IntechOpen

Home > Books > Heavy Metals - Recent Advances

Open access peer-reviewed chapter

Monitoring Strategies for Heavy Metals in Foods and Beverages: Limitations for Human Health Risks

Written By

Anamika Kalita Deka, Kushwaha Jashvant Kumar and Sunshri Basumatary

Submitted: 30 December 2022 Reviewed: 14 February 2023 Published: 16 March 2023

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.110542

Heavy Metals IntechOpen
Heavy Metals Recent Advances Edited by Basim Almayyahi

From the Edited Volume

Heavy Metals - Recent Advances

Edited by Basim A. Almayyahi

Book Details Order Print

Chapter metrics overview

210 Chapter Downloads

View Full Metrics
Advertisement

Abstract

Foods and beverages with heavy metal contents, their Maximum Permissible Limits (MPL), Estimated Dietary Intake (EDI), Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) to study carcinogenic effects with other human health related matters and metal remediation’s are high priority issues for sustainable world-wide developments. Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS), Flame atomic absorption spectroscopy (FAAS), Total Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence (TRXF) Spectroscopy, Chemical Replacement Combined with Surface-Enhanced Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (CR-SENLIBS), Electrochemical apt- sensors are some advanced monitoring tactics for heavy metal detection. Nanotechnology innovations, soil state-of art remediation are used now-a-days for removal of metals from foods and beverages. In addition to this, chelating ligands, plant phenolic have crucial applications in heavy metal removal from foods. Bio-absorbents like microbial cultures, fermentation wastes also play crucial role in heavy metal remediation from foods and beverages. In the present chapter various metal monitoring tactics are focused with advance metal remediation procedures associated with food and beverages. Limitations of various metals associated with human health risks are also summarized herein.

Keywords

  • foods
  • beverages
  • heavy metal content
  • remediation
  • monitoring tactics
  • bio-absorbents
  • nanotechnology

1. Introduction

Heavy metals are high density elements; generally non-degradable and available in earth’s crust [1, 2]. Heavy metals are present in various food stuffs viz., cake, beans, fish, meat, fruits, herbal drinks, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages [3]. Heavy metal contamination in foods is presently a global concern for scientists. Metal contamination in food staffs are mainly associated with global industrialization and day-by-day increase in environmental pollution (air, soil, water). The raw materials used during processing of food may also be one reason for metal contamination in foods [3, 4].

The acceptability of any food and beverage depends on the toxicity load of heavy metals present in it owing to the nutritional values [5]. In other words, the quality of foods and beverages can be judged based on the content of heavy metals found in them [5, 6, 7]. Heavy metals available in our surrounding environment are: cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), selenium (Se), nickel (Ni), aluminum (Al), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), barium (Ba), beryllium (Be), molybdenum (Mo), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), gallium (Ga), germanium (Ge), gold (Au), indium (In), lithium (Li), platinum (Pt), vanadium (V), etc. [8, 9]. Out of these metals, Co, Cu, Cr, Fe, Mg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Se, Zn, Na, K, Mn are essential for human life’s and other are non-essential. Co, Cu, Cr, Fe, Mg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Se, Zn Na, K, Mn are considered to be essential heavy metals only if the exposure of the metals are within Maximum Permissible Limits (MPL) provided by World Health Organization (WHO), International Organization of Grapes and Wine (OIV), United States Environment Protection Agencies for risk Assessment (USEPA), Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON), FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives etc. [10, 11, 12, 13]. The excessive intake of essential metals are also toxic for human exposure. For instance, excess exposure of Fe causes Parkinson’s disease, high intake of Mn causes Mn-induced Parkinsonism, high level of Zn deals with impairment of growth and reproduction etc. [5, 13]. Instead, a small quantity of non-essential metals like Pb, As, Hg, Sb etc. are found in foods and beverages; they are very toxic. Therefore, evaluation of acceptance or ignorance range of heavy metal has an important influence before exposure to humans. EDI (Estimated Daily Intake), RDI (Recommended Daily Allowance), MPL (Maximum Permissible Limits), THQ (Target Hazard Quotient), TCR (Target Cancer Risk) are some monitoring parameters for detection of permissible limits of heavy metals by JECFA (Joint Food and Agriculture Organization Expert Committee on Food Additives), WHO (World Health Organization), USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agencies) etc. [10, 14, 15]. These monitoring parameters tells estimated intake metal to human within maximum prescribed limit, daily limit of metal exposure, cancer causing risk etc. respectively [5, 13].

Carcinogenic effects associated with heavy metal- toxicity and various other health related issues vary from metal to metal since physico-chemical properties and features of each metal differ from each other [16]. The present chapter focuses on various evaluation parameters for metal exposure (as proposed by WHO, OIV, USEPA. SON and FAO/WHO), modern analytical method for metal detections. Various advanced remedies of heavy metals remediation from food stuffs are also summarized in the chapter.

Advertisement

2. Methods

2.1 Sources of heavy-metal contaminations in foods and beverages

The sustenance of life for all living organism is in need of food. The growth, development and all biological functions of all living organism including mankind is associated with quality of food [16, 17, 18]. Food can be plant-based, processed food or ready-to-eat food. Food provides essential nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, proteins to human body. But human exposure to contaminated foods and beverages are toxic and longtime exposure can be life threatening. Contamination of food by both essential (Co, Cu, Cr, Fe, Mg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Se, Zn Na, K, Mn, etc.) and non-essential (Pb, As, Hg, Sb, etc.) heavy metals can causes various health problems. Cardiovascular disease, diabetes, lung-cancer, hearing disorders, visual impairment are some serious issues associated with heavy metal contamination. Table 1 shows the potential toxicity associated with heavy contaminations based on earlier reports. Therefore, heavy metal contamination in foods as a serious matter of concern now-a-days for global scientific forum.

Sl.No.Heavy metalPotential toxicityPossible food sourcesMPLRef.
1Cadmium (Cd)Causes Cardiovascular disease, Osteoporosis and CarcinogenicPlant based foods like wheat & rice, animal milk and fatty tissues.0.005 mg/L by EPA
0.003 mg/L by WHO		[19, 20, 21]
2Mercury (Hg)Causes Damage of fetus, brain and kidneyMarine foods eg. Shark, swordfish, redfish etc.0.002 mg/L by EPA
0.001 mg/L by WHO		[22, 23, 24]
3Cobalt (Co)Although Co is the metal constituent of vitamin B12 excessive exposure shows adverse effects like hearing & visual impairment, cardiovascular disease.Green vegetables, sea foods, animal meat etc.5×10−6 mg/m3 by CalEPA
3×10−5 mg/m3 MRL by ATSDR		[25, 26, 27]
4Chromium (Cr)Its exposure is associated with lung cancer, hexavalent Cr(vi) has been classified as carcinogenic element by IARC.Green vegetables.0.003 mg/kg bw/day for Cr(vi)[28, 29]
5Lead (Pb)Decrease growth rate of children, effects nervous system and metabolismPlant based food.PTWI is 0.025 mg/kg/bw by JECFA
0.01 mg/L by WHO		[21, 30, 31]
6Arsenic (As)It is associated with genetic toxicity, reproductive toxicity, cellular toxicity etc.Drinking natural water, As is present in the format H3AsO3 (arsenous acid) & H3AsO5 (arsenic acid).0.010 mg/L MCL by USEPA[32, 33]
7Antimony (Sb)Cardiotoxicity (49% patients), pancreatitis, visceral leishmaniasis co-infections.Plant-based foods near antimony mines.5 μg/day[34, 35, 36]
8Magnesium (Mg)High dose of Mg causes diarrhoea, abdominal cramp, fatal hypermagnesemia etc.Dietary supplements in the form of magnesium oxide, citrate, vegetables etc.350 mg/day[37, 38, 39, 40, 41]
9Manganese (Mn)Mn-induced neurotoxicity, mitochondrial disinfection, inflammation etc. at high level of exposure.Both veg and non-veg food.Not ruled out by EPA & FDA
11 mg/day by NAS		[42, 43]
10Iron (Fe)Iron poising is deadly among children, failure in diagnosis can even cause multi-organ failure or even death.Vegetable, sea-foods, legumes etc.PTMI is 0.8 mg/kg/bw/day by WHO[44, 45]
11Barium (Ba)Hypokalaemia and weakness in muscle is observed after 1-4 hours of ingestion, vomiting, abdominal pain, watery diarrhoea etc.Drinking water, Brazil nuts, seaweed (may be toxic for long term exposure).2.0 mg/L by EPA[46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53]
12Beryllium (Be)Carcinogenic to humans.Drinking water near garden peas, beans grown in soil rich in beryllium.0.004 mg/L by EPA[54, 55]

