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Natural ecosystems are adversely affected by man-made interventions. Among living organisms, insects are regarded as susceptible to environment disruption as delicate body confirms the presence or absence of polluted environment thus found as suitable indicators of the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem. Insects are being considered indicators of environmental pollution because different taxa of different localities provide robust information, provide a comparison of various communities, and quantitative data associated with indicators etc. Most of them present the quick reliable influence to heavy metal accumulation as pronounced disruptions were observed at molecular and biochemical level hence considered as best opted indicators of environmental pollution.
Department of Zoology, Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan
Noor Virk
Department of Zoology, Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan
Nazish Mazhar Ali
Department of Zoology, Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan
*Address all correspondence to: dr.iramliaqat@gcu.edu.pk
1. Introduction
Environmental pollution by heavy metal is a wide ranging problem due to the urbanization and industrial development. For recent years, scientific world had shown the great interest in heavy metals as they had detrimental effect on atmosphere, aquatic and terrestrial environment [1]. Heavy metals are important class of pollutant with mass density greater than 4 g/cm3 or more such as, lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), arsenic (As) nickel (Ni) and manganese (Mn) [2]. These are discharged in the surroundings as an outcome of industrial activities, agricultural practices and atmospheric deposition.
Metals have important physiological and biochemical role in organism, symbolized as carcinogenic and toxic when concentration increased the required level as enlisted in Table 1. For instance, iron, copper and zinc have essential role in maintaining the structure of organism but show acute toxicity when exceed the concentration as in certain genetic disorders. Some heavy metals are not essential even in small concentration such as arsenic, mercury and lead become carcinogenic. For example, ingestion of arsenic, generally occur as arsenate, may cause cancer of various part of human body [10]. Lead and mercury are responsible for the autoimmunity thus leading to disease state of nervous system, renal, circulatory system and arthritis [11]. Cadmium exposure might cause kidney issues [12]. Exposure to mercury also causes various psychological and neurological damage such as panic, irregular sleep wake cycle and restlessness [12].
According to the report of WHO (World Health Organization), a million of people died every year in developing countries due to pollution induced diseases [13, 14]. The agricultural soil is contaminated by metal pollutant as a result of industrial product used in modern farming including insecticides, fertilizers, herbicide and sewage [15, 16]. Meanwhile, the pollutants are uptake to plant tissue from roots in soil therefore contaminated crop consumption becoming hazardous to living organism [17]. Pollutants toxicity has impacted the biological processes as well as biotic interaction among living organism such as ecological structure, parasitism and predator prey relationship [18] as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Various means of heavy metal pollution and their transfer to insects.
Bioindicators are described as living entities such as planktons, microbes, animals and plants that are operated for screening the environmental health of ecosystem. They have immense potential of qualitative analysis of health of environment and biogeographical variation in their surrounding [19]. The balance of intracellular and extracellular caused the membrane permeability to alter as ions transverse the cell membrane [20]. Thus, insects are considered as potent heavy metal bioindicator of environmental pollution.
2.1 Classification of bioindicator
Mac Farlane et al. [21] described the classification of bioindicators on the basis of mode of action and origin of organism (Figure 2) [21].
Figure 2.
Schematic illustration of classification of bioindicators.
2.1.1 On the basis of mode of action
Accumulative bioindicators: A type of bioindicators of environment that accumulate single or more element and chemical compound are called as accumulative bioindicators.
Sensitive bioindicators: A type of bioindicators that represent certain modification due to chemicals or elements exposure are called as sensitive bioindicators. The modifications may be related to tissue, morphology, cytology and organism or population behavior.
2.1.2 On the basis of origin of organism
It is classified as active and passive bioindicators.
Active bioindicators: A type of bioindicators that are exposed at particular place for specific time interval thus used to examine the concentration of compounds and elements are called as active bioindicators.
Passive bioindicators: A type of bioindicators collected from their natural ecological community used to analyze the concentration of compounds and elements and their direct and indirect effect are called as passive bioindicators.
2.2 Insect as bioindicator
Insect is utilized as an efficient bioindicator of heavy metal pollution because of their diverse richness of species, easy handling and traps are good enough for effective statistical analysis. They are generally collected for their role as predator and significant for biological control such as spider and beetles (Figure 3). Heavy metals have negative influence on insect impacting their fecundity, weight, mortality and developmental stages [22, 23]. Furthermore, insects enable the selection of behavioral and demographic factor with strong association to the predefined abiotic factor that can be observed and quantified in particular environment [24]. Insects can be impacted directly by various means as associated with polluted soil and air deposition (Figure 4). Parasites and predator are also affected if they consume the insect that have greater amount of the heavy metals [25].
