Institutional Policies and Initiatives for the Internationalization of HE: A Case of Southeast Asia and Pakistan

Abstract

The internationalization of higher education is an important agenda explored and undertaken by public and private universities to improve the quality of education as well as the skills and competencies of graduates. There is great potential for cross-border engagement and internationalization efforts in the context of higher education in ASEAN countries and Pakistan. In this case study, the discussion on strategies and initiatives to embrace higher education at the university level is not limited to the goals and needs of higher education institutions but is also guided by the views and priorities of the country’s economic and strategic development. This has implications for how individual universities design their policies and implement initiatives at the institutional level and their strategic direction for internationalization.

1. Introduction

The process of modernization of the education system is complex and multi-faceted, and it is an important part of the social and economic changes in a society and country. As a result, the international community prioritizes the role and importance of education in the context of social and economic development involving the transition from one level of development to another [1, 2, 3]. The phenomenon of internationalization occurs in the context of higher education through the flow of students who go to study in other countries [4], and the competition to attract talent and quality students as well as the importance to economic development has contributed to policy changes and initiatives at the level higher education institutions for internationalization goals. It is a response to globalization of societies, economy, and labor markets and a “cause for the further globalization of higher education” ([5], p. 141). This is what Appadurai [6] calls a global cultural trend that affects the character and image of the country in the context of contemporary globalization, including higher education.

In this age of global interdependence, the recognition of higher qualifications has become extremely important. The strong bonds that have been glowed by globalization in the political, social, and economic spheres have increased people’s mobility and the flexibility of ideas in higher education. The new world of higher education is also characterized by competition for prestige, talent, and resources on both national and global scales. National and international rankings are driving some universities to prioritize policies and practices that help them rise in the rankings [7, 8]. Therefore, higher education institutions are quickly changing in response to new geopolitical and economic commitments to go global [9]. Hence, international actions or initiatives such as international education, international programs, and “study abroad” are commonly associated with the internationalization of higher education [10].

The internationalization of higher education has changed over the past 50 years from a minor activity to a crucial component of the reform agenda [11]. To meet the demands of their educational modernization and global challenges, developing countries have implemented direct and indirect educational internationalization policies in some cases. Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa (BRICS) are examples in which they all advocate for the internationalization and globalization of higher education policies in order to provide stronger talent support for joint science and technology innovation [12].

In 1980s, the term “internationalization” applied to higher education, and scientists described it as “one of the laws of motion that push institutions of higher education forward” ([13], p. 5; [14], p. xv), “one of the important characteristics of modern universities” ([15], p. 1; [14], p. xv), and “Pressure that can be no teacher knows” ([14], p. xv). Internationalization is a strategy for the development of higher educational institutions, which provides significant changes in the scientific and educational activities and the internal life of a higher education institution, aimed at strengthening the international component, integrating into the global educational space, and developing cooperation in universities with partners from different countries [16]. The growing interest in, and debate about, internationalization has resulted in new insights into the content of, and approaches to, internationalizing higher education. Internationalization goals are constantly evolving, ranging from educating global citizens to increasing research capacity to enhancing institutional prestige. New forms of internationalization such as branch campuses abroad, distance learning programs with global reach, international education hubs and networks now complement traditional initiatives such as student and staff mobility, curriculum changes, and international institutional links for teaching and research, and include access to learning and collaboration through online platforms are among the forms and initiatives of internationalization of higher education. Higher education internationalization is a dynamic process that is constantly shaped and reshaped by the national and international contexts in which it occurs. The purposes, goals, meanings, and strategies of internationalization change as these contexts change.

Regardless of contextual differences within and between countries, nearly all higher education institutions around the world are involved in international activities and seek to engage globally, which is now considered part of the definition of quality education and research. However, the success of various stages of higher education internationalization is also heavily dependent on institutions developing and effectively implementing sound policies and initiatives. This case study discusses good practices adopted by higher education institutions in some Asian countries with additional discussion on Pakistan HE to route the internalization of Higher Education.