Table 1.

Heavy metals with potential toxicity to human exposure, food sources and maximum permissible limit of intake.

Heavy metal contamination in foods and beverages originated from different routes. Environmental pollution, industrial waste, soil where plant-based foods are cooked, processing of foods etc. are some well-known sources of heavy metal contamination. For instance, Anderson et al. [56] reported that contamination of food chain with heavy metal is due to environmental pollution, Cabrera et al. [57] reported that some food processing techniques are responsible for heavy metal contamination also [56, 57, 58]. Furthermore, exposure of humans to contaminated soil, air and water may be another reason for contamination with heavy metals. Raw material used, water, food-processing are some leading reason associated with metal contents in foods [3]. The schematic representation of various sources of heavy metal contaminations in foods is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Schematic representation of sources of heavy metal contamination to humans [12].

Heavy metals may be originated in both alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages from added plant-based material during brewing procedure (cereal, hop etc.), manufacturing protocol, storage etc. [3, 5]. Pesticides and various man-made chemical fertilizers generally used during cultivation can be the cause of metal contaminations in plants, which are transmitted to corresponding foods and beverages during processing and packaging [3, 59]. The classification of beverages and various sources responsible for heavy metal contaminations are shown in Figure 2. During beverage formulations although addition of any chemical and biological contaminants are strictly prohibited but sometimes unintentionally their formation occur in beverages. Prolonged exposure to low level contaminations also lead human health to potential health risks like carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic effects [60, 61].

Figure 2.

Classification of beverages [25] and various sources of heavy metal contamination [3, 5].

2.2 Various limitation parameters for heavy metal exposure to humans

2.2.1 Recommended daily allowances (RDA)

It is the daily exposure limits for heavy metal exposure as prescribed by WHO, FAO/WHO, EVM, USEPA [5]. For instance, RDA of Co is 100 μg/day [3, 5], RDA of Cu ranges from 15 to 500 μg/kg bw/day [11]. Heavy metals Fe and Mn can be ingested upto 10–18 mg/day/person and 2–5 mg/day/person respectively [62]. For Ni, tolerable daily intake (TDI) is 5 μg/kg bw/day. Pb has TDI 7.14 μg/kg bw/day for 60 kg adult [3, 5, 63].

2.2.2 Estimated daily intake (EDI)

Human exposure to heavy metals can be calculated by EDI as described by United States of Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) [64].

The mathematical formula for determination of EDI is given below [65]:

EDI=Cmetal×QIgb.wE1

Where C is the concentration of metal in foods, vegetables and other sources (in μg, mg etc.); QIg = quality of ingestion (kg/day); bw = body weight (generally considered 60 kg adult); EDI is generally expressed as μg/kg bw/day or mg/kg bw/day.

2.2.3 Target Hazard Quotient (THQ)

THQ as prescribed by USEPA [65] explains the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects of foods, beverages etc. The mathematical equation for calculation of THQ is given below:

THQ=Efr×EDur×Cmetal×SIgORf×bw×ATn×10−3E2

Where Efr = exposure frequency (365 days/year); EDur = duration of exposure (year); SIg = ingestion rate (g/day); Cmetal = concentration of metal (μg or mg); ORf = oral reference dose (mg/kg bw/day, Figure 3, shows oral reference doses of some heavy metals as per limits suggested by USEPA, WHO etc.); bw = average body weight (60 kg); ATn = average time for non-carcinogens; 10−3 = unit conversion factor.

Figure 3.

Oral reference doses for some heavy metals prescribed by USEPA [5, 62, 66].

If, THQ < 1, the food or beverage is less carcinogenic or no-health carcinogenic health risk is associated with this.

If, THQ > 1, food staff is highly carcinogenic or associated with adverse health risk.

2.2.4 Hazard index (HI)

Multiple heavy metal contamination can occur in same food & beverage at same time. HI is the summation of THQ of each metal present in food staff or other. It is an estimation of more than one metal induced toxicity and calculated as [3, 4, 5, 65]:

HI=∑THQmetalsE3
=THQM1+THQM2+THQM3+THQM4+⋯⋯⋯E4

Where M1, M2, M3 are metal 1, 2, 3, respectively.

2.2.5 Total cancer risk (TCR)

This is the estimation of cancer risk associated with food staff. USEPA, 2011 prescribed the calculation for target cancer risk (TCR) as given by following mathematical equation [67]:

TCR=CSF×EDIE5

where, CSF is the cancer slope factor of heavy metals. USEPA [67] prescribed CSF of various heavy metals for instance Cn for Pb is 36 mg/kg/day and for Cd it is 15 mg/kg/day.

As per estimation of New York State Department of Health (NYSDOH). If TCR ≤ 10−6, heavy metal associated health risk is low. Moderate cancer risk is associated with heavy metal exposure if is 10−3 to ≥10−1. Above this range cancer risk is too high [68].

Advertisement

3. Analytical methods for quantification of heavy metals in food and beverages

The quantification of heavy metals in foods, beverages and other is done by various analytical tools. The estimation of metal content in food stuff and other is dependent on the property of metal and it’s concentration on to be examined sample. Pre-treatment of samples viz., sample digestion by concentrated acids like nitric acid, HNO3 and sulfuric acid, H2SO4 etc., dry ash digestion, digestion in acidic medium using microwave etc., prior to perform analytical experiments are needed for samples under investigation [3, 5, 69]. The accurate determination of metals is ensured by choosing an appropriate digestion technique, and it has been demonstrated that specific digestion process affects the determination of metals. Therefore, to get precise results; the adaption of right digestion technique is necessary [70]. The common analytical techniques used for quantitative determination of heavy metals are Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) and Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES). Various digestion methods applicable for samples preparations for analytical quantification are tabulated in Table 2.