Figure 3.
Characteristics of insect as bioindicator.
Figure 4.
Transfer of heavy metals to insects through contaminated soil.
Metals are non-degradable as compared to other contaminant elements thus show bioaccumulation in the trophic chain [26] as Figure 4 displaying bioaccumulation of heavy metals in insects. Insects are potent source of bioindicators to determine the toxicity of heavy metals and human activities in terrestrial ecosystem as they are closely associated with the sediments [27].
Bioaccumulation of the pollutant is also influenced with the feeding behavior of insects as herbivorous and omnivorous usually have lower heavy metal concentration than predatory and carnivorous insects [28]. Corbi et al. [29] had emphasized the contamination of aquatic ecosystem [29] as a consequence of utilization of different heavy metal accumulation including lead, cadmium, chromium, zinc, nickel [30] as fertilizers for agricultural practices that had major impact on the water supply of surrounding cultivated areas. Meanwhile, the lack of riparian vegetation is another major cause of bioaccumulation of toxic metals from the surrounding cultivation [30, 31]. Owing to the significance and placement in food chain, heavy metal accumulations are detrimental to global health. Metal accumulation of aquatic invertebrates and sediment deposition provide a potential link to the upper trophic level of the food chain [32] as illustrated in Figure 5.
Figure 5.
Schematic presentation of bioaccumulation of heavy metals via food chain.
3.1 Bioaccumulation factor
The bioaccumulation factor for aquatic species was tested [33]. The ratio between metal concentrations in organism to that of environment is referred as bioaccumulation factor. When metal concentrations in organism exceed those in aquatic environment this is referred as bioaccumulation. Thus, the bioaccumulation is recognized for value lower than 1.
Honey bee has been studied extensively as bioindicator of metal pollution [34] due to their diverse foraging activity. Di Fiore et al. (2022) had suggested the utilization of honey bees as bioindicator of metal pollution to assess the air qualities of different region [35]. Various characteristics of honey bee including sensitivity to the pollutant elements, extensive flying capacity, elevated rate of reproduction and utilization of product (honey) make them as bioindicator species. They are the pollinated insects that presented efficient monitoring protocols at low cost [36].
Ground beetles as efficient bioindicator are commonly used by researchers because they show response to ecological variation as a consequence of anthropogenic activities including overgrazing, soil and land pollution [37]. In relation to their cosmopolitan distribution in land, Carabid beetles are commonly utilized to assess the heavy metal pollution in soil [38]. Previously, it was discovered the significant bioaccumulation factor range of mercury and arsenic in a research of Carabus lefebvri indicating that beetles were favorable for assessing mercury and arsenic in the environment [39].
Owing to the species richness and vast diversity, ants are employed as bioindicators as these characteristics correspond to efficient monitoring of biological processes and landscape disturbance in various environments [40, 41]. Ants are effective for monitoring the foliage inhabiting regions, open habitat and toxicity of heavy metal pollution in terrestrial environment as their substantial role at ground level [42]. In mining region, ants have been utilized as bioindicators of restoration effectiveness [43]. For the research of heavy metal environmental impact, combine monitoring of ants and forager bees is a reliable method [44].
Grasshoppers are herbivorous insects, therefore, have significant part in bioaccumulation as well as transport heavy metal to upper trophic levels via food chain [45] as predators such as mantid accumulates grasshopper thus transmitted heavy metals to further species in higher trophic level of food chain. Furthermore, Soliman and El-Shazly (2017) studied the average concentration of cadmium, lead, zinc, chromium, nickel and iron in grasshopper species [46]. Several researches have been conducted on heavy metal analysis in grasshopper, plants and soils having metal concentration higher in region closest to polluted areas [38, 47]. Guria et al. [4] described the reduction of grasshopper fitness to environment due to toxicity of arsenic and lead thus vulnerable to predation and infection [4].
Termites are detritivorus insects that feed on debris of plant and about 75% feed on soil [48]. These social insects are used as bioindicatiors of land fertility and provide basis of nutrient recycling, nitrogen fixation and transport of soil material. Likewise, expansion of carbon content, nutrient and clay they are also considered as ecological engineer. Aljama et al. (2019) assessed accumulation as regard to various metals (mercury, lead, chromium, cadmium, zinc and copper) in termites along with associated soil [49].
