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Standard Analytical Techniques and de novo Proposals for Successfull Soil Biodegradation Process Proposals

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Juan Cabral-Miramontes, Pamela Dorantes-Alvarado and Elva Teresa Aréchiga-Carvajal

Submitted: 23 September 2022 Reviewed: 05 January 2023 Published: 13 February 2023

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.109861

Bioremediation for Global Environmental Conservation IntechOpen
Bioremediation for Global Environmental Conservation Edited by Naofumi Shiomi

From the Edited Volume

Bioremediation for Global Environmental Conservation

Edited by Naofumi Shiomi, Vasudeo Zambare and Mohd Fadhil Md. Din

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Abstract

The contamination of water, air, and soil represent a serious problem worldwide. Therefore, it is a priority to reduce the levels of cytotoxic in the environment caused by human activities that generate chronic degenerative diseases. For example, soil contamination caused by oil and derivatives removed with biotechnological products based on biological systems of microorganisms with physiological and molecular mechanisms that allow them to carry out effective bioremediation processes, reducing the concentration of polluting hydrocarbons. The main obstacle is validating the biodegradation efficiency of chemical compounds by bacterial consortia; therefore, it is vital to adapt or develop analytical strategies to verify heavy-end reduction for each type of biological system used in remediation. This chapter describes the techniques and their adaptations for oil degradation and their derivatives promoted by microorganisms. As the limits of the methods vary within the parameters determined by international norms and laws, we compare conventional and new-generation proposals to adjust to probe biotechnological products based on consortia of biodiverse microorganisms that significantly degrade petroleum fractions.

Keywords

  • microorganisms
  • bioremediation analytical
  • soluble lipase
  • soil biodegradation
  • analytical techniques

1. Introduction

Anthropogenic activities for the development of the economy, such as the extraction, storage, transportation, and general use of fossil fuels and their derivatives, are the primary sources of environmental pollution. Affected natural sites are bodies of water and soils close to anthropogenic activities [1]. Industrial growth causes disturbances and the loss of species of flora and fauna, that is, pollution causes the extinction of species that have an essential value in food chains for the conservation of biodiversity, an issue that is no less critical at the global level world [2].

Environmental legislation for the development of a sustainable economy is the challenge and problem faced by politicians and scientists from developed countries, such as the European Union and the United States of America, and developing countries, such as Mexico, these regions do not reduce articles derived from petroleum due to the increase in its population [3].

Microorganisms have a vital ecological function in biomes, and in addition, they represent a source of mega diversity in the environmental niches in which they live. Microbes provide humans with privileged information to determine biotechnological uses due to their physiological characteristics derived from their adaptation and molecular evolution, which allows them to survive in hostile environments where the bioremediation of sites contaminated by petroleum derivatives is to be used [4].

Microbes eliminate contaminants such as pesticides, herbicides, heavy metals, hydrocarbons, and plastics. The first step is to evaluate the type of contaminant, concentration, and in situ conditions to generate successful bioremediation. Second, to determine the bioavailable nutrients the microorganisms could feed, it is essential to identify the exact values of abiotic factors such as pH, temperature, UV rays, and salinity at the site of remediation by microbes [5]. With this information, we can designate the strains or consortia strains of bacteria and fungi to be used to generate efficient biological processes to eliminate environmental contaminants in affected soils [6].

Associations of bacteria use specific enzymes such as lipases to hydrolyze hydrocarbons into fatty acids and glycerol [7]. The main structural features are the consensus amino acid sequence of Gly-X-Ser-X-Asp and the chaperone protein Lif (lipase-specific foldase) in charge of establishing disulfide bonds [8]. Lipases have an alternate α/β hydrolase domain, a catalytic triad of Ser, His, and Asp residues, and high activity in the presence of tributyrin and oils [9]. Function of lipases depends on factors such as temperature, pH, aeration, and the presence of ions that can improve the activity of splitting hydrocarbons and their derivatives [10]. Therefore, locating water-soluble lipases, or lipases immobilized by physical or chemical methods, in bacterial genomes to increase the efficacy of bioremediation in contaminated environments is a promising alternative for contemporary problems.