SampleCountryMetalsDigestion methodAnalytical techniqueRef.
Cocoa beans & productsMalaysiaAs, Cd, Pb, SbMicrowave digestion, 1 g of sample + 6 ml HNO3 & 2 ml of H2O2 at 200°C for 15 min.ICP-MS[71]
Fruits, vegetables & cerealsNigeriaCr, Cd, Pb, NiDry-ashing at 500°C for 1 hour than ash is treated with 25 ml 1 M HNO3AAS[72]
Wet digestion, 1 g of sample + 12 ml acid mixture HNO3:HCl (3:1) heated at 150°C for 150 minutes.
Green coffee beanEthiopiaAl, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Na, P, SMicrowave digestion, 0.5 g sample + 7 ml HNO3 & 1 ml H2O2 (30%) heated at 80°C for 5 minutes, 50°C for 5 minutes than 190°C for 20 minutes.ICP-OES[73]
B, Cu, Mn, Ni, Rb, Sr, ZnICP-Ms
HgDMA
Potato chips and biscuitsIndiaFe, Al, Zn, Ni, Cu, Mn, Co, Cr, Pb, CdWet digestion, 1 g sample + 12 ml acid mixture HNO3:H2SO4 (8:4) at 130°C for 3 hours.ICP-AES[74]
seafood, vegetables, & stimulant drinksSpainAlAcid digestion, 0.25 g sample + 5 ml HNO3 (65%) + few mg of V2O5 (catalyst) heated at 120 °C for 90 minutes.ETA-AAS[75]
soft drinkGhanaFe, Co, Zn, Cd, Pb, CuMicrowave digestion, 5 ml sample + 6 ml HNO3 (65 %), 3 ml HCl (35 %), and 0.25 ml of H2O2 for 26 minFAAS[76]
Carbonated, flavored yogurt,
juice drinks		EgyptFe, Mn, Cd, Pb, Ni, Cr, Cu5 g sample dry ashing at 550°C for 8 hours than ash is treated with 25 ml diluted HClICP-OES[77]
VegetablesCongol, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Pb, Se, ZnMicrowave digestion, 0.25 g sample + 16 ml HNO3 and 4 ml H2O2ICP-OES, ICP-MS[78]
FoodBangladeshCr, Ni, Cu, As, Cd, PbMicrowave digestion, 0.2-0.3 g sample + 1.5 mL HNO3 (69%) and 4.5 mL HCl (35%)ICP-MS[79]
Soft drinksBrazilTi, Cr, Sb, As, PbAcid digestion, 5 ml sample + HNO3 and H2O2 at 120-130°CTXRF[80]

Table 2.

Digestion method used for heavy metals determination by various techniques.

3.1 Flame atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS)

Due to its simplicity and ability to measure several metals even at trace levels such as Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Mn, Cu, Co, Fe, Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (FAAS) is frequently employed for metal identification from food and beverages materials [81, 82]. One of the most effective methods for obtaining trace elements in various sample is chemical vapor generation in combination with atomic absorption spectroscopy, which comprises Hydride Generation Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (HGAAS) and Cold Vapor Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (CVAAS). In contrast to CVAAS, is the superior method for mercury analysis from various samples, HGAAS is suitable for hydride-forming metals such as As, Pb, Se, and Sn [70]. Chuachuad et al. employed an intriguing technique for the measurement of Cd in wines by flow injection Cold Vapor AAS (CVAAS) [83] and Pb by HGAAS following wine microwave digestion by combination of HNO3 + H2O2 [84].

3.2 Total reflection X-ray fluorescence (TXRF)

TXRF is a recognized analytical method for the determination of metals in a wide range of samples; particularly powdered and liquids micro samples are analyzed by this tool [85]. The advantages of TXRF are: it requires very low mass of sample with very low analysis time (100–1000 s). The primary drawbacks are caused by the potential peak overlapping, which may restrict element identification and reduce the estimation precision [80]. Drinks and beverages make really good liquid samples for TXRF analysis due to the quick and easy preparation process for qualitative analysis, which involves depositing a small amount of sample on a clean quartz-glass carrier and drying it. The noticeable impact for this analytical tools is that the internal standard added at the early state of quantification are free from the original sample at the final stage of quantification [86]. TXRF is recommended by several studies as an appropriate method for elemental analysis of wine with little to no pre-treatment [87, 88]. Direct wine drop deposition on the sample carrier, followed by internal standard deposition [89]. According to the earlier reported, the sample’s digestion makes the chemical analysis more precise. In those instances, the samples were digested using a mixture of HNO3 and H2O2 [90].

3.3 Inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES)

ICP-OES, which stands for inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry, is used to quickly and accurately identify trace elements in a variety of materials and is appropriate for multi-elements analysis. This method uses argon gas-created plasma for atomization and is distinguished by great sensitivity, excellent reproducibility, and minimal matrix influence. It is necessary to digest the sample before injecting it into the device since samples delivered in plasma must be liquid [91].

3.4 Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer (ICP-MS)

ICP-MS, a mass spectrometer paired with inductively coupled plasma ionization, is one of the most sensitive analytical techniques for quick multi-element detection of heavy metals in trace and ultra-trace quantities in various sample matrices [92]. In the present, it is the most appropriate approach for the analysis of trace elements in bulk materials, due to its recent development as a potent technology. Few drawbacks associated with ICP-MS are: significant capital investment and a lack of recognized reference standards [93]. For the majority of elements, ICP-MS gives incredibly low detection limits, ranging from a part per billion (ppb) to a trillion (ppt). In comparison to GF-AAS and ICP-AES, it has lower detection limits and a faster multi-element scanning capabilities over a wider range of masses [92].

3.5 Chemical replacement combined with surface-enhanced laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (CR-SENLIBS)

Due to its appealing qualities, including quick, simultaneous multi-element detection and in-situ, real-time analysis capabilities, laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is one of the competitive methods for monitoring water quality [94]. Surface-enhanced LIBS (SENLIBS), a novel method for the phase transition from liquid to solid, has recently been regarded as a flexible analytical approach for liquid samples, and solid samples [95]. The liquid sample was combined with the powder sample in a viscous mixture. Chemical processing converted the solid sample into the liquid sample. The liquid sample was subsequently dried as a solid layer or applied as a gel-like layer on a surface of the non-absorbent substrate, and LIBS analysis was performed. Up till now, a variety of techniques, including liquid micro extraction [96], chemical replacement [94] have been suggested to further enhance detection sensitivity or the spectrum intensity of SENLIBS [97].

Advertisement

4. Results and discussion (Removal tactics for heavy metal contamination)

4.1 Nano-technological innovations

Developing urbanization, environmental pollution leads to heavy metal contamination in water. Contaminated water is hazardous to human-beings as well as to other living organisms. Nano-technological innovations like nano-polymer composites, metal-oxides nanomaterials, non-carbon nanomaterials, such as layered double hydroxides etc. have potential application in the removal of heavy metals from contaminated water [78]. Mudzielwana et al. reported that toxic metal ions from wastewater can be removed by metal oxide nano-particles [79]. Figure 4 shows different nano-technological innovations associated to bio-remediation of heavy metal.

Figure 4.

Various nanotechnological application for removal of heavy metals contamination.

