Antibiotics Alternatives in Poultry Production in Sub-Sahara Africa

Abstract

The recent campaign for the exclusion of antibiotics and hormone growth promoters in livestock production has lead to the increase in research and the use of ethnoveterinary medicine in livestock production. The use of ethnoveterinary medicine for smallholder poultry production in Sub-Saharan Africa has proven to be economical, culturally acceptable and ecologically sound since the natural products used are locally available. This chapter focuses on antibiotics alternatives used in poultry production in Sub-Saharan Africa for maintaining good health and improved performance. Antibiotics alternatives explained in this chapter include the use of probiotics, prebiotics, organic acids and medicinal plants. Different medicinal plants that cure bacterial diseases in poultry in Sub Saharan Africa ad their mode of preparation/administration were explained in this chapter. Despite the seemingly effectiveness of the antibiotics alternatives from plants source, there are some setbacks which include the inconveniences associated with the process of preparation and the difficulty in standardizing them. These setbacks need urgent attention.

1. Introduction

The Sub-Saharan Africa is the geographical area and regions of the continent of Africa that lies south of the Sahara. These regions which include East Africa, West Africa, Southern Africa and Central Africa have witness increased population growth over the last decades. This population increase has necessitated increased demand for food (animal protein) of which poultry meat has contributed a greater percentage in meeting this need. A greater percentage of poultry production in Sub-Saharan Africa is still on an extensive management system except for a few large commercial farms. One of the greatest limitations to poultry production is poultry diseases. Diseases can wipe out a whole farm in a few days so farmers spend a fortune in vaccinating poultry birds against disease infection and in treatment of those infected already to reduce mortality. The impact of poultry diseases on poultry production cannot be over emphasized as it greatly increases the cost of production through cost of medication and losses incurred due to infections [1] estimated that the mortality of indigenous chickens up to 4 weeks old under extensive management system has been estimated to be 53%. To reduce the cost of production, small holder farmers use herbal trees as antibiotics alternatives [2].

The small scale production and level of poverty in this region has encouraged the use of traditional medicine in managing the health challenges of these poultry birds. The use of traditional medicine to meet human and livestock health care challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa has being from time immemorial with various degrees of successes. It was estimated by [3] that about 80% of the people living in Africa depend on traditional medicine for themselves and their livestock. The recent campaign for the exclusion of antibiotics and hormone growth promoters in livestock production has lead to the increase in research and the use of ethnoveterinary medicine in livestock production [1, 4] reported that the use of ethnoveterinary medicine for smallholder poultry production in Sub-Saharan Africa is economical, culturally acceptable and ecologically sound since the natural products used are locally available. Furthermore, [5] confirmed that over the last 3 decades, researches have being conducted to developing antibiotics alternatives for maintaining the health of animals as well as their performance. There is therefore a need to make these medicinal plants, preparation and administration procedures available to other poultry farmers.

2. Importance of poultry to households and the economy of nations in Sub Saharan Africa

The importance of poultry to households in Sub Saharan Africa cannot be over emphasized as it serves as a source of food and income to several families [2]. Poultry products are accepted by all as there are no traditional or religious barriers to the consumption of poultry. Poultry provides meat and egg for human consumption. Poultry meat is good source of protein, phosphorus and other minerals, and of B-complex vitamins. Poultry meat is low in harmful fats, but high in beneficial monounsaturated fats—which make up about half of the total. In addition to poultry products as source of food and income, it is also a source of organic manure which is used in cultivation of crops especially vegetables. Furthermore, poultry feathers are used for pillow stuffing, diapers, insulation, upholstery padding, paper, plastics and feather meal. Backyard poultry farming has over the years contributed to a great extent to the agrarian economy of different countries in Sub Saharan Africa. Poultry production provides livelihood security for many households in this region in addition to securing the availability of food. Poultry production has also provided jobs to individuals especially youth and women. The indigenous poultry breeds in Sub Saharan Africa are well known for their adaptability as well as disease resistance. These breeds are also protected against predators using their plumage color.

3. Antibiotics alternatives used in poultry production in Sub Saharan Africa

Some of the reasons for the use of antibiotics alternative in poultry production are the toxic effect of antibiotics to humans who consume the poultry products from poultry raised with synthetic antibiotics, the problem of resistance to synthetic antibiotics by target parasites as well as the high cost of these antibiotics. However, antibiotics alternatives are natural products that are cheap and environmentally friendly [6, 7] has reported the use of probiotics and prebiotics, extracts of plants, neutraceuticals like copper and zinc of antimicrobial peptides, antibiotics from chicken egg yolk, medium fatty acids, rare earth elements as antibiotics alternatives. Indigenous medicine is now recognized worldwide both by the rural populace and the urban elite as an important healthcare resource [8]. According to [8] a total of at least 35,000 plants species are widely used for medicinal purposes in Sub-Saharan Africa with some level of success which however needs to be standardized and improved upon using more scientific principles.