1.1 Singapore

Singapore is a partner of the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), which is the largest free trade agreement in the world. It is a signing mark of the completion of the world’s largest free trade zone, with the most diverse membership. This partnership creates a 15-country open market and implements regional economic integration by lowering tariff and non-tariff barriers. RCEP is primarily concerned with economic and trade cooperation, but its significance extends beyond that [17]. RCEP considers not only the economy’s leading role, but also the roles of culture, education, science, and technology. Educational cooperation is significant in the field of RCEP strategic cooperation. This includes collaboration in higher education which has long-term cooperation among the RCEP countries such as Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Australia, New Zealand, and others and has also sent many international students to each other [18].

In a journey of internationalization, recommendations were made for new degree pathways with “strong theoretical foundations, integration of soft skills like communication and cross-cultural skills into curriculum, innovatively applied pedagogy, close collaboration with relevant industries, excellence in teaching, and high-quality undergraduate research” were among several noteworthy recommendations [19]. It was further extended to a national value system and graduate attributes were promoted by an internationalized curriculum and attitude. This became even more clear over the past 20 years as the Singaporean government has implemented practical and innovative policies in Higher Education [20]. In a recent trend shown in the report of the Committee on the Future Economy (CFE) and the Research, Innovation, and Enterprise (RIE) [21] strategy, it is also safe to argue that an inventive and entrepreneurial spirit is emerging, as affirmed by the Ministry of Education [20] that the institutions train students not only for today’s economy but also for a future one with new jobs and difficulties that do not exist today.

In the National Research Foundation, Research, Innovation and Enterprise (RIE) 2025 plan [21], one of the aim of academic research was “To Sustain a vibrant, diverse and globally-connected research ecosystem that will attract and retain top research talent” (p. 41) Since the government is aware that the best research is frequently produced through collaboration with complimentary peers in the area. Academic staff and researchers naturally gravitate towards exploring international collaborations for their research interests. Opportunities were provided for high-profile university-wide or international research collaborations, as well as support for faculties looking for outside research grants.

Daquila [22] summarizes Singapore’s higher education as underlining the need to consider the following desirable outcomes for its students and graduates: intercultural awareness and engagement, transformative experiences, collaborative learning (to work with people from different cultures, to solve complex and multidisciplinary problems), and global awareness (a global mindset for its students, teachers, and school leaders). The internationalization of higher education is nothing new in Singapore. It is embedded in Singapore’s historical legacy, which resulted in a multiracial society made up of 5.3 million people from a variety of cultures and languages [22].

For instance, internationalization of National University of Singapore (NUS) has two dimensions: “internationalisation at home” and “ internationalisation abroad” with a vision to become “a leading global university centred in Asia, influencing the future” ([22], p. 640). The number of international students attending NUS is one indicator of acceptance of multiculturalism in Singaporean institutes, attracting international students is the “internationalization at home” dimension. For internationalization at home, various strategies, initiatives, and ideas were placed to draw many international students to NUS. Among them are the provision of disciplinary, multidisciplinary, and interdisciplinary programs of study as well as curriculum designs that take the global aspects of learning and research into account. Additionally, agreements for student exchange programs (SEPs) between NUS and foreign universities have been made. According to Provost Tan Eng Chye (2008), NUS has over 180 active partners spread across 27 different countries ([22], p. 641). International students also can be a significant source of revenue; they are often viewed in terms of broader economic contributions that go beyond the university budget. NUS and NTU both actively recruit international students, using appealing marketing materials and a variety of incentives [23].

In terms of the internationalization abroad dimension. NUS has initiated a variety of international programs, including SEP, NUS Overseas Colleges (NOC) internship programs, joint/double degree programs, summer programs, internships, field trips, study visits, research, enrichment, language immersion programs, clinical attachments, conferences, and community projects ([22], p. 641). In a speech by the Vice President of the university of NUS, it was emphasized that “We are cultivating an internationalist mind-set” since Singapore is a microcosm of the world due to its diverse racial makeup, raising up good citizens also helps to advance the idea of global citizenship, which is shared by all nations that value peace.

In a meeting of the Committee on the Future Economy [24], the NUS Overseas College (NOC) entrepreneurship program was specifically mentioned in the report and further emphasized such innovation links. The report makes the recommendation to “build on these links, involve more institutes of Higher Learning (IHLs), and expand our network in regional countries, so as to better expose the students to opportunities in Asia, the United States, and Europe” (p. 18).

The bilingualism policy was a vital element of Singapore’s higher education internationalization strategy. According to the policy, all students enrolled in public schools, learn English as their primary language and their “Mother Tongue Language” (MTL) as a secondary language [25]. The importance of effective bilingualism is for promoting and developing a more harmonious and better-integrated multicultural Singapore society as well as for employment prospects.

