,’ the descendant of Jews who immigrated and lived in ancient Ethiopia. between 1948 and 2017, about 92,199 Ethiopian Jews emigrated mainly by Israeli Government sponsorship (see Figure 5) [28]. However, these figures only capture formally registered migrants. Emigrations to the state of Israel are also known for unofficial arrivals through migration assisted by human traffickers via northern migration roots, particularly via the Sinai route.

Figure 5.

State-sponsored emigration from Ethiopia to Israel since 1948.

The Ethiopian Jews community’s emigration to the state of Israel continued, which increased the volume of Ethiopian immigrants in the country. The data from the Israeli Central Bureau of Statics (CBS) indicate that at the end of 2020, the immigrants of Ethiopian origin in Israel numbered 159,500 residents. Of which approximately 88,500 were born in Ethiopia, and the remaining 71,000 were children of immigrants born in Israel whose fathers were born in Ethiopia. This number also includes 1080 immigrants who arrived in Israel from Ethiopia in 2020 [29]. The official data from the CBS also shows that approximately 63% of the population of Ethiopian origin lives in two major districts: about 38% live in the Central District, and roughly 25% live in the Southern District. At the end of 2020, the urban locality with the highest number of residents of Ethiopian origin was Netanya (approximately 12,200 persons). However, the highest percentage of residents of Ethiopian origin out of the total population in a locality was found in Qiryat Mal’akhi (15.8%).

Emigration to Middle East countries from Ethiopia is the largest by volume and has shown unprecedented growth in the last two decades. The region attracts low-skilled migrants and dominantly domestic female workers from Ethiopia. The primary motive behind migration is to move out of poverty and to improve family living standards through remittances. Migration to Arab countries has intensified due to social networks, the expansion of illegal agencies, and the cheaper (compared to other destinations such as Europe) migration costs [30]. The geographic proximity of the region has also contributed to the higher volume of the Ethio-Middle East migration corridor. Yemen is the country that serves as a transit for emigrants from Ethiopia and neighboring countries in the Horn of Africa. As Yemen is economically a poor country, it attracts fewer migrants, but it is very crucial to channel migration from Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. For instance, about 334,000 migrants arrived in Yemen from Ethiopia between 2006 and 2013 [31]. The recent data from the Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs reveals that more than 750,000 Ethiopians are living in Saudi Arabia, of which more than half (450,000) is without proper documents [32]. Nevertheless, migration to the Middle East encounters recurrent mass deportation of undocumented migrants by Saudi authorities. For instance, in 2013/14, more than 165,000 Ethiopians were deported over the course of only 4 months [33]. Similarly, in 2021, IOM registered 79,498 Ethiopian returnees from Saudi Arabia, more than double the number of returns recorded in 2020 (36,632). The same source shows that over 425,000 migrants were returned to Ethiopia between May 2017 and December 2021 [34].

South Africa is among the top destinations for Ethiopian migrants on the African continent. The migration to South Africa from Ethiopia is attached to strong ethnic networks. While Ethiopia has more than 80 diversified ethnic groups, migration to South Africa is highly dominated by Kembata and Hadiya ethnic groups. This has made the Ethiopian–South African migration corridor dominated by these two ethnic groups, which only constitute 2.4 million of the more than 100 million Ethiopian population [35]. The idea of chain migration being started by a single event in 2000 has expanded and continued over a massive scale in the past two decades. Emigration to South Africa from these areas started with a single event when the Ethiopian ambassador to South Africa, originally from areas of these ethnic groups, formally took laborers from these areas to South Africa, which later triggered continuous emigration [36]. Of the estimated 120,000 Ethiopian immigrants in South Africa, more than 90% of Ethiopian arrivals in South Africa are irregular migrants, officially known as undocumented migrants. Irregular migration to South Africa involves crossing several African countries and entails high risks, including physical and emotional stress, being imprisoned, deportation, and death [35]. Such irregular migration to South Africa is undertaken by the chain of smugglers stretched from source areas to the destination [36, 37].