3.1 Probiotics

Probiotics have being used to reduce poultry enteric diseases [5]. Probiotics are live microbial feed supplements used to balance microbial population in the intestine through the production of compounds that displace pathogens from enterocytes and maintaining the pH in the gut of animals. Some of the microorganisms used as probiotics are Lactobacillus acidophilus, Streptococcus faecium, Bacillus coagulans, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Enterococcus faecium, Aspergillus oryzae etc. [5]. Some of the advantages of the use of probiotics as antibiotics alternative are they inhibit the growth of diseases producing organisms. They also prevent digestive upsets and diarrhea due to bacterial invasion. Probiotics improve intestinal ecology and harmonize functions of the digestive system etc. [9] in their work while evaluating the dynamics of probiotics on immune response of broilers reported significantly higher antibody production (P < 0.01) in experimental birds fed probiotics as compared control ones.

3.2 Prebiotics

These are non digestible food ingredient/supplement that beneficially affects the host by selectively stimulating the growth of some or all of the non pathogenic organisms (bacteria) in the gut or colon of the animal. Prebiotics beneficially affects the host by stimulating the growth and activity of harmless bacteria, indicating a synergistic effect with probiotics. Prebiotics also help in inhibiting the colonization of pathogenic bacteria.

3.3 Organic acids

Organic acids have being used to reduce many pathogenic and spoilage organisms by lowering the gut pH. Some of the organic acids used are formic, lactic, citric, propionic and phosphoric acids. They have the ability of lowering the pH at which the activity of proteases and beneficial bacteria is optimized and the proliferation of pathogenic bacteria is minimized by a direct antibacterial effect destroying their cell membranes.

3.4 Medicinal plants

According to [4], Africa has so many medicinal plants that have being used over the years. They stated that there are about 3000 plants species used for treating various types of diseases in Southern Africa while there are about 10,000 medicinal plants species in Northern Africa. Natural medicinal products originating from herbs, spices and their products have being used as antibiotics alternatives to improving the wellbeing of poultry during production. The antimicrobial activates of phytochemicals vary from plant to plant and from region to region. Tannin act by deprivation of iron, binding with hydrogen or through interactions non-specifically with proteins of the bacteria. Some of the herbs used as antibiotics alternatives are garlic (Allium sativum), Aloe vera, Thyme (Thymus vulgaris), Tumeric (Caurcuma longa), Ginger (Zingiber officinale) among others. The positive effects of these herbs are due to the presence of essential oils, fatty acids, minerals, fiber, vitamin, protein and carbohydrates. Apart from the digestive and antioxidant properties of herbs, they exert the beneficial influence through antimicrobial, immunomodulating and antiparasitic effects.

Buena [10] has reported that guava fruit extract showed in vitro has antimicrobial activity against bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus mirabilis, and Shigella dysenteria. The leaf extract is against Staphylococcus aureus. It was shown to antibacterial in another study and in addition to Staphylococcus aureus was also useful against Streptococcus spp. The leaves are rich in tannin, and have antiseptic properties. Table 1 shows some medicinal plants used as antibiotics alternative for poultry in Sub-Saharan Africa.

S/no	Plant antibiotics alternative	Country	Reference
1.	Boswellia dalzielii	Nigeria	[11]
2.	Sclerocarya birrea	Niger	[12]
3.	Aloe vera	Somalia	[13]
4.	Carica papaya	Cameroon	[14]
5.	Peltophorum ferrugineum	Togo	[15]
6.	Capsicum spp	Uganda	[16]
7.	Aloe saponaria	Southern Africa	[17]
8.	Adenium multiflorum	Zimbabwe	[18]
9.	Lagenaria vulgaris	Nigeria	[11]
10.	Colocasia esculenta	Kenya	[19]

Table 1.

Some antibiotics alternative of plant origin used in Sub-Saharan Africa.

4. Some bacterial diseases and their antibiotics alternatives in Sub Saharan Africa

4.1 Ulcerative enteritis

This disease is caused by Clostridium colinum. Chickens infected with Ulcerative enteritis will appear extremely depressed and will emaciate due to loss of appetite. Watery droppings with bad odor and mortality which is as high as 50 percent can be seen. Table 2 shows the treatment of ulcerative enteritis using some medicinal plants as antibiotics alternatives in poultry.