In relation to international recognition based on ranking position, global influence, and global competitiveness, the ranking can also be partially determined by internationalization policies and initiatives at the university level. Other indicators which are citation rate of papers, international research network, employer reputation, and academic reputation, etc., the National University of Singapore (NUS) and the Nanyang Technological University (NTU) of Singapore were ranked 11th and 12th, respectively. According to QS [26], NUS has a 73.5 international student ratio of the total students, and an international faculty ratio is 100. The international research network ratio is 89.9 with foreign collaborators, including 25 Joint or Dual PhD programs with top European universities. In the RCEP region, it is unquestionably of practical significance to promote in-depth collaborative efforts and exchanges in higher education [18].

NTU is the second-largest university in Singapore, which is also contributing to the internationalization of Higher Education. The University’s ethos continues to include internationalization as a key component: In a meeting, The President of International Affairs Bertil Andersson, in 2016 emphasized that, at NTU, “Internationalization is ingrained in everything we do” and “It is part of our DNA” ([23], p. 8). Further, the internationalization of education is reflected in NTU Vision as “A great global university founded on science and technology, nurturing leaders through research and a broad education in diverse fields” ([23], p. 8). Vision focuses on global aspirations as well but does so through disciplinary research rather than global grounding.

In NTU strategic planning for internationalization, hiring international faculty, enhancing the residential experience, providing opportunities for students to study abroad, being compatible with other cultures, deeper regional engagement, study abroad rates, international partnerships, and international recruitment were remaining prominent. Through individual participation in international university networks and alliances, NTU spearheaded the creation of the Asian Science and Technology Pioneering Institutes of Research and Education (ASPIRE) League and the Global Alliance of Technological Universities (Global Tech) alliances in 2009, which brought together top science and technology universities to address societal and sustainability issues on a global scale.

Internationalization of the Curriculum (IoC), and the “incorporation of an intercultural and international dimension into the content of the curriculum as well as the teaching and learning processes and support services” ([27], p. 209). To internationalize the curriculum, NTU and NUS academic programs often place a strong emphasis on international experience and curriculum based on foreign models or designs delivered in collaboration with foreign institutions publishing industry, and Singapore’s innately global nature. In addition, NUS and NUT went above and beyond to create an international atmosphere on campus through activities, clubs, and dining choices. It is also believed that emphasizing “future-ready graduates” is inextricably linked to preparing students for the future. The Nanyang Technological University of Singapore (NTU) is 12th in the QS ranking with an international-student ratio of 74.1. and International faculty ratio is 100 [26].

1.2 Malaysia

Higher education has long played a key role in Malaysia’s development, with the government recognizing its significance in its First Malaysia Plan in terms of providing the necessary workforce to support the nation’s economy [28]. Malaysia, a multicultural nation, has a variety of offerings that can be tapped into. Globalization has made higher education accessible to all. Higher education is subject to both national and international agendas in keeping with globalization [29].

Malaysia’s government, in general, and the Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE), in particular, have been working to make Malaysia a hub for international higher education. Higher Education institutes are on track to enroll 250,000 international students by 2025 with a current enrollment of 108,000 ([30], p. 7) The universities have been developing and carrying out various initiatives, such as providing offshore programs and creating MoUs and MoAs, to make this possible. Such initiatives will make it easier to collaborate internationally on research and innovation, education and learning, staff and student mobility programs, and much more. The advantages are genuinely numerous.

The Ministry of Higher Education devised strategies and programs to make Malaysia’s higher education institutions to be more competitive internationally. Since 2014, Malaysia’s government has been planning to become a global hub for tertiary education [31, 32]. These strategies seek to ensure that Malaysian universities become centers of excellence and function at a global level [33]. Malaysia aspires to become an international student hub and, eventually, an innovation center. The National Higher Education Strategic Plan Beyond 2020 is the most visible national plan addressing internationalization. In process of internationalization of Higher Education and the National Higher Education Strategic Plan Beyond 2020, and in order to attain world-class status [34].