Titanium oxide (TiO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO) nano-particles (NPs) are some reported semi-conductors having potential effect against heavy-metal water contamination removal [79]. It is reported earlier that, toxic heavy metal can be de-contaminated from waste water with Cu, Ag and Fe-induced NPs [98, 99]. Nano-bioremediation is also a low-cost method for pollution reduction in water and soil. The various application of nanotechnology for de-contamination of heavy metal are given below:

It is reported that NPs reduce the heavy metal stress in plants, heavy metals present in soil is absorbed by NPs which minimizes the bio-availability and mobility of metals [100]. For example, Sebastian et al. reported that application of Fe3O4 NPs reduce the mobility of heavy metal Cd [101]. Konate et al. and Yao et al. again reported that the antioxidant enzyme-activated NPs for e.g. CeO2 NPs, Mn3O4 NPs, Fe3O4 NPs have ability reduce ROS (Radical Oxygen Species). Therefore, helps in the reduction of crop production loss due to the stress [100, 102].

HMs like Hg, Cd, Pb, As etc. are accumulated in crop from polluted soil and transmitted to human after consumption [98]. Nano-biosensors can detect the heavy-metal phyto-toxicity [98]. Nano-biosensors with great specification for detection of heavy metals, can be applied to various areas like nutrient monitoring, agriculture fertilizers, pesticides etc.; boosts the crop yield [98].

‘Biosorption’ is a biologically derived method used for elimination of organic as well as inorganic matter [103, 104]. Nano-technological application with biosorption is known as “Nano-biosorbents”; recent technique for heavy metal removal. Carboxyl group (▬COOH) and hydroxyl (▬OH) groups present in biosorbents facilitate absorption of heavy metal [105]. For instance, rice husk based graphene quantum dots is an effective nano- biosorbent used for La (III) and Pb (III) removal [106].

Bio-surfactants possess both lyophilic and hydrophilic activities are molecules on living spaces or secreted by microbes [98]. Microbe-induced bio-surfactants are used for remediation of heavy metals like Zn, Cu, and Ni [98]. Bacillus subtilis based surfactant i.e., lipopeptide bio-surfactant play a crucial role in bio-remediation of heavy metals from soil. Nanoparticle capped bio-surfactants are called nano-bio-surfactants are also useful in the bioremediation of heavy metals. For e.g. (synthesized from Pseudomonas aeruginosa) [105, 106, 107] with Rhamnolipid capped Zn NPs removal of heavy metals can be achieved [108].

4.2 Soil state-of-art remediation of heavy metal

Heavy metal contamination in plant-based foods and beverages actually originated from contaminated soil. Some remediation technique of HMs from soil are: application of strong-chelating ligand [109], high-surface-area-absorbent [110, 111], phytoremediation [112] etc.

In bio-remediation by chelating-ligands the heavy metals present in functional groups of soil surface are liberated. But the consumption of high number of chelating ligands, nutrient loss from soil are some main draw-backs associated with the technique [109]. The mobility and bio-availability of heavy metals can be reduced by the of high-surface-area absorbent. This method requires long-term monitoring to capture immobilized HMs [113].

Phytoremediation of HMs is a high-energy efficient recent treatment. It requires long times for treatment with a probability of creating secondary pollution by accumulations metals in biomass [110].

4.3 Plant phenolic compounds for heavy metal removal

Phenolic compounds are one of the major secondary metabolite present in plant have high tendency to chelate metals, play a crucial role in growth and development of plants [112]. Hydroxyl group (▬OH) and carboxyl group (▬COOH) groups are present in phenolic compounds. Some examples of polyphenol compounds found in plants are: catechin, caffic acid, gallic acid, ferulic acid, syringic acid, sinapic acid, epi-catechin, epi-gallocatechin etc. The hydroxyl and carboxyl groups present in phenolic compounds can bind with heavy metals. High nucleophilic character of atomic rings of phenolic compounds may be the reason for metal-polyphenol capping [114]. Because of heavy metal exposure; the production of phenolic compounds in plant increases [112], if the exposure happens to useful metals like Cu, Fe and Zn necessary for plant growth. On other hand Cd, Pb, As are toxic for plant’s life and growth.

Radical oxygen species (ROS) formation occurs in plant, when plants are exposed to heavy metal contamination; simultaneously responsible for physiological changes in plants [115].

Plants with lower anti-oxidant activity or with lower amount polyphenols than the amount of ROS, suffers more damage [116]. Therefore, plant phenolic compounds plays protective role depending on heavy metal stress conditions as well as on environmental conditions.

The chelation of polyphenol molecule with heavy- metal is shown Figure 5 [115].

Figure 5.

Possible chelation by hydroxyl (▬OH) group and carboxyl (▬COOH) groups of plant phenolic compounds with heavy metal [115, 117].

4.4 Role of chemical chelating ligands in heavy metal toxicity removal

Chelation therapy based on co-ordination chemistry is a most promising medical treatment for toxic heavy metal removal. Chelating ligands bind with toxic metals to form metal-complexes. The metal-complex so formed are being extracted by body further [118]. For instance, 2,3-dimercaprol has been used to remove Pb and As poisoning, meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid is used for extraction of metal etc. [118].

The chelating ligands under use for metal removal should be of low toxicity, higher solubility in water with good penetration ability through cell membrane [119]. Some example of clinical application of ligands in chelation are: EDTA (Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic acid), Trientive, D-pecicillamine, Deferiorone etc. [119]. It is reported that, arsenic based metal poisoning can be removed by chelating ligand BAL (British anti-Lewisite) and but fewer limit of toxicity was detected in 1960s due to presence of thiol group and further it was modified to DMSA (2,3- Dimercaptosuccinic acid) [119].

Thus, chelation therapy imposes the removal of heavy metal toxicity from human health in the form of metal-ligand complexes. Hence, patients are free from metal toxicity and at the same time free from heart attack, stroke, swelling and other health related issues associated with heavy metal toxicity [119].

4.5 Microbial culture bio-absorbents for bioremediation of heavy metal

Bio-absorption is an efficient profitable method used for water pollution removal [120]. Micro-organisms induced bio-absorbents are used effectivity for HM removal now-a-days. But the efficacy of microbial bio-absorbent is dependent on the ambient environment, absorbing material and heavy metal to be removed etc. [120]. Bacteria, yeast, fungi, algae etc., may be used as bio-absorbents on the basis of ion-exchange ability, physical absorption, complex formation capacity, precipitation, process conditions (acidity of medium. Bio-sorbent concentration), sorption center density, immobilization techniques etc., to remove toxic metals like Hg, Pb, As, Cd in addition to precious metals Au, Ag, Pt [121, 122].

Modak et al. [123] and Vijayaraghavan et al. [124] reported that dead microbial biomass shows lots of benefits over living cells like low cost, high sorption–desorption rate, absence of nutrients etc [121, 122]. The microbial cell wall with different functional groups having varying geometry like carbonyl, hydroxide, amino, sulfate etc., plays main role for removal of heavy metals from aqueous solutions [125].

Gram-positive bacteria, gram-negative bacteria, cyanobacteria, yeast can be used as bio-sorbents and these micro-biosorbents are small in size with low density and low elasticity. For example, the immobilization of Cd (III) ions by Bacillus subtillis, removal of Cu (II) b Arthobacter Sp., absorption of Pb (II) and Cu (II) by Bacillus drentensis MG21831T biomass was reported earlier [126].