In this chapter, we describe the biological remediation systems, the size and solubility of the molecules when they are degraded by bacteria, the reported genes that are involved in the bio generation of enzymes used by microorganisms for degradation, and the most precise analytical methods for the different cases of bioremediation, in addition to the international laws and regulations for the regulation of the effective use of microorganisms.

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2. Bacterial removing metabolism for oil and hydrocarbons degradation

Hydrocarbons and their derivatives strongly affect the environment. The most abundant forms are crude oil, gasoline, kerosene, diesel, and oils, whose presence in the soil due to spills reduces the viability of any form of life in growth. In addition, the presence of hydrocarbons can be distinguished by their specific odor from kilometers away, generating a warning zone for the population near the site. However, by not taking the necessary precautions in the contaminated area, it becomes a problem for public health because it causes damage to human health, generating diseases of carcinogenic origin that are heritable between generations of people [11]. Microorganisms represent an alternative with an advantage over plants and other bioremediation processes because they successfully survive contaminated sites. They modify their environment and use hydrocarbons as a source of nutrients. Among the most recognized species of microorganisms for their tolerance and elimination of hydrocarbons are Pseudomonas and Aspergillus [12].

The increased demand for contaminated surfaces leads to the search for niche providers of microbes with genomic and metabolic evolution with the ability to unfold and eliminate hydrocarbons using these molecules as a carbon source. The investigation of these microorganisms’ biodegradation capacity and metabolic plasticity generates information on the optimal conditions and crucial factors associated with their success in contaminated sites, such as temperature, oxygen, pH, and nutrients. When optimal conditions are present, degradation is older [13].

The metabolic interactions of bacteria-bacteria or bacteria-fungi consortia represent a green strategy to eliminate the highest percentage of contaminants under aerobic and anaerobic conditions since some microbes show adaptation to a specific hydrocarbon derivative as a carbon source for cell growth. Acinetobacter sp., Brevibacterium, pseudomonas sp., Aspergillus sp., and Candida sp. can degrade oil compositions such as aliphatic hydrocarbons are saturated or unsaturated. Aromatics are ringed hydrocarbon molecules divided into (a) monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (MAH), BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes), and (b) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (Figure 1), which are degraded by microorganisms such as Bacillus sp., Halomonas sp., and Rhodococcus sp. Finally, bacteria belonging to families such as Vibrionaceae and Enterobacteriaceae resins degrading. The metabolic processes of bioremediation by microorganisms occur in the decomposition of molecules to generate easily eliminated by-products. The two main hydrocarbon degradation pathways are aerobic and anaerobic [14, 15].

Figure 1.

Most remarkable reactions for degradation of hydrocarbons for aerobic and anaerobic degradation [14, 15].

Aerobic degradation represents various metabolic routes where most reactions are oxidations, causing hydrocarbons to break down into smaller molecules. Molecules of up to 12 carbons are usually more challenging to eliminate as a source of nutrients for microorganisms [16]. Aerobic metabolism of hydrocarbons begins with the oxidation of the contaminant and oxygen incorporation, oxidation participation, and B-oxidation. Diversity of available hydrocarbons implies locating efficient and specific metabolic routes located in the bacterial genome that allows them to degrade hydrocarbons such as octane, decane, alkane, pristane, eicosane, phenol, benzoate, generate, benzene, toluene, and xylene. The second part is the segmentation of a specific type of hydrocarbons. This process eliminates it via alkane molecule reduction; later, they are catalyzed by the enzyme alkane hydrolase (AH) and obtain fatty acids. Finally, the acyl CoA becomes susceptible to degradation by the acyl-CoA synthetase intervention. This way, the bioremediation niche receives small molecules for easy degradation as a final product, commonly used in some energetic metabolic processes [17].

Contrary to the previous case, oil anaerobic degradation presents the same speed as aerobic degradation. Metabolism, in this case, is led by the oxidation of pollutants to phenols, and organic acids are transformed into long-chain fatty acids, finally ending in CH4 and CO2. In addition, we must consider that different metabolic pathways must coincide in microbial genomes processes. Some ions are also considered, including nitrate, ferrous iron, manganese, and sulfate. For alkanes and cycloalkanes, the reaction starts with the exchange of fumarate at the subterminal methylene carbons and a straight-chain hydrocarbon into a branched compound [18, 19].