The National Higher Education Strategic Plan 2007–2020 emphasizes the importance of developing a knowledge-based economy through research and development. In line with this national strategy, building the image of a world-class university is vital. Local universities are being intensively inspected for their capacity to mitigate varied problems as they strive to compete with other world-class institutions. One persistent difficulty was the institution’s capacity to attract postgraduate candidates from all over the world [35]. In line with the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015–2025, the importance of reaching worldwide prominence through the internationalization of higher education was emphasized. The Malaysia Higher Education Blueprint’s [36] strategies include improving the support system for international students, increasing the proportion of international students, particularly postgraduates, and strengthening the promotion and marketing of Malaysia’s higher education system.

In continuation to the internationalization of Higher Education, Universities in Malaysia adopt different strategies, that is, the accreditation of degree programs with renowned international institutes for quality assurance and international recognition, cultural exchange programs, balancing local and international knowledge by attracting international students, and introducing local knowledge, and inviting renowned international academics to its campus for public events, talks, and lectures. The main objective of internationalization is to give students an experience of Malaysian culture. International students are encouraged to learn the national language in order to improve their ability to communicate and interact with the local population [37]. Another effort for internalization was the establishment of an international branch campus and the pursuit of international pedagogical practices to enhance its program by adopting and adapting international curricula. Malaysia currently has nine branch campuses. These branch campuses must conform to Malaysian policy as well as quality standards [37].

For QS ranking, initially, four research universities were applied that includes the University of Malaya (UM), the University Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), the University Sains Malaysia (USM), and the University Putra Malaysia are the four research universities (UPM). During the introduction of the 10th Malaysia Plan on June 10, 2010, University Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) was the most recent addition, becoming the country’s fifth research university [35]. All the above universities ranked among 200 World-class universities according to the ranking University of Malaya (UM) ranked 65 with a 53.0 international student ratio and 43.6 International faculty ratio, University Putra Malaysia (UPM) ranked 143 with a 92.7 international student ratio and 44.2 international faculty ratio, University Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)-144 and the international student ratio was 38.7 with 42.8 international faculty ratio, University Sains Malaysia (USM)-147 with a 75.3 international student ratio and international faculty ration is 25.4, University Teknologi Malaysia UTM-191 with 77.2 international student ratio and 12.0 international faculty ratio [26].

1.3 Philippine

Internationalization is a current priority for higher education institutions (HEIs) in the Philippines and many other countries across the world. Internationalization has become a buzzword that aids in the growth of HEI academic programs [38].

In the Philippines, the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) has similarly acknowledged the necessity for internationalization as it prepares to fund major research on this issue in light of the thousands of HEIs that include both public and private institutions. CHED’s mandates include improving institutional quality assurance and directing all HEIs to put in place the essential processes to ensure graduates can competently cope with the demands of a fast-changing globalized world while also keeping global competitiveness in mind [39]. Philippine universities have been doing internationalization works for the past decades and in recent years, these internationalization efforts have been articulated in the universities’ vision and mission and their long-term plans. In a vision-mission of the Philippine private university, it is stated that it would like “to produce graduates that are globally competitive and to promote values and learnings toward national and global development”. In most universities’ strategic plans, international staff and student recruitment are a top priority. The rationale for having an international staff and student mix is that it helps students develop an international perspective, improves intercultural understanding, and facilitates intercultural integration [40].

Internationalization of higher education in the context of the Philippines is the process of incorporating international, intercultural, and global dimensions into the objectives, functions (teaching, learning, research, and service), and delivery of higher education [37]. It entails a process of higher education exchange between nations, with partnerships between nations, national higher education systems, and between institutions of higher education.

Internationalization of faculty and students in a higher education institution necessitates the use of a common language (lingua franca) for teaching and learning as well as on-campus communication. Because English is the de facto language of worldwide literacy, it has increasingly become the de facto language of learning and instruction in universities that have many international students. As several academics have pointed out, internationalization is synonymous with English-medium education [41]. English is used as a medium of instruction in the Philippines, in order to effectively understand the instructions and the content, a student must have a fair understanding of the English language. A student must pass the English language at the credit or distinction level in order to be admitted to universities and other higher institutions of learning. English is also the only language spoken in university communities throughout Southeast Asia, particularly in the Philippines [42].

For the internationalization of HE, Significant changes have been made in the higher education sector of the Philippines, especially since the K–12 program’s implementation in 2013. As a result of the 12 educational system, which mandates that all students complete Grades 11 and 12 before enrolling in university, significant changes to the tertiary curriculum have been made. Making the Philippine educational system competitive with those of other nations and offering high-quality tertiary education that meets international standards are both parts of that change.

The ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) was established in 2015 with the aim of achieving a cohesive and integrated ASEAN community. This swift in Philippines tertiary curriculum also resulted from the push for the AEC also tends to lead to the need to internationalize the Philippine higher education sector, in which higher mobility among the member countries is pushed through a more unified and credit-transferring HE in the ASEAN, though much remains to be done.

According to The Bureau of Immigration, 47,478 applications had received for student visas and special study permits in 2012 [43], which indicates the internationalization of higher education in the Philippines via the flow of international student study in Philippines HEIs. The initiatives for internationalization were designed to ensure the smooth execution and sustainability of the institutional thrusts of research, instruction, and community extension/service. So far, instruction has been internationally accredited as a result of initiatives such as overseas study tours and curriculum alignment with international frameworks and the exchange of best practices via study tours/visits to the best universities all over the world.

Initiatives for the internationalization of higher education institutions in the Philippines include faculty exchange, visiting professors, international speakers, and student exchange. International publications, research capability building, enhancement and participation in international research conferences and dissemination of research results, and sharing of best practices are examples of research initiatives. These include international reviews and publications, databases, conferences, seminars, workshops, and colloquia on discipline and specialization-related related research [44]. Aside from international practices, the Philippines is unique in providing Liberal Art induced education, “nurturing wisdom through liberal Art” is mentioned as a key feature of the University of the Philippines (UP) [45]. According to the School Educational Philosophy, UP graduates must also have a broad mind, strong character, and a generous spirit. These qualities are fostered by a solid foundation in the arts and sciences as well as any specialist courses that their programs may require [46].

In parallel to the growing number of international students, four universities applied for QS ranking in 2019. University of Santo Tomas, De La Salle University, Ateneo de Manila University, and the University of Philippines [47]. Efforts are being made to ensure that this ranking system achieves better results by strengthening international networks and emphasizing the role of research in improving educational quality [48]. In the QS Ranking [26], three of the above universities are in the ranking, University of Philippines ranked 399 with a 1.3 ratio of international students and international faculty ration is 2.1, Ateneo de Manila University ranked 651–700 with 2.9 ratio of international students and international faculty ration is 3.4. The De La Salle University ranked 801–1000 with international student ratio 3.0 and international faculty ratio is 2.2 [26].

1.4 Thailand

Thailand’s efforts to internationalize have gradually yielded some positive results since 1990, following the formulation of the First 15-Year Long-Range Plan on Higher Education (1990–2004), particularly in terms of the number of international students, programs, and partnerships in higher education [49]. These internationalization efforts were continued with the Seventh National Higher Education Development Plan (1992–1996) but were subsequently hampered by the structural reorganization of government agencies mandated by the National Education Act of 1999.

Attempts have been made to comprehend and then develop internationalization processes that are most appropriate for Thai higher education. Experts from Asia and beyond were brought in to provide consultations and develop guidelines. The integration of international, intercultural, and/or global dimensions into a program of study’s learning outcomes, assessment, teaching methods, and support services is known as “internationalization of the curriculum” [50, 51]. In a journey of internationalization, the curriculum of universities was updated to meet the need of global demands and to promote diversity in campuses, field study, and research collaboration programs, internships, and study abroad have also been promoted as among the institutional initiatives of promoting internationalization. These opportunities, however, appear to be limited because they rely heavily on external funding, primarily from the government [52]. International experiences, on the other hand, have become critical factors in faculty recruitment, tenure, promotion, and development. Universities are given opportunities to broaden their international perspectives and competitiveness, particularly in the areas of foreign language study, international curriculum development, and advanced technology.

The internationalization of higher education is part of Thailand’s First 15 Year Long Range Plan on Higher Education (1990–2004), which aims to promote Thai universities and colleges abroad, raise Thailand’s standing and economic competitiveness abroad, and enhance and uphold Thailand’s national reputation and international relations [53]. The movement was revitalized and fueled further by the 2015 establishment of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) and Thailand’s national vision of becoming a regional education hub. International programs, for example, have grown in popularity in recent decades. Mostly all higher education institutions, if not all faculties, have developed international programs, either independently or in conjunction with existing ones. Collaborations with international institutions are also desired for collaborative research and exchanges. On the surface, Thai higher education internationalization appears to be extremely active and productive. However, there are significant formidable challenges that will remain in the coming decades [49].