S/no	Plant	Plant part	Mode of administration
1	Capsicum eucalyptus	Leaves	Grind/squeeze about 1 kg of leaves in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove leaves particles and administer to poultry for about a week. Ground leaves could as well be added to poultry feed.
2	Capsicum frutescens	Fruits	Grind about 0.5 kg of fruit in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove fruits particles and administer to poultry for about a week
3	Pseudognaphalium luteoalbum	Leaves	Grind/squeeze about 1 kg of leaves in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove leaves particles and administer to poultry for about a week. Ground leaves could as well be added to poultry feed.
4	Diospyros lycioides	Roots	Used as decoction. Boil about 0.5 kg of roots in 20 L of drinking water. Allow to cool and administer to poultry for about a week

Table 2.

Treatment of ulcerative enteritis using antibiotics alternatives.

4.2 Fowl cholera

Fowl cholera is caused by Pasteurella multocida, a bipolar, fluorescent, non motile rod shaped bacterium. There are three strains which are smooth encapsulated, mucoid and rough encapsulated. According to [1] the virulence is highest in smooth encapsulated and lowest in rough encapsulated. Chickens infected with fowl cholera have greenish-yellow diarrhea and fever that leads to increased water consumption. Loss of weight and rattling noised due to congestion in the airway will also be seen. Table 3 shows the treatment of Fowl cholera using medicinal plants as antibiotics alternatives in poultry.

S/no	Plant	Plant part	Medium of administration
1	Capsicum eucalyptus	Leaves	Grind/squeeze about 1 kg of leaves in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove leaves particles and administer to poultry for about a week. Ground leaves could as well be added to poultry feed.
2	Capsicum frutescens	Fruits	Grind about 0.5 kg of fruit and soak in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove fruits particles and administer to poultry for about a week
3	Adansonia digitata	Fruits	Break/crush about 0.5 kg and soak in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove fruits particles and administer to poultry for about a week
4	Sclerocarya birrea	Bark	Used as decoction. Boil about 0.5 kg of bark in 20 L of drinking water. Allow to cool and administer to poultry for about a week
5	Boswellia dalzielii	Young leaves	Grind/squeeze about 1 kg of leaves in 4 L of drinking water and administer to poultry for about a week

Table 3.

Treatment of fowl cholera using antibiotics alternatives.

4.3 Pasteurella anatipestifer infection

This bacteria disease is caused by P. anatipestifer which is a gram negative rod bacterium. Clinical signs include sneezing, coughing and discharges from the eyes and nasal passages as well as greenish diarrhea, lack of coordination and death which range from 5 to 75%. Table 4 shows the treatment of Pasteurella anatipestifer infection using medicinal plants as antibiotics alternatives in poultry.

S/no	Plant	Plant part	Medium of administration
1	Adansonia digitata	Fruits	Break/crush about 0.5 kg and soak in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove fruits particles and administer to poultry for about a week
2	Boswellia dalzielii	Young leaves	Grind/squeeze about 1 kg of leaves in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove leaves particles and administer to poultry for about a week. Ground leaves could as well be added to poultry feed.
3	Sclerocarya birrea	Bark	Used as decoction. Boil about 0.5 kg of bark in 20 L of drinking water. Allow to cool and administer to poultry for about a week
4	Nicotiana tabacum	Leaves	Grind/squeeze about 1 kg of leaves in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove leaves particles and administer to poultry for about a week. Ground leaves could as well be added to poultry feed.
5	Pipper guineense	Fruits	Break/crush about 0.5 kg of fruits and soak in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove fruits particles and administer to poultry for about a week
6	Colocasia esculenta	Tuber	About 0.5 kg of tuber washed and ground in a mortar, 2 L of water added and the mixture sieved. 3 drops are given once in the nostrils of each fowl for 5 days

Table 4.

Treatment of Pasteurella anatipestifer infection using antibiotics alternatives.

4.4 Fowl typhoid

Fowl typhoid is caused by Salmonella gallinarum. Clinical signs include loss of appetite, increased thirst, lethargy and yellow-green diarrhea. Mortality ranges from 5 to 50%. Table 5 shows the treatment of Fowl typhoid using medicinal plants as antibiotics alternatives in poultry.

S/no	Plant	Plant part	Medium of administration
1	Pergularia extensa	Leaves	Grind/squeeze about 1 kg of leaves in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove leaves particles and administer to poultry for about a week. Ground leaves could as well be added to poultry feed.
2	Aloe vera	Juice	Add about 5 ml of juice in 4 L of drinking water and administer to poultry for about a week
3	Carica papaya	Leaves	Chop about 1 kg of leaves and mix with 10 kg of feed. Feed infected poultry with the leaves for a week
4	Adansonia digitata	Fruits	Grind about 0.5 kg of fruit and soak in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove fruits particles and administer to poultry for about a week
5	Capsicum eucalyptus	Leaves	Grind/squeeze about 1 kg of leaves in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove leaves particles and administer to poultry for about a week. Ground leaves could as well be added to poultry feed.