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3. Characteristics of n-alkanes for bacterial uptake

The mechanisms of bacteria to capture alkanes depend on the species and the ecological niche where it is located (Figure 2). It is mediated by the alkane’s molecular weight that enters the soil through spills caused by human carelessness [20]. The water solubility of n-alkanes changes due to their physicochemical characteristics, and as their molecular weight increases, the water solubility decreases. The viscosity of alkanes represents a challenge for absorption by microorganisms to transform inert alkanes into low molecular weight substances that are oxidized with enzymes produced by microbial populations [16].

Figure 2.

Some of the hydrocarbons and the microorganisms that are capable of degradation.

Soil characteristics also determine changes in the conditions and accessibility of n-alkanes, hindering accessibility by microorganisms and their biodegradation. The way of degradation through efficient biological processes is to know the weight of the molecules derived from petroleum present in the soil and the time they have remained in the site, which is due to the solubility in water. The commercially used alkane isoforms of which we can find in a spill reported by Rojo [21].

Microorganisms use enzymes such as peroxidases, laccases, monooxygenases, ligninolytic, and hydrolases to break down molecules of considerable molecular weight into simpler ones and use them as a carbon source for their nutrition [22]. Biological hydrocarbon degradation processes are promising techniques for the bioremediation of environmental contamination caused by hydrocarbons. However, it is necessary to consider the environmental conditions to which the treatments are exposed, that is, the degraded alkane and the physical-chemical conditions of the soil, to choose with certainty the necessary processes of microorganisms that allow the degradation of petroleum derivatives in various polluted environments.

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4. Mechanisms involved in the degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Microorganisms degrade hydrocarbons through the catalysis of intracellular enzymes, reducing molecules from high to low molecular weight [23]. The first step is of great importance; the microorganisms detect the contaminant and initiate the secretion of tens of active molecules to carry out the emulsification, such as the rhamnolipids bio-produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The microorganisms then absorb the emulsified contaminants through the cell wall; subsequently, they are endocytosed to generate active or passive intracellular transport; finally, they undergo an enzymatic reaction with specific enzymes for each molecule to complete the degradation process [24].

Aerobic degradation is centered on three modes of oxidation: (i) terminal oxidation, in which it produces primary alcohol that later, through another reaction, becomes an aldehyde, carried out by aldehyde dehydrogenase, it becomes a fatty acid, on the other hand, and in a longer path [25]; (ii) subterminal oxidation generates secondary alcohol to methyl ketone, and later form an acetyl-ester through monooxygenation, likewise with the function of an esterase enzyme, it can divide a molecule into two parts, creating primary alcohol plus an acetate, to finally generate a fatty acid [26]; (iii) biterminal oxidation is a more straightforward enzymatic process where, through a pyruvate carboxylase enzyme, it produces carboxylic acid as a final product [27]. The end products of the three pathways enter beta-oxidation, as degradation progresses, and simpler molecules of low molecular weight are produced, which are used intracellularly by microorganisms as an energy source [28].

4.1 Bacterial lipase

Enzymatic activity with lipases is under diverse conditions such as temperature and good oxygenation. More importantly, lipids are a carbon source, and some trace elements enhance lipase production. Lipase from different bacteria is vital in the industry, Bacillus pumilus in the food and detergent industry [29], P. aeruginosa in solid waste treatment [30], and Staphylococcus hemolytius and epidermidis for the food industry [31] strains are supplemented with substrates, such as long-chain triacylglycerols, triolein, corn oil, or fish oil, to maximize their hydrolytic activity [32]. Time and carbon sources are essential for their growth. In long incubation times, an increase in lipase production has been found, in addition to obtaining different molecules or isoforms [33]. The central carbon chain is reduced at the ends when a lipase reaction generates glycerol and/or a shorter fatty acid. Consequently, with each bacterial strain, conditions may vary. Pseudomonas fluorescens performs optimally at temperatures of 70°C [8].

