Perspective Chapter: Mangrove Conservation – An Ecotourism Approach

Abstract

The chapter we propose includes the following: The uniqueness of the mangrove ecosystem, the mangrove ecosystem is a unique ecotone, which connects the life of land and marine biota. Its diversity of plants and fauna is typical, namely, true mangrove plants, associated mangrove plants, crustaceans, mollusks, fish, reptiles and birds. The existence of mangrove flora and fauna is an attraction for ecotourism, scientific interpretation and educational materials for the community for mangrove conservation. Principles in conservation include preservation, protection and sustainable use. Ecotourism is the sustainable use of mangroves, which combines three main aspects, namely, ecology, economy and evaluating community opinion. Examples of the use of mangrove ecosystems are for ecotourism in Bali, Indonesia. The manuscript has a valuable contribution on the importance of the mangrove ecosystems in ecotourism.

1. Introduction

Mangroves are ecosystems that provide productive habitat and can support coastal fisheries including crabs, shrimp and fish, and have a high diversity of biota species. The fauna diversity includes arboreal, terrestrial, semi-aquatic fauna, mollusks, crustaceans, fish and other aquatic fauna. Mangroves are an excellent habitat to support growth and reproduction for the preservation of species in ecosystems. Mangroves are also a feeding ground, spawning ground and nursery ground for various associated marine biota [1, 2].

Ecotourism is a tourism activity that combines 3 main aspects, namely ecology, including the existence of the types that make up the mangrove ecosystem and also its conservation efforts. The second is Economic, the economic value generated from ecotourism activities in sustainable mangroves and part of the proceeds is returned to maintain the ecosystem and the third is the empowerment of the local (local) community as the initiator, manager and guide in the ecotourism business [3]. In principle, ecotourism is an activity in which the physical/chemical, biological/ecological and economic functions of mangrove forests continue to run well. Ecotourism in mangrove areas contains three main pillars, namely ecology, which is a vehicle for nature conservation, sustainable economy and empowerment of local (local) communities [3, 4].

The diversity of species and unique characteristics of mangrove plants and the diversity of fauna (birds, crustaceans, mollusks, fish) can be an attraction for ecotourism attractions, including plant species with unique roots, fruit shapes, and the adaptability of mangrove plants on muddy and able to live on land with high salt content. The benefits of plants for treatment, the benefits of mangrove plant species as mosquito repellents, or the benefits of plants for religious ceremonies in Bali can also be an attraction for ecotourism [5, 6].

The feasibility of mangrove forest ecosystems for ecotourism activities can be seen from the diversity of mangrove plant species (number of species), mangrove density (number of individuals/m2), mangrove thickness (mangrove diameter from coast to land), above-tree biota (insects, birds), biota in water (fish, crabs, mollusks), perceptions of local people and also the condition of mangrove forests [7].

The forms of ecotourism activities in Mangrove can be quite varied. Sports and recreational tourism activities, attractions can be in the form of kayaking, fishing, canoeing, camping. The facilities needed are kayaks, canoes, rafts, camping ground. Educational and research tourism, the attractions can be in the form of an introduction to mangrove vegetation, birth watching, an introduction to the characteristics of mangrove plants. The required facilities can be natural, canoe, raft, observation post/ecotower, resting point. Health tourism, attractions can be in the form of meditation, rehabilitation, therapy and the facilities needed are shelter, shade [3].

Mangrove forests with a diversity of unique flora and fauna are very attractive as a tourist attraction. Many mangrove areas have been developed as tourist attractions, including the Nusa Lembongan mangrove area for mangrove tours, the TAHURA Ngurah Rai mangrove area for ecotourism attractions, ecotourism areas in Kampoeng Kepiting mangrove forest, Pejarakan Buleleng village mangrove forest as an educational tourist attraction, mangrove forests in Perancak developed as an ecotourism attraction. The Segara Batu Lumbang mangrove forest is part of the Tahura Ngurah Rai mangrove forest area, which was developed by the Segara Guna Batu Lumbang Pemogan fishing group. The mangrove forest in Segara Batu Lumbang is also a tourist attraction based on the conservation of the diversity of mangrove flora and fauna. Mangrove tourism that has been developed is a mangrove tour with canoes, traditional boat “jukung”, fishing tours, volunteer tourism.