According to Mayot [54] and Nilphan [53], Thai universities have four roles and missions that are connected to the globalization of higher education: teaching, research, service, and cultural literacy. Universities in Thailand strive to improve the graduates’ ability to compete on a global scale, increase the number of international programs, increase academic collaboration and exchange with universities and colleges abroad, advance the research capacity and knowledge of related fields abroad, and advance cross-cultural understanding through international cooperation. While in terms of cultural literacy, universities work to improve students’ understanding of cross-cultural advancements and support the establishment of Thai cultural centers and Thai study programs abroad, the service refers to the improvement of service activities and knowledge sharing with overseas institutions through international cooperation [55].

Thailand positioned itself as the leader of higher education in ASEAN in the Second 15-Year Long Range Plan on Higher Education (2008–2022). The second 15-year plan was divided into two sections. Part one describes how the local economy and global economy have affected Thailand’s society and higher education system, and part two outlines effective solutions to problems relating to higher education [56]. To further lift internationalization, the Thai Government signed many agreements with foreign institutions in Australia, Japan, China, and France.

For global rankings like Times Higher Education World University Ranking and QS World University Ranking, Thai higher education institutions are overly focused on their rankings when it comes to rather than how to apply and adapt the criteria to best suit their own unique contexts, strengths, and objectives. Thailand began to internationalize its higher education system after the Cold War, under the influence of the USA and globalization, in order to meet new demands [55]. Toward Internationalization, more emphasis was placed in Chulalongkorn University’s strategic plan (2021–2024) on “positioning the university as a leader in creating knowledge and innovations from cutting-edge research,” while producing graduates who are “future innovators capable of adding value to existing resources and building ties with global communities”. As the country’s first established university, Chulalongkorn University will essentially be established as a national university that has proudly advanced internationally [57].

In the QS ranking of 2022, Two of the Thai universities, Chulalongkorn University was on 215 and Mahidol university was on 255 Ranking. The mission statement of Mahidol University guides itself to internationalization “Mahidol University aspires to be a world-class institution with a national and international reputation for excellence in teaching and research”. Further in 20 years’ National strategic directions of Mahidol University (2018–2037), the set vision is “To be 01 in 100 world-class universities” ([58], p. 19). The international student ratio at Chulalongkorn University is 2.8 with an international faculty ratio of 9.6 and while Mahidol University’s international student ratio is 4.4 and the international faculty ratio is 5.7 [26].

1.5 Indonesia

Internationalization is an important aspect of Indonesian higher education. According to the Indonesian government, all academic institutions should participate in internationalization. The specific practice of internationalization of higher education in Indonesia in this process closely focuses on the local regional characteristics, and always aims to enhance international cooperation and build global confidence, which finally attracts international students to Indonesia [59].

Internationalization and multiculturalism are two globalization behaviors that have been promoted throughout higher education institutions as part of the efforts to globalize higher education in Indonesia [60]. The flexibility in creating international programs, opening study programs, or hiring foreign lecturers, as well as the budget amount allocations by the government, played a significant role in the implementation of the internationalization of programs at state higher education institutions.

In 2014, the release of Decree No. 14 by the Ministry of Education and Culture (MOEC) addressed global collaboration in higher education. The government has given university faculty members competitive research grants for conducting international research collaboration, and MOEC has assisted universities in doing so. MOEC Active contributed and encouraged universities to offer combined degrees, dual degrees, transfer/credit earning, joint publications, and joint seminars in response to the globalization of education. The ministry has additionally led AIMS (ASEAN International Mobility for Students) for internationalization of higher education in partner countries [37]. Indonesia compared to its Southeast Asian neighbors, such as Singapore, Malaysia, and even Vietnam, there was little staff and student mobility, and there were no international branch campuses in the nation. Two government initiatives at the beginning of 2018—welcoming foreign providers and enlisting international academics—suggested that things were about to change. The inability of those initiatives to make progress, however, begs the question of what has prevented Indonesian higher education from becoming internationally competitive and what can be done to change the situation.