Advertisement

5. Conclusions

The present chapter explains about some sources of heavy metal contaminations in foods and beverages, various parameters for heavy metal toxicity measures, analytical tools for heavy metal detection and new approaches of heavy metal remediation’s from food stuffs. We observed from earlier reports that, environmental pollutions (soil and water pollution) is the main reason of heavy metal contamination in plant-based foods, which transmitted to cooked foods and other processed foods and further to humans. Again, storage of beverages in metal- based utensil or processing, brewing procedure, use of contaminated water are some other potential reasons of heavy metal contamination. The permissible limits of ingestion of heavy metals associated with food stuffs should be evaluated by different methods suggested by WHO, USEPA, SON, FAO/WHO etc. The analytical methods focused in the chapter are ICP-OES, ICP-MS, AAS etc. The various bio-remediation techniques like application of nano-technological innovations, microbial bio-absorbents, bio-surfactants are also summarizes in the chapter. We hope, the chapter will help the researchers to get some information of heavy metal remediation, sources of heavy metal contamination in foods and beverages etc.

Advertisement

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Advertisement

Acronyms and abbreviations

EPA

Environmental Protection Agency

WHO

World Health Organization

CalEPA

California Environmental Protection Agency

ATSDR

Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases Registry

IARC

International Agency for Research on Cancer

bw

body weight

JECFA

Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee for Food Additives

MRL

minimal risk level

PTWI

provisional tolerable weekly intake

USEPA

United States Environmental Protection Agency

NAS

National Academy of Science

MCL

Maximum Concentration Limit

TDI

tolerable daily intake

NYSDOH

New York State Department of Health

HGAAS

Hydride Generation Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy

CVAAS

Cold Vapor Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy

LIBS

Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy

SENLIBS

Surface-Enhanced Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy

NPs

nanoparticles

ROS

radical oxygen species

References

  1. 1. Tchounwou PB, Yedjou CG, Patlolla AK, Sutton DJ. Heavy metals toxicity and the environment. National Institutes of Health. 2012;101:133-164
  2. 2. Izah SC, Chakrabarty N, Srivastav AL. A review on heavy metal concentration in potable water sources in Nigeria: Human health effects and mitigating measures. Exposure and Health. 2016;8:285-304
  3. 3. Izah SC, Inyang IR, Angaye TCN, Okowa IP. A review of heavy metal concentration and potential health implications of beverages consumed in Nigeria. Toxics. 2017;5(1):1-15. DOI: 10.3390/toxics5010001
  4. 4. Nnorom IC, Osibanjo O, Ogugua K. Trace heavy metal levels of some bouillon cubes, and food condiments readily consumed in Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition. 2007;6:122-127
  5. 5. Deka AK, Handique P, Deka DC. Ethnic food beverages with heavy metal contents: Parameters for associated risk to human health, North-East India. Toxicology Reports. 2021;8:1220-1225. DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2021.06.013
  6. 6. Iwegbue CMA, Ojelum AL, Bassey FI. A survey of metal profiles in some traditional alcoholic beverages in Nigeria. Food Science & Nutrition. 2014;2:724-733
  7. 7. Hague T, Petroczil A, Andrews PLR, Barker J, Naughton DP. Determination of metal ion content of beverages and estimation of target hazard quotients: A comparative study. Chemistry Central Journal. 2008;2:13
  8. 8. Chang LW, Magos L, Suzuki T, editors. Toxicology of Metals. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press; 1996
  9. 9. WHO/FAO/IAEA. Trace Elements in Human Nutrition and Health. Switzerland, Geneva: World Health Organization; 1996
  10. 10. USEPA. Risk Assessment: Guidance for Superfund. in: Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part a), Interim Final, Vol 1, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response. Washington DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 1989
  11. 11. World Health Organisation. Evaluation of Certain Food Additives and Contaminants, Technical Reports Series no. 837. Geneva: WHO; 1993
  12. 12. Standards Organisation of Nigeria (SON). Nigeria Standard for Drinking Water Quality. Nigeria Industrial Standard NIS 554: 2007. Abuja, Nigeria: Standard Organisation of Nigeria; 2007
  13. 13. Handique P, Kalita Deka A, Deka DC. Metal profile of traditional alcoholic beverages prepared by the ethnic communities of Assam, India. Journal of the Institute of Brewing. 2017;123(2):284-288
  14. 14. World Health Organisation. Safety Evaluation of Certain Food Additives and Contaminants: Cadmium, WHO Food Additives Series 46. Geneva: Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives; 2001. Available from: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/42395
  15. 15. World Health Organisation. Summary and conclusions of the 61st meeting of joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) JECFA/61/sc. Rome, Italy. 2003. Available from: https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/food-safety/jecfa/summary-and-conclusions/jecfa91-1to12 march2021summary and conclusions.Pdf sfvrsn=1d79351f_5
  16. 16. Iweala EEJ, Olugbuyiro JAO, Durodola BM, Fubara-Manuel DR, Okoli AO. Metal contamination of foods and drinks consumed in Ota, Nigeria. Research Journal ofEnvironmental Toxicology. 2014;8:92-97
  17. 17. Izah SC, Aseiba ER, Orutugu LA. Microbial quality of polythene packaged sliced fruits sold in major markets of Yenagoa Metropolis, Nigeria. Point Journal of Botany and Microbiology Research. 2015;1:30-36
  18. 18. Izah SC, Kigigha LT, Anene EK. Bacteriological quality assessment of Malus domestica Borkh and Cucumis sativus L. in Yenagoa Metropolis, Bayelsa state, Nigeria. British Journal of Applied Research. 2016;1:5-7
  19. 19. Chunhabundit R. Cadmium exposure and potential health risk from foods in contaminated area, Thailand. Toxicology Research. 2016;32(1):65-72. DOI: 10.5487/TR.2016.32.1.065. Epub 2016 Jan 31
  20. 20. Figueroa E. Are more restrictive food cadmium standards justifiable health safety measures or opportunistic barriers to trade; an answer from economics and public health. Science of the Total Environment. 2008;389:1-9
  21. 21. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological Profile for Cobalt. Public Health Service, U.S. Atlanta, GA: Department of Health and Human Services; 1992
  22. 22. Agency for Toxic Substance and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological Profile for Mercury U.S. Department of Health and Humans Services, Public Health Humans Services, Centers for Diseases Control. Atlanta: 2003
  23. 23. Oehlenschläger J. Identifying heavy metals in fish. In: Bremner HA, editor. Safety and Quality Issues in Fish Processing. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited; 2002. pp. 95-113
  24. 24. WHO. Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. Sixty-first Meeting, Rome, 10-19 June 2003. Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. 2004. Available from: http://ftp.fao.org/es/esn/jecfa/jecfa61sc.pdf
  25. 25. Leyssens L, Vinck B, Van Der Straeten C, Wuyts F, Maes L. Cobalt toxicity in humans—A review of the potential sources and systemic health effects. Toxicology. 2017;387:43-56. DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2017.05.015