Butterflies are prominent bioindicators of ecological and metal pollution due to their easy recognition, conspicuous nature and capacity of accumulating heavy metal from surroundings. Kobiela and Snell- Rood [50] indicated the presence of transgenerational effect of nickel contamination in butterfly [50]. Azam et al. [51] had assessed the various heavy metals (Ni, Cu, Zn, Cr) accumulation in butterfly Danaus chrysippus near industrial areas of Gujrat and concluded as good indicator of metal pollution [51].
Ecologically dragonfly is considered as useful bioindicator of aquatic and terrestrial environment. Ninety percent of invertebrate fauna comprises of aquatic insects representing the lotic and lentic food web, controlling nutrient cycle and energy flow [52]. Dragonflies are considered as the most susceptible to habitat disruption among aquatic insects. Noor et al. [53] demonstrated iron as suitable indicator for the lead, iron and zinc where iron showed positive association of species richness with sediments whereas negative relation when iron detection in water [53].
11. Housefly as bioindicator
Housefly (Musca domestica) is a philanthropic species and thus shows intimate association with humans and their surroundings. The housefly is a cosmopolitan insect, and a significant human and animal sanitary pest. It is the mechanical carrier of over 100 pathogens that include the antibiotic resistant ones [54]. Heavy metals like zinc, cadmium, copper, lead usually accumulate in the abdominal tissues of housefly [55]. The digestive tract injury had been reported due to accumulation of cadmium in larvae of housefly [56] however minimum concentration of cadmium has less effect on development and growth of housefly. Furthermore, the effect of cadmium on metamorphosis had been stated that showed dramatic variation as cadmium level gradually increased during larval phase but reduced dramatically following pupariation.
12. Parasitic wasp as bioindicator
Parasitic wasp had been devoted as bioindicator of woodland environment [57] due to certain biological characteristics and feeding habits [58]. Their habitat conditions are specified and intricated as they appeared higher in tropic level, restricted host dimensions and complex behavior [59]. Aguiar et al. [60] reported 103,000 species of hymenopteran including 70% as parasitic wasp operating as pest of agriculture [60]. Lead concentration was found in fecal mass of wasp larvae as stated [61].
13. Analytical procedure of heavy metal assessment in insects
These are the following analytical procedure of heavy metal assessment in insects reported by different authors.
13.1 Atomic absorption spectrophotometer
13.1.1 Graphite furnace and acetylene flame
Azam et al. [51] had demonstrated the chemical procedure of determining the heavy metal in different group of insects [51]. Insects were weighed after manually dried in oven and digested in solution of four ratios of percholric acid to one ratio of supra pure nitric acid. A PU 93090X graphite furnace and acetylene flame of atomic absorption spectrophotometry was utilized to assess various metal concentrations of insects.
Using a microwave, 1.5 mL of nitric acid (2.5 percent) and 430 micro liter of hydrogen peroxide (30 percent) and 570 micro liter ultrapure water were applied to honey samples of honey bee atleast 0.6 g for determination of toxicity analysis as stated [44]. Following the digestion, the solution was mixed with one percent of Triton X 100 to reduce the viscosity before transferring it to the 25 mL flask. For the quantification of cadmium and lead, samples diluted with ultrapure water to 25 mL for chromium or 1 percent nitric acid and 3.30 micro liter of magnesium nitrate. The heavy metal analysis was regulated by the electrothermal atomic absorption spectroscopy using triplicate graphite tubes for various matrixes.
13.2 Plasma atomic emission spectrometry.
13.2.1 Nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide
Corbi et al. [62] mentioned the analytical method to determine the insect as heavy metal bioindicator by utilizing the plasma atomic emission spectrometry [62]. Deionized double distilled was used in this method. Aquatic insects that had been frozen were defrosted at room temperature and concerted to get 0.20 g dry weight. Insects placed in the 100 mL beaker having 5 mL nitric acid that were processed at ninety degree centigrade on hotplate until completely dried, for complete digestion I mL of hydrogen peroxide was also added. Processed samples were normalized at room temp. While filtered through filter paper in 50 mL flask. Standards run along with samples were analyzed for heavy metal detection using plasma atomic emission spectrometry.
13.2.2 Nitric acid and hydrochloric acid
Alajmi et al. [63] stated another method of heavy metal detection in insects by using plasma atomic emission spectrometer [63]. Aphid, leaves and soil samples were oven dried for one hour at 105 degrees, digested for six hours at 550 degrees in a furnace with use of 3 mL of hydrochloric acid then diluted with the deionized water. The targeted heavy metals dried weight was estimated as mg/g and quantified utilizing plasma atomic emission spectrometer.