Several other mangrove forest areas were also developed by local community groups including the Nusa Lembongan mangroves by the Sari Segara group, the mangrove forests on the coast of Pejarakan Buleleng by the Nature Conservation Forum Putri Menjangan and the Perancak mangrove forests by the Village-Owned Enterprise (BUM-Desa) Perancak Jembrana Bali [8].

2. Mangrove forest conservation

Conservation of natural resources and their ecosystems in principle consists of 3, namely (1) Protection of life support systems. In this case, it is important for the existence of flora and fauna and their ecosystems to receive protection, whether in a National Park area, nature reserve, wildlife reserve or community forest, customary forest; (2) preserving the diversity of plant and animal species and their ecosystems; (3) sustainable use of living natural resources and their ecosystems, which can play a role in the interests of science, research, education and training, culture, recreation and nature tourism and ecotourism. Flora and fauna conservation efforts aim to: (a) prevent plant and animal species from being endangered; (b) maintain genetic purity and species diversity; and (c) maintaining the balance and stability of the existing ecosystem; so that it can be used for human welfare in a sustainable manner (Republic of Indonesia Law No. 5 of 1990 [9]; Regulation of the Minister of Environment and Forestry No. P.106 of 2018 [10]).

Mangrove ecosystems have three main functions, namely physical/chemical functions, biological/ecological functions and economic functions. The economic function of mangrove forests is more directed at recreational tourism activities, educational tours and research tours. Furthermore, mangroves are managed for ecotourism activities. Mangroves play an important role in protecting coastal areas and maintaining habitat for a large number of species of animals/fauna (fishes, crustaceans, mollusks, reptiles, birds, to mammals), endangered species and endangered species, all of which play an important role in maintaining biodiversity.

The diversity of mangrove plant species plays an important role for the existence of mangrove fauna. The diversity of mangrove plants consists of two groups, namely true mangrove species and associated mangrove species. True mangrove species are plants that grow exclusively in mangrove habitat, including Rhizophora sp., Bruguiera sp. Sonneratia sp. Xylocarpus sp., Avicennia sp. and species of mangrove associations are terrestrial plants that are able to grow adaptively in mangrove areas, including Hibiscus tiliaceus, pescapre (Ipomoea pes-capre [1]).

Various types of fauna associated with mangrove ecosystems, namely various types of birds, insects and primates that live in the tree canopy as well as various types of fauna that live at the bottom of the mangroves such as wild boars, monitor lizards, crocodiles, snakes, shrimp, fish, shellfish, snails, crabs are an ecotourism attraction in mangrove ecosystems. Some of the bird species found in the mangroves of the Perancak Estuary include great egrets (Egretta alba), small egrets (Egretta garzetta), egrets (Ardeola speciosa) which are interesting attractions for ecotourism visitors [11].

Biodiversity conservation is important for several reasons, namely; (1) Ecological reasons. Individual species and ecosystems have developed over millions of years into complex dependencies. The greater the loss of habitat and species, the greater the danger of total collapse; (2) Economic reasons. Loss of biodiversity in general also means that species with economic and social potential may disappear before they are discovered; (3) Ethical reasons. When forests and other habitats are lost or degraded, so are the traditions and livelihoods of local people based on these habitats; and (4) esthetic reasons. Everyone would agree that a vegetated area with all its life content would be more interesting than a burnt, degraded landscape or large concrete buildings. Human existence is linked to the natural world. Every type of plant and animal is different from each other and this gives beauty to nature in different ways [12, 13].

The development of development in various sectors (including the tourism sector) has an impact on the environment, both the geophysical-chemical environment, the environment and the socio-culture of the surrounding community. This requires humans to always act wisely towards the environment so as not to cause negative or damaging impacts. In supporting programs to improve the management of living natural resources and their ecosystems in a harmonious, balanced and sustainable manner, various conservation efforts are required both in-situ and ex-situ to flora and fauna, especially to species that have been protected or are experiencing population decline. Flora conservation efforts are not only the responsibility of the government but also the wider community, non-governmental organizations, private institutions including entrepreneurs in the tourism sector.