  26. 26. California Environmental Protection Agency (CalEPA). Technical Support Document for the Determination of Noncancer Chronic Reference Exposure Levels. Draft for Public Comment. Berkeley, CA: Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment; 1997
  27. 27. Arthur YAU. Vegetables and Chromium Contamination, Food Safety Focus (63rd Issue, October 2011)—Incident in Focus, Risk Assessment Section, Centre for Food Safety. Available from: https://www.cfs.gov.hk [Accessed: December 26, 2022]
  28. 28. Sun H, Brocato J, Costa M. Oral chromium exposure and toxicity. Current Environmental Health Reports. 2015;2(3):295-303. DOI: 10.1007/s40572-015-0054-z
  29. 29. Agency for Toxic Substance and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological Profile for Lead U.S. Department of Health and Humans Services, Public Health Humans Services. Atlanta: Centers for Diseases Control; 2007
  30. 30. Castro-González MI, Méndez-Armenta M. Heavy metals: Implications associated to fish consumption. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology. 2008;26:263-271
  31. 31. Sawyer CN, McCarty PL, Parkin GF. Chemistry for Environmental and Engineering and Science. fifth ed. NY: McGraw Hill; 2003
  32. 32. United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Arsenic in Drinking Water Fact Sheet. 2005. Available from: http://www.epa.gov/safewater/arsenic.html
  33. 33. Sundar S, Chakravarty J. Antimony toxicity. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2010;7(12):4267-4277. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph7124267. Epub 2010 Dec 20
  34. 34. Iyengar GV, Tanner JT, Wolf WR, Zeisler R. Preparation of a mixed human diet material for the determination of nutrient elements, selected toxic elements and organic nutrients: A preliminary report. Science of the Total Environment. 1987;61:235-252
  35. 35. Wu F, Fu Z, Liu B, Mo C, Chen B, Corns W, et al. Health risk associated with dietary co-exposure to high levels of antimony and arsenic in the world's largest antimony mine area. The Science of the Total Environment. 2011;409(18):3344-3351. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.05.033
  36. 36. Rude RK. Magnesium. In: Coates PM, Betz JM, Blackman MR, Cragg GM, Levine M, Moss J, White JD, editors. Encyclopedia of Dietary Supplements. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2010. pp. 527-537
  37. 37. Rude RK. Magnesium. In: Ross AC, Caballero B, Cousins RJ, Tucker KL, Ziegler TR, editors. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease. 11th ed. Baltimore, Mass: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2012. pp. 159-175
  38. 38. Institute of Medicine (IOM). Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes: Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D and Fluoride. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1997
  39. 39. McGuire JK, Kulkarni MS, Baden HP. Fatal hypermagnesemia in a child treated with megavitamin/megamineral therapy. Pediatrics. 2000;105:E18
  40. 40. Magnesium | The Nutrition Source. Available from: https://www.hsph.harvard.edu›the nutrition source [Accessed: December 26, 2022]
  41. 41. Pajarillo E, Nyarko-Danquah I, Adinew G, Rizor A, Aschner M, Lee E. Chapter Six—Neurotoxicity mechanisms of manganese in the central nervous system. In: Aschner M, Costa LG, editors. Advances in Neurotoxicology. Vol. 5. Academic Press; 2021. pp. 215-238. DOI: 10.1016/bs.ant.2020.11.003
  42. 42. Finley JW, Penland JG, Pettit RE, Davis CD. Dietary manganese intake and type of lipid do not affect clinical or neuropsychological measures in healthy young women. The Journal of Nutrition. 2003;133:2849-2856. DOI: 10.1093/jn/133.9.2849
  43. 43. World Health Organization Evaluations of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). 1983. Available from: https://apps.who.int
  44. 44. Yuen H-W, Becker W. Iron Toxicity, National Library of Medicine, National Centre for Biotechnology Information. 2022. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
  45. 45. Sigue G, Gamble L, Pelitere M, et al. From profound hypokalemia to life-threatening hyperkalemia: A case of barium sulfide poisoning. Archives of Internal Medicine. 2000;160:548-551
  46. 46. Shankle R, Keane JR. Acute paralysis from inhaled barium carbonate. Archives of Neurology. 1988;45:579-580
  47. 47. Johnson CH, VanTassell VJ. Acute barium poisoning with respiratory failure and rhabdomyolysis. Annals of Emergency Medicine. 1991;20:1138-1142
  48. 48. CDC. Barium toxicity after exposure to contaminated contrast solution—Goias State, Brazil, 2003. MMWR. 2003;52:1047-1048
  49. 49. Dawson A. Barium. In: Nelson LS, Lewin NA, Howland MA, Hoffman RS, Goldfrank LR, Flomenbaum NE, editors. Goldfrank’s Toxicologic Emergencies. 9th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2011. pp. 1364-1373
  50. 50. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Toxicological Profile for Barium and Barium Compounds [online]. 2007. Available from: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp24.pdfpdficon
  51. 51. Environmental Protection Agency. Barium and Compounds [online]. 2005. Available from: http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0010.htmexternalicon
  52. 52. Barium and Barium Compounds. Available from: https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov
  53. 53. Hubert A, Vaessen MG, Szteke B. Beryllium in food and drinking water—a summary of available knowledge. Food Additives and Contaminants. 2000;17:149-159. DOI: 10.1080/026520300283504
  54. 54. Agency for Toxic substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Public Health Statement Berryllium. 2002 CAS: 7440-41-7. Available from: https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov
  55. 55. Njoga EO, Ezenduka EV, Ogbodo CG, Ogbonna CU, Jaja IF, Ofomatah AC, et al. Detection, distribution and health risk assessment of toxic heavy metals/metalloids, arsenic, cadmium, and lead in goat carcasses processed for human consumption in South-Eastern Nigeria. Food. 2021;10(4):798
  56. 56. Anderson RA, Bryden NA, Polansky MM. Dietary chromium intake. Freely chosen diets, institutional diet and individual foods. Biological Trace Element Research. 1992;32:117-121
  57. 57. Cabrera C, Lloris F, Gimenez R, Olalla M, Lopez C. Mineral content in legumes and nuts: Contribution to the Spanish dietary intake. Science of the Total Environment. 2003;308:1-14
  58. 58. Tchounwou PB, Yedjou CG, Patlolla AK, Sutton DJ. Heavy metal toxicity and the environment. Experientia Supplementum. 2012;101:133-164. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7643-8340-4_6
  59. 59. Magomya AM, Yebpella GG, Okpaegbe UC. An assessment of metal contaminant levels in selected soft drinks sold in Nigeria. International Journal of Innovative Science Engineering and Technology. 2015;2:517-522
  60. 60. Borah H, Dutta U. Trends in beverage packaging. In: Grumezescu AM, Holban AM, editors. Trends in Beverage Packaging. 1st ed. Vol. 16. Duxford, UK: Academic Press; 2019. pp. 1-14
  61. 61. Thompson LA, Darwish WS. Environmental chemical contaminants in food: Review of a global problem. Journal of Toxicology. 2019;244:433-439
  62. 62. United state Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Risk-Based Concentration Table. Available from: https://epa-prgs.ornl.gov/cgi-bin/chemicals/csl_search [Accessed: January 18, 2021]
  63. 63. Amirah MN, Afiza AS, Faizal WI, Nurliyana MH, Laili S. Human health risk assessment of metal contamination through consumption of fish. Journal of Environment Pollution and Human Health. 2013;1(1):1-5