The influence of metal ions and trace elements shows an active presence of lipase [34, 35]. Some of the most studied metal ions are sodium and calcium, which have been shown to significantly influence lipase production and long-chain fatty acid hydrolysis; furthermore, metal ions such as calcium stabilize the enzyme structure (Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Review of the uses of lipase in soluble and immobilized conditions. Soluble conditions and the interaction within the hydrocarbons [8, 36]. Immobilized strategies, physicals: (a) absorption [35, 37, 38, 39, 40], (b) bncapsulation [37, 40], (c) confinement [41, 42], (d) chemical: chemical bonds [42], cross-linked with (e) crystals, (f) aggregates, and (g) spray dried enzyme [43, 44, 45, 46]. Reference articles for a drawing of the picture are listed in each part.

Lipase activity applied to bioremediation effectively reduces contaminants such as oil, especially hydrocarbons and reused oils, on surfaces encountered. There are two strategies for the use of lipase, first is the enzymatic enrichment directly on a soluble substrate and second is the insolubility of the oil and its derivatives in the use of the enzyme in immobilized form, where we know several options to immobilize lipase, for example, under soluble substrates, such as the sectional process where it involves the addition of water and the presence of alcohol so that the enzyme catalyzes both reactions at the same time: hydrolysis and esterification [33]. Soluble lipase influences the replies above, where it has high catalytic activity in the first hours of contact. The movement loses during the first time (4–5 hours) due to the denaturing action [8].

Immobilized lipases show multiple benefits, such as excellent thermal and ionic stability and efficient enzyme control in specific reactions [34]. Enzymes bind to substrates for biological adsorption processes during a natural removal process. For its success, the union achieves cationic and anionic exchange resins activated by carbon molecules. Also, a low-cost silica gel method is generated, is diffusion controlled, and occurs naturally under normal bacterial conditions [35, 37]. The encapsulation increases the contact surface between the enzymes, the substrate, and the mechanical stability. The disadvantages of these methods are the deactivation of the enzyme during the abrasion of the support material and the small load capacity [41]. Confinement is the latter method; the physical immobilization of enzyme bonds was part of a polymerized reaction mixture when compounds were formed. Then, the porous matrix includes the site of the biocatalyst to be immobilized and surrounds the enzyme, confining it in its structure and the substrate [47].

Chemical methods infer chemical bonds from reactions such as glutamic acid, lysine, cysteine, and aspartic acid residues between vehicle ingredients. The technique increases stability and ensures rigidity in the structure, avoiding being affected by denaturing agents such as organic solvents and heat. (i) The solution adds the crystallized enzyme, and stabilization arises, forming a three-dimensional solid structure [42, 43]. (ii) The cross-linked enzyme adds a precipitating agent such as salts, acids, and organic solvents, which use protein precipitation. (iii) A spray-dried cross-linked enzyme, a polymer, and a solution containing the enzyme into a spray dryer, enzyme deactivation occurs during spray drying of the application [44, 45, 46].

4.2 Genes that code for the biosynthesis of enzymes involved in the degradation of PAHs

The central system of alkane degradation by bioremediation of polluted environments is AH, n-alkanes in alcohols are hydrolyzed, and then fatty acids are oxidized to enter beta-oxidation [48]. In bioremediation by microorganisms, the monooxygenase (AlkB) family of enzymes [49] has essential components such as rubredoxin and rubredoxin reductase, which interact with electron transfer to carry out hydroxylation on molecules of 10 to 16 carbon atoms [50]. The CYP153 family of cytochrome proteins degrades short and medium-chain n-alkanes (C5–C10) [51]. Studies by Nie [52] and collaborators in 2014 reported a total of 3,979 bacterial genomes analyzed, locating 458 genes that code for AlkB. Structural analysis of the genes confirms the presence of families of orthologs containing an AlkB domain, also a family including an AlkB domain + a Rubredoxin (Rd) domain. In addition, they determined a family classified as a protein with three structural components: ferredoxin (Fer) + ferredoxin reductase (FNR) + AlkB; likewise, in the analyzed data, they found 130 genes for CYP153, having only two variants in its structure, a family that had an N-terminal domain of cytochrome P450 (CypX) and a family with CypX + FNR + Fer domain. Finally, they detected 73 and 32 genomes with multiple copies of the AlkB and CYp153 families. Variations in the conserved domains of genes that code for degrading enzymes are the success in the biological processes of degradation of hydrocarbons and their derivatives present in the soil [52].