Mangrove forests developed as mangrove tourism objects by governmental or non-governmental institutions based on ecotourism. Ecotourism activities are in principle beneficiary mangrove area while maintaining the biological/ecological functions of mangrove forests, there is a sustainable economic value and empowerment of local communities. The concept of ecotourism can be described in more detail in the principles of ecotourism, namely: (1) Minimizing physical, social, behavioral, psychological impacts; (2) Build environmental awareness, culture and respect; (3) Provide a positive experience for visitors and hosts; (4) Providing direct financial benefits for environmental conservation or preservation; (5) Generate financial benefits for local communities, private industry (6) Provide impressive interpretive experiences for visitors to increase sensitivity to the political, environmental, social climate of the tourist destination; (7) Build, operate facilities or infrastructure by minimizing environmental impact; (8) Recognizing the rights, spiritual beliefs of indigenous communities and empowering them [3, 4, 14].

The use of mangroves for ecotourism is in accordance with the development directions of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), namely goal 12, regarding sustainable patterns of consumption and production; goal 13, on urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts; goal 14, regarding the conservation and sustainable use of sea, ocean and maritime resources for sustainable development; goal 15, on Protecting, restoring and promoting sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, managing forests in a sustainable manner, combating desertification, and halting and reversing soil degradation and halting the loss of biodiversity; and goal 17, on strengthening implementation measures and revitalizing the global partnership for sustainable development [15].

3. Use of mangrove ecosystems for ecotourism in Bali: case study

This section describes the distribution and mangrove forests area in Bali and some examples of mangrove areas that have been developed for ecotourism by non-governmental organizations or the local government. Based on data from the Ministry of Environment and Forestry, the area of mangrove land in Bali Province reaches 2143.97 hectares (3067.71 Ha), which is distributed in southern Bali (TAHURA Ngurah Rai) covering 1373.5 ha, Mangrove Nusa Lembongan covering 202 Ha, The Perancak Estuary, which is located in Jembrana Regency, Bali has mangrove forests with an area of 177.09 ha, Gilimanuk bay covering an area of 265.92 Ha and Buleleng Regency covering an area of 1291.40 Ha [16] (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Map of mangrove distribution in Bali (2021).

The use of mangrove forests for ecotourism activities in several areas in the mangrove areas of the Province of Bali is based on management by local community groups/communities around the mangrove area and continues to maintain the conservation of biodiversity, landscapes and their ecosystems. Ecotourism activities carried out by this community group are fostered by the relevant agencies in their area and or state-owned enterprises which are part of their CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) program.

Data on the diversity of flora, fauna and ecotourism attractions in the study area is the result of the author’s observations and from several sources of articles that have been published in journals or books including [5, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22].

3.1 Mangrove ecotourism of Segara Guna Batu Lumbang

The Segara Guna Batu Lumbang mangrove forest is part of the Grand Forest Park (TAHURA) Ngurah Rai mangrove conservation area, which was developed by a community group, namely KUB Segara Guna Batu Lumbang. Geographically it is located at coordinates 8°44′4.02“S and 115°11’17.15”E. Ecotourism activities by this community group are fostered by the Forestry and Environment Service TAHURA Ngurah Rai and PT. Indonesia Power (Bali Power Generation Unit).

The mangrove forest in Segara Guna Batu Lumbang is a tourist attraction based on the conservation of the diversity of mangrove flora and fauna. Mangrove tours that are being developed are mangrove tours with canoes/jukung, fishing tours, volunteer tour, and spiritual tours. Mangrove tourist facilities in the Lumbang stone area, namely canoes, “jukung”, boats, post/canoe base hall, fishing lines. The Segara Batu Lumbang mangrove tourism object combines spiritual tourism and conservation tourism (Voluntourism). In this area, the Penyawangan Melasti temple, Pemogan traditional village, Denpasar, Bali, canoe, boat route, stilt houses, posts for fishermen group facilities and facilities for tourists to be able to explore existing spots or objects (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Segara Guna Batu Lumbang mangrove tourist object (photos 2022).

Biodiversity in this mangrove area mainly consists of mangrove vegetation and mangrove association plants, bird fauna, mollusks, crustaceans, fish, reptiles, amphibians and some insects. Several species of plants and fauna are endangered species based on the IUCNRedlist, most of them are in the LC (Least Concern) category. This shows that the mangrove area of Segara Guna Batu Lumbang has high conservation value (Tables 1 and 2). Expanse of mangrove forest and interacting fauna become an interesting sight for tourists visiting the Segara Guna Batu Lumbang mangrove tour (Figures 3 and 4).