  64. 64. USEPA Risk Assessment: Guidance for Superfund. in: Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part a), Interim Final, Vol 1 Office of Emergency and Remedial Respose. Washington DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 1989
  65. 65. NYSDOH (New York State Department of Health). Hopewell Precision Area Contamination: Appendix C-NYSDOH. Procedure for Evaluating Potential Health Risks for Contaminants of Concern. NY, USA: Department of Health; 2007
  66. 66. Iwegbue CM. Composition and daily intakes of some trace metals from canned beers in Nigeria. Journal of the Institute of Brewing. 2010;116(3):312-315
  67. 67. Soylak M, Tuzen M, Narin I, Sari H. Comparison of microwave, dry and wet digestion procedures for the determination of trace metal. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis. 2004;12(3):254-258
  68. 68. Scaeteanu Vasile G, Madjar RM, Mot A. An Overview of Methods Used for Quantification of Heavy Metal Contents in Vegetal Samples. 2021
  69. 69. Sebecic B, Pavisic-Strache D, Vedrina-Dragojevic I. Trace elements in wine from Croatia. Deutsche Lebensmittel-Rundschau. 1998;94(10):341-344
  70. 70. Aceto M, Abollino O, Bruzzoniti MC, Mentasti E, Sarzanini C, Malandrino M. Determination of metals in wine with atomic spectroscopy (flame-AAS, GF-AAS and ICP-AES); a review. Food Additives & Contaminants. 2002;19(2):126-133
  71. 71. Habte G, Hwang IM, Kim JS, Hong JH, Hong YS, Choi JY, et al. Elemental profiling and geographical differentiation of Ethiopian coffee samples through inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), ICP-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and direct mercury analyzer (DMA). Food Chemistry. 2016;212:512-520
  72. 72. Gopalani M, Shahare M, Ramteke DS, Wate SR. Heavy metal content of potato chips and biscuits from Nagpur city, India. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 2007;79(4):384-387
  73. 73. López FF, Cabrera C, Lorenzo M, López MC. Aluminum content in foods and beverages consumed in the Spanish diet. Journal of Food Science. 2000;65(2):206-210
  74. 74. Ackah M, Anim AK, Zakaria N, Osei J, Saah-Nyarko E, Gyamfi ET, et al. Determination of some heavy metal levels in soft drinks on the Ghanaian market using atomic absorption spectrometry method. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2014;186(12):8499-8507
  75. 75. Abdel-Rahman GN, Ahmed MB, Sabry BA, Ali SS. Heavy metals content in some non-alcoholic beverages (carbonated drinks, flavored yogurt drinks, and juice drinks) of the Egyptian markets. Toxicology Reports. 2019;6:210-214
  76. 76. Nuapia Y, Chimuka L, Cukrowska E. Assessment of heavy metals in raw food samples from open markets in two African cities. Chemosphere. 2018;196:339-346
  77. 77. Islam MS, Proshad R, Asadul Haque M, Hoque MF, Hossin MS, Islam Sarker MN. Assessment of heavy metals in foods around the industrial areas: Health hazard inference in Bangladesh. Geocarto International. 2020;35(3):280-295
  78. 78. Baby R, Hussein MZ, Abdullah AH, Zainal Z. Nanomaterials for the treatment of heavy metal contaminated water. Polymers (Basel). 2022;14(3):583. DOI: 10.3390/polym14030583
  79. 79. Mudzielwana RGMW, Ndungu P. Uptake of as (V) from groundwater using Fe-Mn oxides modified kaolin clay: Physicochemical characterization and adsorption data Modeling. Water. 2019;11:1245. DOI: 10.3390/w11061245
  80. 80. Anjos MJ, Lopes RT, De Jesus EF, Moreira S, Barroso RC, Castro CR. Trace elements determination in red and white wines using total-reflection X-ray fluorescence. Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy. 2003;58(12):2227-2232
  81. 81. Chuachuad W, Tyson JF. Determination of cadmium by flow injection atomic absorption spectrometry with cold vapor generation by a tetrahydroborate-form anion-exchanger. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry. 2005;20(4):273-281
  82. 82. Chuachuad W, Tyson JF. Determination of lead by flow injection hydride generation atomic absorption spectrometry with tetrahydroborate immobilized on an anion-exchange resin. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry. 2005;20(4):282-288
  83. 83. Beltrán BG, Ramos-Sanchez V, Chávez-Flores D, Rodríguez-Maese R, Palacio E. Total reflection X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (TXRF) method validation: Determination of heavy metals in dietary supplements. Journal of Chemistry. 3 Dec 2020;2020:1-9
  84. 84. Zucchi OL, Moreira S, Salvador MJ, Santos LL. Multielement analysis of soft drinks by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2005;53(20):7863-7869
  85. 85. Borgese L, Bilo F, Dalipi R, Bontempi E, Depero LE. Total reflection X-ray fluorescence as a tool for food screening. Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy. 2015;113:1-5
  86. 86. Castineira MM, Brandt R, Von Bohlen A, Jakubowski N. Development of a procedure for the multi-element determination of trace elements in wine by ICP–MS. Fresenius' Journal of Analytical Chemistry. 2001;370(5):553-558
  87. 87. Haswell SJ, Walmsley AD. Multivariate data visualisation methods based on multi-elemental analysis of wines and coffees using total reflection X-ray fluorescence analysis. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry. 1998;13(2):131-134
  88. 88. Carvalho ML, Barreiros MA, Costa MM, Ramos MT, Marques MI. Study of heavy metals in Madeira wine by total reflection X-ray fluorescence analysis. X-Ray Spectrometry. 1996;25(1):29-32
  89. 89. Novaes CG, Bezerra MA, da Silva EG, dos Santos AM, da Silva Romao IL, Neto JH. A review of multivariate designs applied to the optimization of methods based on inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP OES). Microchemical Journal. 2016;128:331-346
  90. 90. Rao RN, Talluri MK. An overview of recent applications of inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) in determination of inorganic impurities in drugs and pharmaceuticals. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis. 2007;43(1):1-3
  91. 91. Moldovan M, Krupp EM, Holliday AE, Donard OF. High resolution sector field ICP-MS and multicollector ICP-MS as tools for trace metal speciation in environmental studies: A review. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry. 2004;19(7):815-822
  92. 92. Yang XY, Hao ZQ, Li CM, Li JM, Yi RX, Shen M, et al. Sensitive determinations of Cu, Pb, Cd, and Cr elements in aqueous solutions using chemical replacement combined with surface-enhanced laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy. Optics Express. 2016;24(12):13410-13417
  93. 93. Yang X, Li X, Cui Z, Yao G, Zhou Z, Li K. Improving the sensitivity of surface-enhanced laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy by repeating sample preparation. Frontiers in Physics. 2020;8:194
  94. 94. de Jesus AM, Aguirre MÁ, Hidalgo M, Canals A, Pereira-Filho ER. The determination of V and Mo by dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (DLLME) combined with laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry. 2014;29(10):1813-1818
  95. 95. Aguirre MA, Selva EJ, Hidalgo M, Canals A. Dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction for metals enrichment: A useful strategy for improving sensitivity of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy in liquid samples analysis. Talanta. 2015;131:348-353
  96. 96. Mohamed R, Zainudin BH, Yaakob AS. Method validation and determination of heavy metals in cocoa beans and cocoa products by microwave assisted digestion technique with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Food Chemistry. 2020;303:125392
  97. 97. Akinyele IO, Shokunbi OS. Comparative analysis of dry ashing and wet digestion methods for the determination of trace and heavy metals in food samples. Food Chemistry. 2015;173:682-684