Ji [53] and collaborators mention that terminal or subterminal oxidation promotes the aerobic catabolism of n-alkanes generated by the bacterium pseudomonas aeruginosa. In these reactions, AH enzymes of the families alkB1, alkb2, rubredoxin rubA1, rubA2, and rubredoxin reductase (rub) are the ones that carry out the degradation. Grady et al. [54] analyzed these enzymes in two strains: the P. aeruginosa strain ATCC 33988 and an environmental isolate (PAO1, which comes from storage tanks). A comparison of gene sequences of enzymes involved in the degradation of n-alkanes shows 99% identity. At the same time, they compare the expression levels of the two genes as mentioned above; they determined that transcription up-regulated in cultures with n-alkanes, which generates precise information that alkB1 and alkB2 catalyze the initial oxidation step in their degradation, that is, a successful downgrade. Physiological behavior shows an improvement in survival of strain ATCC 33988 compared to strain PAO1, generating approach information to discover candidate genes for growth enhancement with metadata (omics) tools. With these solid results, they report the expression of the aprX and aprA operon that shows activity in the presence of n-alkanes, both proteins are proteases secreted to degrade the n-alkanes present in the medium [54].

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5. Analytical methods for the detection of HAPS degradation by microorganisms

The success of hydrocarbon bioremediation depends on the degradation carried out by microorganisms due to the evolutionary adaptation they show in extreme conditions. Therefore, it is essential to examine the compounds, which are still in the contaminated area, and control their degradation during biological removal processes. Analytical techniques (Table 1) represented by Imam et al. [67] are vital for measuring quantitative results from microorganisms.

Instrumental analysisAcronymDescriptionSamples examinedMicroorganismsReference
Gas chromatographyGCIt works to determine patterns of distribution of hydrocarbons in the samples, and its success depends on adequate preparation of the soil sample, where optimal solvents are used. The identification of compounds achieves by comparison with predicted hydrocarbon patterns.Paraffins, phenol, anthracene, and pyreneRhodococcus erythropolis, Rhodococcus cercidiphyllus, Arthrobacter sulfuroso[55]
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometryGC-MCIt is a highly informative analytical technique that provides accurate information on organic compounds in small samples. The determination of hydrocarbons requires the presence of databases of mass spectra.Soil contaminated with motor oil.Cronobacter sakazakii[56, 57]
Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatographyGCxGCThis technique obtains information in two columns, first, the column uses a non-polar solvent to separate according to a boiling point, and the eluting sample is sent to a second short (polar) column for separation by polarity.Booth [58] has used GCxGC-TOFMS to reveal the complex hydrocarbon mixture from the contaminated mussels collectedN/A[59]
Liquid chromatography and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometryHPLC/LC-MCThis analysis is selected when the sample has liquid properties; therefore, its polarity is not stable; that is, its application is minimal for the study of hydrocarbon biodegradation in soils, and its analytical principle involves the interaction of UV (absorption or fluorescence) with the compound to be analyzed.Degradation of PAH and phenanthrene in soil samplesPseudomonas stutzeri[60, 61]
Infrared spectroscopyFTIRIt is a technique used to determine the degradation rates of TPH, PAH, and alkanes present in the soil. Its foundation is to show the viscosity and reduction by degradation from the measurement of the interaction of infrared radiation with absorption material, and it is considered a nondestructive and straightforward test.Oil-contaminated soilsClostridium spp.[62, 63, 64]
Magnetic resonance spectroscopyNMRA technique for identifying, determining, and characterizing metabolites secreted by the presence of hydrocarbons derived from petroleum, identified as 1-acenaphthenol, 1-acenaphtenone, acenaphthene-1,2-diol, and naphthalene 1,8-dicarboxyl acid.Oil-contaminated soilsBurkholderia cepacia[65, 66]

Table 1.

Analytical methods used in the determination of degradation by a microorganism.

Techniques to be used in biodegradation tests depend entirely on the availability of the samples obtained, the contaminant’s origin, texture, the degrading capacity of the microorganisms, and their metabolic pathways. And finally, it also depend on budgets to carry out reliable analytical techniques.

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6. Regulation of the use of microorganisms in Mexico, the USA, and Europe

The contaminants present in the water and the soil, as well as their remediation, have been an urgent problem to solve; many contaminants can be removed from the surface using different methods, such as physical, chemical, and biological. However, many of these tend to leave remnants that still affect soil and water rather than complete remediation; the regulation of these methods and the proposal of new ones as the use of microorganisms has increased over the years [68].