Emigration from Ethiopia to neighboring countries such as Kenya, Sudan, and Somalia remains flexible due to instability in the region. It rises when man-made or natural disaster occurs in the region. The political instability and its associated armed conflicts change the volume and destination of emigrants who mainly seek refuge in neighboring countries. For instance, the armed conflict in northern Ethiopia from the end of November 2020 to May 2022 triggered the emigration of more than 73,000 individuals, mainly from conflict-affected areas of northern Ethiopia to Sudan [38].

However, the exact figure of emigrants originating from Ethiopia is unknown and expected to be more than official figures. This often results in conflicting figures on the volume of migrants originating from Ethiopia. This is mainly because of poor documentation of nationals leaving the country, the existence of large informal emigrational and cross-border mobilities, and the difficulty of documentation of Ethiopian emigrants at destinations due to “illegal” entries. Some authors estimate current Ethiopian emigrants are more than three million, which is more than double the official figures of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) [39]. Similar to the official figures for total emigration figures, there is also a huge difference in particular migration corridors. For instance, in 2020, UNDESA figures show only 44,000 Ethiopian emigrants in South Africa, while other studies such as [35] estimate about 120 thousand emigrants of Ethiopia in South Africa, which is almost 5 times greater than the official estimates of UNDESA figures. Some authors, for instance, [40] estimate that as much as 60–70% of labor migration from Ethiopia is irregular.

4. Nature of Ethiopian emigration

According to [41], the number of Ethiopian international migrants reached 1.3 million, which constitutes more than 1.1% of the total population of the country in 2019. This share of international migration of the native population was lower than the share of Sub-Saharan Africa international migrants to the population of the region, which was 2.2%, and the share of international migrants to the world population (3.5%) in 2019 [41, 42]. The Data of the United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (UNDESA) indicate that nearly half, about 49.1% of Ethiopian emigrants were women migrants, which is greater than the women migrant share in Sub-Saharan Africa (47.5%) and women migrant at international level (47.9%) in 2019. Some Sources show that earlier out-migration of Ethiopia was dominated by males. For instance, according to the 1992 Office of Refugee Resettlement data, most Ethiopians that were admitted to the United States were males (62%). The primary reason males far outnumber females pertains to the patriarchal social structure that exists in many African countries [18]. However, in the recent trend in Ethiopian emigration, women emigrants have dominated in some destinations due to gender-sensitive labor opportunities. The feminization of migration is also highly evident in Ethiopia, as 60% of total migrants are female. Migration to the Middle East is most significantly a female phenomenon and is motivated by gender-specific domestic work opportunities in the region [41].

Some authors, for example, [43] argue that existing migration frameworks often fail to capture the nature of migration in today’s world, particularly precarious forms of migration where migrants knowingly subject themselves to great risk in pursuit of a better future. Women’s out-migration in Ethiopia is strongly related to this notion as many women risk themselves to various inhuman cases of abuse on their migration journey, mainly to the Middle East, hoping to change their inferior livelihood at home. The Ethiopian women migration is highly dominated by domestic work in Arab countries. This migration to Arab countries has intensified due to social networks, the expansion of illegal agencies, and the relative fall in migration costs. This movement, according to [44], is also the result of a shift in demand away from Asian domestic workers who tend to seek higher wages to cheap labor sources in countries such as Ethiopia. Some reports like [45] estimate that roughly 1000 Ethiopian women were leaving the country each day to seek domestic work abroad in 2013. In addition to the economic factors, illegal smugglers also play a key role in motivating women to emigrate to Arab countries with deceptive promises. A study by [46] on Ethiopian returnees from Arab counties found that about 60% of women migrants indicated that they had used smugglers once they departed for their migration. The same study found that the business of smuggling Ethiopian women along the Eastern Route from Ethiopia to Yemen was worth more than USD 15 million in 2019.

According to figures from Ethiopia’s Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs (MOLSA), in 2012, around 200,000 Ethiopian women migrated to the Middle East seeking employment in the domestic work industry using regular routes. The number of women migrating using irregular routes is estimated to double that figure. The top destination countries in the Middle East are Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Lebanon, and, more recently, Sudan, which is usually used as a transit country [47]. Studies found that women migrants face different challenges than male ones during their precarious migration trips and their stay at their esteemed destination. For instance, in Arab countries, Ethiopian women migrants are reportedly being exploited at the hands of their employers. Passport confiscation and inadequate wage, physical, sexual, various forms of racialized, gendered, and economic exploitation, as well as emotional abuse, are common challenges faced by Ethiopian migrants in the region [45, 48].