  98. 98. Daniel SCGK, Malathi S, Balasubramanian S, Sivakumar M, Sironmani TA. Application of nanotechnology in water research. In: Multifunctional Silver, Copper and Zero Valent Iron Metallic Nanoparticles for Wastewater Treatment. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons; 2014
  99. 99. Mathur S, Singh D, Ranjan R. Remediation of heavy metal(loid) contaminated soil through green nanotechnology. 2022. DOI: 10.3389/fsufs.2022.932424
  100. 100. Yao J, Cheng Y, Zhou M, Zhao S, Lin S, Wang X. ROS scavenging Mn3O4 nanozymes for in vivo anti-inflammation. Chemical Science. 2018;9:2927-2933. DOI: 10.1039/C7SC05476A
  101. 101. Sebastian A, Nangia A, Prasad MNV. Cadmium and sodium adsorption properties of magnetite nanoparticles synthesized from Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg. Bark: Relevance in amelioration of metal stress in rice. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2019;371:261-272. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.03.021
  102. 102. Konate A, He X, Zhang Z, Ma Y, Zhang P, Alugongo GM. Magnetic (Fe3O4) nanoparticles reduce heavy metals uptake and mitigate their toxicity in wheat seedling. Sustainability. 2017;9:790. DOI: 10.3390/su9050790
  103. 103. Vishwakarma K, Singh VP, Prasad SM, Chauhan DK, Tripathi DK, Sharma S. Silicon and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria differentially regulate AgNP-induced toxicity in Brassica juncea: Implication of nitric oxide. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2020;390:121806. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121806
  104. 104. Rizwan K, Rasheed T, Bilal M. Alginate-based nanobiosorbents for bioremediation of environmental pollutants. In: Nano-Biosorbents for Decontamination of Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. Sahiwal: Elsevier; 2022. pp. 479-502. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-323-90912-9.00021-6
  105. 105. Sarubbo LA, Maria da Gloria CS, Durval IJB, Bezerra KGO, Ribeiro BG, Silva IA, et al. Biosurfactants: Production, properties, applications, trends, and general perspectives. Biochemical Engineering Journal. 2022;181:108377. DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2022.108377
  106. 106. Mahmoud ME, Fekry NA, Abdelfattah AM. A novel nanobiosorbent of functionalized graphene quantum dots from rice husk with barium hydroxide for microwave enhanced removal of lead (II) and lanthanum (III). Bioresource Technology. 2020;298:122514. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122514
  107. 107. Kasture MB, Patel P, Prabhune AA, Ramana CV, Kulkarni AA, Prasad BLV. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles by sophorolipids: Effect of temperature and sophorolipid structure on the size of particles. Journal of Chemical Sciences. 2008;120:515-520. DOI: 10.1007/s12039-008-0080-6
  108. 108. Hazra C, Kundu D, Chaudhari A, Jana T. Biogenic synthesis, characterization, toxicity and photocatalysis of zinc sulfide nanoparticles using rhamnolipids from Pseudomonas aeruginosa BS01 as capping and stabilizing agent. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology. 2013;88:1039-1048. DOI: 10.1002/jctb.3934
  109. 109. Dermont G, Bergeron M, Mercier G, Richer-Laflèche M. Soil washing for metal removal: A review of physical/chemical technologies and field applications. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2008;152:1-31
  110. 110. Xu J, Liu C, Hsu PC, et al. Remediation of heavy metal contaminated soil by asymmetrical alternating current electrochemistry. Nature Communications. 2019;10:2440. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-10472-x
  111. 111. Cervilla LM, Blasco B, Rios JJ, Rosales MA, Sanchez-Rodriguez E, Rubio-Wilhelmi MM, et al. Parameters symptomatic for boron toxicity in leaves of tomato plants. Journal of Botany. 2012. DOI: 10.1155/2012/726206
  112. 112. Michalak A. Phenolic compounds and their antioxidant activity in plants growing under heavy metal stress. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies. 2006;15:523-530
  113. 113. Guo G, Zhou Q, Ma LQ. Availability and assessment of fixing additives for the in situ remediation of heavy metal contaminated soils: A review. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2006;116:513-528
  114. 114. Yadav SK. Heavy metals toxicity in plants: An overview on the role of glutathione and phytochelatins in heavy metal stress tolerance of plants. South African Journal of Botany. 2010;76:167-179
  115. 115. Sánchez-Vioque R, Polissiou M, Astraka K, De Los Mozos-Pascual M, Tarantilis P, Herraiz-Peñalver D, et al. Polyphenol composition and antioxidant and metal chelating activities of the solid residues from the essential oil industry. Industrial Crops and Products. 2013;49:150-159
  116. 116. Flora SJ, Pachauri V. Chelation in metal intoxication. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2010;7(7):2745-2788. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph7072745. Epub 2010 Jun 28
  117. 117. Pal S, Mondal S, Mukherjee R, Maity J. Removal of heavy metals from the body system by chelation therapy. Nanomedicine and Nanotechnology Journal. 2018;2(2):120
  118. 118. Priya AK, Gnanasekaran L, Dutta K, Rajendran S, Balakrishnan D, Soto-Moscoso M. Biosorption of heavy metals by microorganisms: Evaluation of different underlying mechanisms. Chemosphere. 2022;307(Part 4):135957. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135957
  119. 119. Velkova Z, Kirova G, Stoytcheva M, Kostadinova S, Todorova K, Gochev V. Immobilized microbial biosorbents for heavy metals removal. Engineering in Life Sciences. 2018;18(12):871-881. DOI: 10.1002/elsc.201800017
  120. 120. Fosso-Kankeu E, Mulaba-Bafubiandi AF. Review of challenges in the escalation of metal-biosorbing processes for wastewater treatment: Applied and commercialized technologies. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2014;13:1756-1771
  121. 121. Modak JM, Natarajan KA. Biosorption of metals using nonliving biomass—A review. Minerals & Metallurgical Processing. 1995;12:189-196
  122. 122. Vijayaraghavan K, Yun YS. Bacterial biosorbents and biosorption. Biotechnology Advances. 2008;26:266-291
  123. 123. Gadd GM. Biosorption: Critical review of scientific rationale, environmental importance and significance for pollution treatment. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology. 2009;84:13-28
  124. 124. Ahmad MF, Haydar S, Bhatti AA, Bari AJ. Application of artificial neural network for the prediction of biosorption capacity of immobilized Bacillus subtilis for the removal of cadmium ions from aqueous solution. Biochemical Engineering Journal. 2014;84:83-90
  125. 125. Hasan SH, Srivastava P. Batch and continuous biosorption of Cu (II) by immobilized biomass of Arthrobacter sp. Journal of Environmental Management. 2009;90:3313-3332
  126. 126. Seo H, Lee M, Wang S. Equilibrium and kinetic studies of the biosorption of dissolved metals on Bacillus drentensis immobilized in biocarrier beads. Environmental Engineering Research. 2013;18:45-53

Written By

Anamika Kalita Deka, Kushwaha Jashvant Kumar and Sunshri Basumatary

Submitted: 30 December 2022 Reviewed: 14 February 2023 Published: 16 March 2023

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Continue reading from the same book

View All
Chapter 36 Sequential Speciation Analysis of Metals in Geolog...

By Jiaquan Xu and Huanwen Chen

68 downloads

Chapter 1 Evaluate the Impact of Soil Contamination on Veget...

By Augustina Pruteanu

116 downloads

Chapter 2 Abattoirs: The Hidden Sources of Plants’ Heavy Met...

By Mautin Lawrence Ogun, Olajide Solomon Anagun, Olas...

125 downloads