In 2018, the first Internationalization initiative was embracing international branch campuses, seeking to enlist the help of reputable suppliers to enhance Indonesian human resource training. The second initiative was the recruitment of 200 top-class professors for Indonesian universities, it was determined that the first program was successful in enlisting foreign academics through a sabbatical placement program. Through internationalization efforts, these two initiatives hope to raise the standard of higher education in Indonesia. The need for knowledge transfer from international academic institutions and universities to enhance human resources, increase research productivity, and foster innovation in Indonesian higher education appears to be recognized by policymakers [61]. The 211 and 985 projects in China have experience that can be applied to the situation in Indonesia, particularly in terms of how to push for the transformation of important institutions to help them become universities of international renown. The secret to transforming and globalizing Indonesian higher education may lie in its readiness to take lessons from its neighbors.

For the internationalization of higher education, Indonesia set different strategies and practices that foster internationalization, paying attention to publicity and promoting international projects through multiple channels is one of them. Promotion and marketing are not just economic means, but also essential means for higher education. Publicity is very important to higher education institutions in Indonesia, such as winning international projects and outstanding university achievements. Indonesia uses multi-channel methods to publicize international projects, primarily online publicity or paper printing, supplemented by participant oral publicity and has developed a comparatively perfect promotional and advancement system, which has greatly increased its international popularity.

Student mobility is another form of internationalization of higher education, in order to attract foreign students, Indonesia offers full or partial scholarships when recruiting international students. The goal of providing scholarships for international students is to help the university grow by increasing the number of international students. Indonesia also has placed a high value on international exchanges and cooperation. It actively expands the global education market in addition to using its special geographic and natural advantages to draw in international research teams. Not only is the movement of teachers and students across borders crucial for the internationalization of higher education, but it also serves as a vital conduit for the transfer of knowledge and advances in science and technology.

Through the signing of memorandums of understanding and cooperation with other nations, Indonesia has successfully built strong relationships with universities like Jinan University and the Guangzhou University of Traditional Chinese Medicine. In addition, the Indonesian government has increased academic exchanges with foreign universities to raise the standard of higher education resulting in greater mobility of domestic students. This will be beneficial in encouraging local students to study abroad, allowing them to have an international learning experience and a more global perspective [59].

In addition to transnational cooperation programs, Indonesia has developed a number of preferential policies and scholarships to attract international students to study in Indonesia. Recruiting international students not only allows students to experience a foreign culture, gain technical competence, experience social culture, and master necessary skills, but it also provides significant economic benefits to their home country. Indonesia believes that the Internationalization of higher education is a two-way street. It is not only about encouraging foreign students to study in China, but also working to improve the mobility of domestic students, encourage local students to travel abroad, develop an international vision, and promote the internationalization of local students [59]. In addition, the Government has promoted the use of English as the instruction language in bilingual higher education programs that are focused on international exchange, and in 2015 a plan was announced to start creating an Indonesian/English bilingual curriculum that was used in all Indonesian universities [62].

Indonesia made efforts to compete in World QS Ranking in the QS Ranking of 2022, three of the Universities are in the 500 QS ranking. The Gadjah Mada University ranked 254 with 2.0 international students and 39.2 International faculty ratio. The University of Indonesia ranked 290 with 4.7 international students and 72.7 International faculty ratio and The Institute of Technology Bandung ranked 303 with 3.1 International students and 66.6 international faculty ratio [26]. In the vision statement of top-class Indonesian universities, the focus was based on serving the world and humanity with dedication and cultural values for the welfare of Indonesia and the world. Excellence, innovation, and independency were the core assets.

1.6 Pakistan

Modernization and globalization have increased competition among universities in the twenty-first century. To compete in the HE sectors and build a solid reputation, institutions are now working to attract the best staff, students, and research development strategies [63]. It is impossible to compete in the current global educational industry without focusing on internationalization and globalization in education [64].

The majority of developing nations, including Pakistan, struggle to keep up with the demands of international higher education standards [65]. Align with international practices, Universities in Pakistan are also putting efforts to adopt the standards of internationalization of higher education. The Higher Education Commission (HEC) implies Macro and Micro level planning for the development of higher education as well as the internationalization of Higher education in Pakistan. HEC is responsible to facilitate higher education institutes and liaison with international agencies to strengthen Pakistan’s relations with different countries in education diplomacy and attracting international students. Aside from hunting international grants for Higher Education in Pakistan, Faculty development grants (Foreign and indigenous), International conferences, and workshop grants, HEC offers scholarship opportunities to foreign students, including students from least developed countries of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and Commonwealth, to study in top Pakistani universities.