The rise in female emigration occurs mainly because of the rise in domestic job opportunities in Middle Eastern countries, which is the largest destination for Ethiopian emigrants. The Ethiopian Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs issued 21,256 employment contracts for Ethiopians to work in the Middle East from July 2008 to July 2009 [49]. Eighty-two percent of these work permits were for females. The primary countries for the work permits were Saudi Arabia (61.9%), Kuwait (33.16%), and Bahrain (3.22%). In an attempt to regularize irregular or undocumented migration flows to the Middle East, employment agencies involved officially require a license issued by the MOLSA to provide employment contracts. However, most of the migration to the Middle East remains dominantly irregular. The UNDP estimates that up to half a million females migrate from Ethiopia to the Middle East each year [50]. Like the Middle East, the number of female Ethiopian emigrants dominates their male counterparts in main destinations in the European Union [27].

5. Migration routes and Ethiopians emigrants

Migration routes are a crucial factor that determines trends of Ethiopian migration as much of the migration takes place in an irregular manner. Migration routes in the context of Ethiopian emigrants relate to the destinations of the migrants. Emigration, apart from formal means, mostly takes place on three active migration routes. These include the eastern route, southern route, and northern route.

5.1 Eastern route

Migration from Ethiopia to the Middle East has been ongoing at a high rate since the early 1990s. This route is the busiest route for channeling large irregular or undocumented migrants who aim to reach Middle East countries. For instance, approximately 1.5 million Ethiopians traveled to the Middle East via irregular channels between the years 2008 and 2014 [16]. Despite the unknown figures on the scale of the migration flow in this route, the migration is dominated by women emigrants. [51] estimate that up to half a million women emigrate annually to this region. Djibouti and Yemen are the main transit countries in the eastern route for Ethiopians and horn of African emigrants that aim to reach oil-rich gulf countries. Despite the COVID-19 pandemic and strict border restrictions, migration to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia seems to continue from Ethiopia via this route [52].

5.2 Northern route

The Northern Route has two branches ‘Central Mediterranean Route,’ which is used by migrants from the East and Horn of Africa and other parts of Africa to get to Europe, crossing the Mediterranean Sea via Libya. There is also the Sinai route which is utilized by migrants aimed to reach Israel as their main destination via Egypt. In this migration route, migrants from Ethiopia and other countries from the Horn of Africa use the Sudan, Egypt, and Libya as transit countries [53]. Since 2012 the number of migrants using the Sinai Route route has significantly decreased, to the point of it being almost inoperative. This is the result of restrictive migration policies by both Egypt and Israel [16].

The northern migration route has received significant media and political attention, partly because of the harsh conditions in Libya, the dangers of crossing the Mediterranean, and restrictive policies in Europe. For instance, some 3500 Ethiopians irregularly submitted to Europe in 2015, mostly via this route [54].

5.3 Southern route

This migration route broadly connects the East and Horn of Africa to South Africa, with Kenya as one of the main transit countries. Other transit countries on the route include Tanzania, Malawi, and Mozambique. The route is predominantly used by Ethiopian and Somali emigrants who wish to reach South Africa. For instance, by 2009 estimated 17,000–20,000 migrants, mainly from Ethiopia and Somalia, entered South Africa; more recent estimates show that it is now between 13,400 and 14,050 individuals annually [55].

6. Recent immigration into Ethiopia

Ethiopia is known for hosting immigrants for centuries from several foreign nations. Following the ancient time’s immigration of Israeli Jew people in the sixth century BC and seventh century, early Islamic followers from Mecca, the percent day Saudi Arabia, the early modern time immigration of Portuguese lay people and missionary into the Ethiopian kingdom in the sixteenth century was prominent in immigration history of foreign nationals to Ethiopia. In the early modern ages, the negotiation for an alliance between Ethiopia and Portugal (1508–1526) resulted in the immigration of Portuguese missionaries and military personnel who later settled in different parts of the country [56]. The number of Portuguese immigrants was estimated between 1000 and 3000, which was a combination of Jesuit missionaries, lay Christians, and military personnel in the seventeenth century [4].