Table 5.

Treatment of fowl typhoid using antibiotics alternatives.

4.5 Colibacillosis

This disease is caused by Escherichia coli. These bacteria invade and cause a secondary infection when chickens are stressed or already infected. Clinical signs of colibacillosis are depression, paleness, decrease in appetite and diarrhea. Table 6 shows the treatment of colibacillosis using medicinal plants as antibiotics alternatives in poultry.

S/no	Plant	Plant part	Medium of administration
1	Capsicum eucalyptus	Leaves	Grind/squeeze about 1 kg of leaves in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove leaves particles and administer to poultry for about a week. Ground leaves could as well be added to poultry feed.
2	Capsicum frutescens	Fruits	Grind about 0.5 kg of fruit and soak in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove fruits particles and administer to poultry for about a week
3	Peltophorum ferrugineum	Leaves	Grind/squeeze about 1 kg of leaves in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove leaves particles and administer to poultry for about a week. Ground leaves could as well be added to poultry feed.
4	Adansonia digitata	Bark	Used as decoction. Boil about 0.5 kg of bark in 20 L of drinking water. Allow to cool and administer to poultry for about a week
5	Cassia abbreviate	Roots	Used as decoction. Boil about 0.5 kg of roots in 20 L of drinking water. Allow to cool and administer to poultry for about a week

Table 6.

Treatment of colibacillosis using antibiotics alternatives.

4.6 Staphylococcus aureus infection

This is a very common poultry bacterial disease. The bacterium liberates beta hemolysin and plasma coagulase that can hemolyze the blood and also cause it to coagulate. Staphylococcus aureus infection always occurs between 4 and 6 weeks of age. The symptoms are similar to that of cholera which includes depression, listlessness, fever and loss of appetite. Lameness and swelling of the foot can be implicated. Mortality could be as high as 60%. Table 7 shows the treatment of Staphylococcus aureus infection using medicinal plants as antibiotics alternatives in poultry.

S/no	Plant	Plant part	Medium of administration
1	Adansonia digitata	Bark	Used as decoction. Boil about 0.5 kg of bark in 20 L of drinking water. Allow to cool and administer to poultry for about a week
2	Capsicum eucalyptus	Leaves	Grind/squeeze about 1 kg of leaves in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove leaves particles and administer to poultry for about a week. Ground leaves could as well be added to poultry feed.
3	Capsicum frutescens	Fruits	Grind about 0.5 kg of fruit and soak in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove fruits particles and administer to poultry for about a week

Table 7.

Treatment of Staphylococcus aureus infection using antibiotics alternatives.

4.7 Streptococcus infection

This disease is caused by S. zooepidemicus and S. faecalis. The bacteria release toxins that contribute to their pathogenicity. Chickens infected in the acute form will be listless and feverish. There is loss of appetite and endocarditis in the chronic form (Table 8).

S/no	Plant	Plant part	Medium of administration
1	Allium sativum	Chopped bulb	Grind about 0.5 kg of bulb in 10 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove fruits particles and administer to poultry for about a week
2	Cucumis articulates	Fruit	Grind about 0.5 kg of fruit and soak in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove fruits particles and administer to poultry for about a week
3	Capsicum eucalyptus	Leaves	Grind/squeeze about 1 kg of leaves in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove leaves particles and administer to poultry for about a week. Ground leaves could as well be added to poultry feed.
4	Capsicum frutescens	Fruits	Grind about 0.5 kg of fruit and soak in 20 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove fruits particles and administer to poultry for about a week
5	Capsicum annuum	Chopped bulb	Grind about 0.5 kg of bulb in 10 L of drinking water. Sieve to remove fruits particles and administer to poultry for about a week

Table 8.

Treatment of streptococcus infection using antibiotics alternatives.

5. Some setbacks in the use of antibiotics alternatives in Sub Saharan Africa

According to [20] some of the major setbacks in the use of antibiotics alternatives in Sub Saharan Africa are the inconveniences associated with the process of preparation. In addition, some of these plants are seasonal and are not found for use at some times of the year. The major setback in the use of antibiotics remedies is that of difficulty in standardizing them. This is because the concentration of critical ingredients in these plants varies from one region to the other.

6. Conclusion

The use of antibiotics alternatives should be promoted through government policies and inclusion in curriculum of educational systems in Sub-Saharan Africa. This will create more awareness and acceptance among the citizens to encourage more usage and research to improve on the development and usage of antibiotics alternatives of plants origin. Further researches are needed under controlled conditions the check the efficacy rates, the active ingredients in all these plants used as antibiotics alternatives and their standardization.

Acknowledgments

I want to acknowledge the efforts of all the poultry farmers and researchers who provided the information used in compiling this chapter.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.