6.1 Mexico

In Mexico, associations regulate and administer all damage to soils and waters (Table 2). The results of remediation promote specific laws; the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT) is an important institution for its wide application to different fields of natural science and conservation.

NormDescriptionReference
NOM-138-SEMARNAT/SSA1-2012Limits of hydrocarbons on soil, characterization, and aspects for their remediation.[69]
NOM-035-SEMARNAT-1993Methods for measurement of particle concentration suspended in the air and calibration of the equipment. The first submission for a proposal of treatment is made through this norm.[70]
NOM-147-SEMARNAT/SSA1-2004Set the criteria for the characterization and determination of remediation concentration in contaminated soil and the parameters of the contaminant present in the soil.[71]
NOM-052-SEMARNAT-2005Characteristics, identification procedures, classifications, and a list of harmful contaminants.[72]
SEMARNAT Art. 134, 135, 138, 143Investigation of the contaminant and the incidence of the event, recent characterization of the soil and contaminant, environmental risk, and the remediation treatment proposal.[73]

Table 2.

Mexican regulation for the use of techniques where bioremediation is involved. Normative representative [69, 70, 71, 72, 73].

6.2 The United States of America

The United States of America designed an association regulating the pollution caused by soil and water. It has a manual with recommendations. This institute is the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and it reports updates every year, developments, and the latest changes in environmental laws (Table 3).

NormDescriptionReference
EP A 542-F-21-028Presents the best management practices of green remediation and classifications.[74]
EPA 524-R-018Introduction to in situ bioremediation of groundwater as a reference for the investigation.[75]
EPA 542-f-16-001Development and monitoring of contaminated water.[76]

Table 3.

USA regulation for the use of techniques where bioremediation is involved. Normative representative [74, 75, 76].

6.3 Europe

Europe is mainly concerned about the use of microorganisms and has a classification of their benefits, accepting all the strategies used for bioremediation. The organization for the management and distribution of information is the “Ministry for Ecological Transition” (Table 4). Europe has a comprehensive website that shares different regulations, updates, and instruction manuals.

NormDescriptionReference
Law 22/2011 Art.24Management of bio residual and the protection of the environment.[77]
Law Real Decree 9/2005Contaminated soils and establishment of conditions for making effective the protection of the environment.[78]
Real Decree 664/1997Defines the use of microorganisms and their classifications as well as the precautions.[79]

Table 4.

Europe regulation for the use of techniques where bioremediation is involved. Normative representative [77, 78].

The Ministerium for the Ecological Transition and Demographic Challenge offers its website https://www.miteco.gob.es for knowledge and updates. Awareness of the environmental situation is an urgent problem and needs progress. Moreover, many countries reached advances in applied technologies and regulation of it.

The differences between Mexico, the USA, and Europe regarding the limit of the presence of hydrocarbons are contrasting. Mexico divides into three categories as NOM-138 establishes the maximum permissible number of hydrocarbons in the soil (mg/kg). Agriculture goes up 200–3000, residential and recreational 200–3000, and industrial from 500 to 6000. By Royal Decree 9/2005, Spain establishes the limits for hydrocarbons as a contaminated area if the concentration is 50 mg/kg, but the maximum limit is 5000 mg/kg, although, for this rate, there must be a soil analysis. The limit only represents for the contaminated area in general. The legal limit for hydrocarbons, in the US, is 500 ppm in workplaces, although there is no federal regulation for hydrocarbons.

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7. Conclusion

Bioremediation is the solution to reverse contamination problems. Maintaining control of in situ conditions remains challenging to achieve 100% passive environmental recovery. Nowadays, more attention is paid to evaluating cost—the benefits of these approaches. Once the analytical methods not only follow the bulk contaminant metabolization but also monitor the possible toxic byproducts in the site and are standardized, consider the insoluble nature of the contaminant. It will be possible to translate all the scientific advances in the field to the sites to recuperate.

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Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Written By

Juan Cabral-Miramontes, Pamela Dorantes-Alvarado and Elva Teresa Aréchiga-Carvajal

Submitted: 23 September 2022 Reviewed: 05 January 2023 Published: 13 February 2023

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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