No	Species	Common names	Conservation status
1	Rhizophora mucronata	Asiatic mangrove	LC, decreasing
2	Rhizophora apiculata	red mangrove	LC, decreasing
3	Excoecaria agallocha	blind-your-eye mangrove or molky mangrove
4	Xylocarpus granatum	cannonball mangrove	LC, decreasing
5	Sonneratia alba	apple mangrove	LC, decreasing
6	Bruguiera gymnorrhiza	oriental mangrove	LC, decreasing
7	Lumnitzera racemosa	white-flowered black mangrove	LC, decreasing
8	Aegiceras floridum	black mangrove or river mangrove	NT, decreasing
9	Avicennia marina	gray mangrove or white mangrove	LC, decreasing

Table 1.

Diversity of mangrove plants in Segara Batu Lumbang.

Scarcity NT: near threatened; LC: Least Concern, based on IUCN Red List, version 2022 [23].

No	Species	Common names	Conservation status
	Birds
1	Gerygone sulphurea	Golden-bellied gerygone	LC, decreasing
2	Aegithina tiphia	Common iora	LC
3	Alcedo coerulescens	Small blue kingfisher	LC
4	Todiramphus chloris	Collared kingfisher	LC, decreasing
5	Alcedo meninting	blue-eared kingfisher	LC, decreasing
6	Collocalia linchi	Cave swiftlet
7	Bubulcus ibis	Cattle egret	LC
8	Egretta intermedia	Intermediate egret	LC
9	Egretta garzetta	Little Egret
10	Egretta alba	greater egret	LC
11	Ardeola speciosa	Javan Pond-heron	LC
12	Ardea sumatrana	great-billed heron	LC
13	Butorides striata	Striated heron	LC, Decreasing
14	Orthotomus sepium	olive-backed tailorbird	LC, Endemik Indonesia
15	Streptopelia chinensis	Spotted dove
16	Corvus macrorhynchos	large-billed crow	LC
17	Dicrurus macrocercus	black drongo	LC
18	Lonchura punctulata	scaly-breasted munia	LC
19	Hirundo tahitica	Pacific Swallow	LC
20	Merops philippinus	Blue-tailed bee-eater	LC
21	Nectarinia jugularis	Olive-backed sunbird	LC
22	Microcarbo melanoleucos	Little Pied Cormorant	LC
23	Phalacrocorax sulcirostris	Little Black Cormorant	LC
24	Pycnonotus goiavier	yellow vented bulbul
25	Amaurornis phoenicurus	white breasted waterhen	LC
26	Rhipidura javanica	Pied Fantail	LC, L
27	Numenius phaeopus	Eurasian whimbrel	LC, Decreasing, L.
28	Tringa glareola	sandpiper	LC
	Crustacean
29	Thalassina sp.	Mangrove shrimp
30	Alpheus sp.	Pistol shrimp
31	Sesarma roberti	Sesarmid crabs
32	Uca annulipes	fiddler crab
33	Cardisoma carnifex	Crabs
35	Uca vocans	fiddler crab
36	Scylla sp.	Mangrove crab
37	Uca dussumieri	fiddler crab
38	Uca triangularis	fiddler crab
39	Uca lactea	fiddler crab
40	Coenobita sp.	Hermit crabs
	Mollusks
41	Assiminea brevicula	Red mangrove snail
42	Cassidula nucleus	Marine snail
43	Cerithidea cingulata	Girdled horn snail
44	Chicoreus capucinus	mangrove murex
45	Littorina scabra	mangrove periwinkle
46	Nerita maxima	nerites
47	Nerita planospira	nerites
48	Neritina turrita	nerites	LC
49	Telescopium telescopium	Telescope snail
50	Terebralia palustris	the giant mangrove whelk
51	Terebralia sulcata	sulcate swamp cerith
52	Geloina erosa	Lokan mussel
53	Gelonia scabra	Mangrove mussel
54	Placuna ephipium	Saddle oyster
	Fish
55	Glossogobius circumpectum	Glosogobius fish
56	Periophthalmus barbarus	mudskipper	LC
57	Gazza minuta	Toothed ponyfish	LC
58	Scatophagus argus	Spotted scat	LC
59	Lates calcarifer	Barramundi
	Insects
60	Eurema sp.	Yellow butterfly
61	Leptosia nina	Small butterfly
62	Valanga nigricornis	Javanese grasshopper
63	Orthetrum sabina	green marsh hawk dragonfly
64	Pantala flavescens	globe wanderer dragonfly	LC
65	Crocothemis servilia	scarlet skimmer dragonfly	LC
	Amphibian
66	Duttaphrynus melanostictus	Frog
	Reptile
67	Eutropis multifasciata	Common Sun Skink
68	Cerberus rynchops	dog face water snake	LC
69	Varanus salvator	Water monitor	LC