13.3 Plasma optical emission spectroscopy
Alajmi et al. [49] illustrated another method for the quantification of heavy metal concentration in termites and associated soil sample using plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy [49]. Samples were oven dried for six to twelve hours at 105 degrees centigrade and measured utilizing microbalance followed by digestion of 0.5 g in 5 mL of nitric acid for six to twelve hours at 105 degree centigrade then added 2 mL of perchloric acid and volume adjusted by deionized water to 10 mL.
14. Molecular analysis of heavy metals on insects
El- Samad et al. [64] analyzed the molecular approach of heavy metal effect in beetles [64]. According to the dispersive energy X-ray microanalysis, testicular tissues and soil samples gathered from the metal contaminated area contained higher level of heavy metal as compared to the beetles of reference area. The transcription level of heat shock protein as well as seminal fluid proteins of accessary gland (AcPC01) of testicular were measured to investigate the genotoxicity in beetle sample taken from polluted area. Heat shock proteins 90, 70 and 60 gene expressions had been significantly less 1.5 fold in samples taken from polluted area but Hsp 60, Hsp 70 and HSP 90 expressed more as greater than 2 fold. Researcher also noted the occurrence of micronuclei development in testicular cells. The prevalence of was noticeably higher in samples gathered from contaminated area and also extracellular matrix aberration including nuclear and cytoplasmic disruption was also found.
15. Enzymatic biomarkers in aquatic insects
Aquatic invertebrates that accumulate the heavy metals were subjected to oxidative stress that leads to activation of the different antioxidant enzymes including acetylcholinesterase and glutathione S transferase [65]. Acetylcholinesterase, a neurotransmitter, had been observed as biomarker for detection of pollutant exposure in invertebrates [66]. Many antioxidant factors such as glutathione, catalase, lipid peroxidase and glutathione transferase were utilized as biomarkers in various living organism [67] as enzymes work with antioxidants for removal of free radical. Moreover some so-called biomarkers such as heat shock proteins and metallothioneins increase in concentration when exposed to heavy metals [68].
16. Comet assay
DNA damage of insects living in contaminated environment has been evaluated by the comet assay [69]. Using the comet assay, earlier investigation regarding DNA damage due to environmental contaminant can be established as DNA damage shows the molecular abnormalities that can cause pathogenic adversity. The environmental potential for genotoxicity in terrestrial insects can be measured by the comet assay, therefore, it aids in providing the early management of xenobiotic hazards which is evaluated by this assay [70, 71]. Kheirallah et al. [72] had reported the beetles as biomonitoring model to evaluate the DNA damage in a contaminated terrestrial environment [72]. Over recent years, chromosomal research had been of great importance due to increased demand to assess the genotoxicity of aquatic of environmental toxicity [73]. Various organisms at the end of trophic level of food chain are at severe risk of toxicology because of genotoxin presence in aquatic environment [74] as exposure causes DNA damage.
17. Heavy metals and immunological response
Various studies had reported effect of heavy metal pollution on immunocompetent cells. Dynamics of environment, administrative method and concentration of heavy metals are indicators with respect to heavy metals toxicity on these cells [75]. Borowska and Pyza [55] examined the activity of heavy metals like cadmium, lead, copper zinc on immune response of M. domestica by change in number and morphology of hemocytes such as granulocytes lessened whereas stem cells increased showing the effect on immune cell concentration [55].
18. Conclusion
Environmental pollution by heavy metals is the global hazard due to increased industrialization, urbanization as well as anthropogenetic activities that show detrimental effect on ecosystem. The analysis has shown that heavy metals accumulation along the food chain increased the bioaccumulation factor with increase in trophic level. However, it is not directly transferred from plants but need insects for the transfer to higher trophic level. The biochemical, physiological and behavioral alteration in insects confirms the accumulation of heavy metals activity thus they act as good bioindicators of metal pollution to demonstrate the ecological impact of metals. Recent advances at biochemical and molecular levels are being done to determine the toxicity of heavy metals in insects. Steps should be taken to lessen the metal pollution and enhance the survival of insects with accumulation at the cost of additional energy.
Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interests as declared by the authors.
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Written By
Iram Liaqat, Noor Virk and Nazish Mazhar Ali
Submitted: 29 November 2022Reviewed: 25 January 2023Published: 18 October 2023
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