Under, Allama Muhammad Iqbal Scholarships for Afghan Students (Phase-III), 4500 students from Afghanistan were awarded scholarships for undergraduate and postgraduate studies in 2021–2022. With the objective “To provide an opportunity to Pakistani universities to attract the students of neighboring countries for quality education” of the internationalization of Higher education [66]. This year, the Government of Pakistan through HEC has granted 1000 Scholarships to Sri Lankan students through its Pak-Sri Lanka Higher Education Cooperation Programme to study at various Pakistani universities and 50 Scholarships were granted for short-term Faculty Exchange between Pakistan and Sri Lanka for seminars, conferences and other academic and research-related activities [66].

Aside to attract international students, HEC provides Financial Assistance and Foreign Scholarships to Faculty members of HEC recognized Universities and fresh students including the ignored areas of Pakistan to ensure the opportunity for the provision of Higher education. Student mobility inside and outside Pakistan has increased at a rapid pace as a result of the efforts of the Higher Education Commission (HEC). According to Pakistan–Country Commercial Guide [67], 59,784 students studying abroad, primarily in the United States and the United Kingdom, Australia, Germany, Malaysia, and other countries. Under the HEC overseas scholarship scheme this year, a total of 4986 scholars have been sent abroad under various scholarship programs for MS, Ph.D., or post-doctoral research. The majority of students went abroad to study technology, engineering, and biosciences [66].

To promote internationalization, Universities in Pakistan arrange international conferences for attracting international researchers to build research collaboration. As a result of the internalization of higher education and the globalization process, there is an increase in student’s and academic staff mobility. A rapid increase in cross-border higher education, with intense competition among developed-world universities/institutions for collaboration/campus operation in foreign locations, has been observed. Despite the rapid expansion of higher education, the government is unable to meet the increasing demand. As a result, the government is under pressure to increase funding for higher education. Currently, the Government of Pakistan has signed Memorandums of Understanding (MOUs) with various foreign educational partner agencies and universities (US, UK, Asia, and Europe) for the selection of scholars, placement, monitoring, and disbursement of funds. Scholarships for these countries/universities are available through various HEC overseas scholarship programs [66].

Many foreign universities approach operating in Pakistan. The Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan introduced a policy in 2020, based on initiatives from Pakistan’s higher educational institutions (HEIs), for Pakistani schools to establish international campuses as a way to improve their own standing while also allowing HEIs to offer their education programs to an international market [66].

In the QS ranking of 2022, 11 Pakistani universities have made it into the recently published QS World University Rankings for 2022 out of these three universities lie in the top 500 University ranking, The National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST) was ranked 358 with 5.7 international student ratio and 3.0 international faculty ratio. The Quaid-i-Azam University (QAU) is ranked 378th with 2.6 international students and 3.8 international faculty ratio. The Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS) is ranked 398th [26].

The vision statement of QS Ranked Pakistani universities is focused on affordable high-quality education, entrepreneurship, social harmony, international recognition, national security, and socio-economic benefits with acceptance of cultural diversity, and honesty as common values. For the internationalization of Higher education, the NUST has taken many initiatives, that includes, global partnerships with 92 world-class universities, inbound and outbound exchange programs, scholarships for students and faculty, inbound delegation visits, and focal persons for internationalization and counted as champions of guidance for international Scholarships [68].

2. Conclusion

In an era of internationalization of HE, the states put efforts to compete for the internationalization of higher education and placement for word class universities. With few highlighted indicators of internationalization, that is, including global partnership, students and staff mobility, internationalization of the curriculum, research networks, SDG rankings, faculty citation rates, etc., states are in a condition to regulate the needs according to their contexts. In adopting the set indicators of internationalization, countries are having an edge over each other in conferring their context, however, the gear is toward the adaptation of global trends. At the macro and micro levels, states are having higher education bodies that prioritize the needs and support at the national level and the institutional level which are unique in conferring to their outlooks and contexts, however, the efforts collectively drive to geared towards global demand and to compete with global competitors.

Acknowledgments

The HEAD Foundation, Singapore.