Another important migration history in Ethiopia that occurred in the modern period includes Somali migration into Ethiopia in the 1540s due to the occupation of parts of the Ethiopian Empire by Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi “the Conqueror” (the Imam and General of the Adal Sultanate1527–1543) [57]. End of the nineteenth century, many foreigners were already living in Ethiopia; for instance, in 1887, according to [58], out of 60,000 residents of Addis Ababa City, some 1905 were immigrants who came from different Asian and European countries, including 334 Greeks, 227 Arabs, 149 Indians, 146 Armenians, 63 French, 42 Italians, 20 Germans, 13 Hungarians, 15 Turks, 13 Swedes, 13 English, 11 Egyptians, 10 Syrians and Lebanese, 8 Afghanis, 7 Portuguese, 6 Russians and Bulgarians, 6 Cawkas, 5 Americans, 3 Australians, 2 Belgians and 1 Georgian. According to Ruiz [12], estimated 205,000 Sudanese refugees in Ethiopia; and 15,000 Somali refugees in Ethiopia. The latest report of UNHCR shows that Ethiopia shelters about 785,322 registered refugees and asylum-seekers as of 30 June 2021, which makes Ethiopia the third biggest refugee host country in Africa in the same period. The overwhelming majority originate from South Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea, and Sudan (see Figure 6 for details, UNHCR, 2022).

Figure 6.

Immigrants in Ethiopia. Source: [59].

The refugees and asylum seekers are mainly sheltered in 24 refugee camps established in five regional states. But there is a sizeable group of refugees and asylum seekers living out of camp, including over 50,000 people in the capital Addis Ababa. The refugees are concentered in UNHCR-managed refugee camps predominately located in regions like Gambella, Somali, and Tigray, which comprise more than three fourth of refugees living in Ethiopia. The rest of the refugees are dispersed in almost all regions of Ethiopia (see Figure 7) [60].

Figure 7.

Refugees and Refugee-Hosting Regions in Ethiopia (number and percentage of the total, as of 30 March 2020). Source: UNHCR’s “Operational Portal Ethiopia” at https://data2.unhcr.org/en/country/eth.

Unlike the recent emigration of Ethiopians, which is based on escaping poverty and finding employment, immigration into Ethiopia is mostly undertaken in search of protection from political instability and conflicts in the region. The main cause for the immigration into Ethiopia from Sudan, South Sudan, Somalia, and Eritrea was the armed conflicts within and across the cross border of these countries. Ethiopia attracts low economic international migrants due to its low economic performance and its own political instability, which often triggers armed conflicts in the country. Nevertheless, it is assumed that economic immigrants live in the country despite the lack of data in this regard. Unlike refugees, economic migrants such as seasonal or temporary migrants across borders are under-studied in the context of Ethiopia. The strong ethnic and social bonds between communities living at borders such as Ethio-Kenya, Ethio-Somalia, and Ethio-Sudan are very strong and believed to result in cross-border livelihood activities despite the existence of national borders. This could outnumber the formally registered refugee volume in Ethiopia, which makes Ethiopia one of the top immigration countries in the Horn and the African continent.

7. Concluding remarks

In this chapter, I elaborated on the emigration of Ethiopians in recent decades. I also highlighted historic emigration, and I focused on the emigration since the Ethiopian revolution of 1974, which has triggered waves of emigration. In the chapter, I indicated the United States and Canada as the main destinations for Ethiopian migrants in North America; Sweden, Germany, and Italy as the top three destinations in Europe; Israel and Saudi Arabia as major destinations in the Middle East; and Sudan, Kenya, and South Africa as the main destination of the African continent. I also showed that women emigrants outnumber males, opposing the international migration trends in the region and at the international level. In the chapter, I also discussed the main migration routes in which most irregular or undocumented emigration takes place. In the last section, I discussed immigration into Ethiopia. In this section, I showed that immigration into Ethiopia is refugee driven and dominated by refugees from neighboring countries.