Table 2.

Diversity of fauna in the Segara Batu Lumbang mangrove area.

Scarcity, LC: Least Concern, base on IUCN Red List, version 2022 [23]; L: protected status according to Regulation of the Minister of Environment and Forestry No. P.106 of 2018 [10].

Figure 3.

Fishing and traveling around the mangroves at the Segara Guna Batu Lumbang, mangrove tourism attractions (photos: 2022).

Figure 4.

Birds in the Segara Guna Batu Lumbang mangrove area (photos: 2022).

Tourists visiting this area can travel around the mangroves by canoe, get to know the diversity of flora and fauna, research, bird watching, fishing, environmental education, become volunteers in mangrove conservation. The economic value generated from mangrove tourism activities is partly utilized for the welfare of the managing community group and partly for mangrove ecosystem recovery funds due to the impact of utilization (among them activities of planting mangrove seedlings, repairing facilities, funds for cleaning plastic waste).

3.2 Mangrove tourism of Segara Luhur Batu Lumbang

The Segara Luhur Batu Lumbang mangrove forest is part of the Tahura Ngurah Rai mangrove forest area. Geographically it is located at coordinates 8°43′33.86“S and 115°12’1.27”E. This mangrove ecotourism was developed by the Simbar Segara group and the Manager of the Dalem Temple of Luhur Segara Batu Lumbang, Pemogan Village, Denpasar Bali. Ecotourism activities by this community group are fostered by the Forestry and Environment Service UPTD TAHURA Ngurah Rai. Guidance is carried out to ensure that the use of mangroves for tourism activities still prioritizes the conservation of flora and fauna and mangrove ecosystems.

The mangrove forest in Segara Batu Lumbang is one of the tourist attractions based on the conservation of the diversity of mangrove flora and fauna. The Segara Luhur Batu Lumbang mangrove tourism object combines spiritual tourism and conservation tourism (Voluntourism). An alternative type of tourism that has the opportunity to be developed in the Batu Lumbang Mangrove Forest is Voluntourism. This type of tourism combines volunteer activities and tourism. Because this area has beautiful natural potential [22] (Figure 5).

Figure 5.

Segara Luhur Batu Lumbang tourism object (photos: 2022).

In this area, Pura Luhur Segara Batu Lumbang was built, by the traditional village of Pemogan, Denpasar, Bali. Mangrove tours that are being developed are mangrove tours with canoes, fishing tours, volunteer tours, and spiritual tours. Mangrove tourist facilities in this area, namely canoes, traditional boat “jukung”, boats, post/canoe base hall, and fishing lines (Figure 6).

Figure 6.

Tour around the mangroves by canoe in the Segara Luhur Batu Lumbang mangroves (photos: 2022).

The diversity of flora and fauna in the Segara Batu Lumbang mangrove tourist area is almost similar to the flora and fauna in the Segara Luhur Batu Lumbang mangrove area, because it is still a TAHURA Ngurah Rai area. The flora and fauna consist of mangrove vegetation and mangrove association plants, bird fauna, mollusks, crustaceans, fish, reptiles, amphibians and some insects. Several species of plants and fauna are endangered species based on the IUCN Redlist, most of them are in the LC (Least Concern) category, there are several bird species which are protected species based on the Decree of the Minister of Environment and Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia no P106 of 2018. This shows that the Segara Batu Lumbang mangrove area has a high conservation value. The expanse of mangrove forest and interacting fauna is an interesting sight for tourists visiting the Segara Batu Lumbang mangrove tour. Tourists exploring mangroves using canoes are presented with a unique view of mangrove vegetation and several types of animals that interact with mangrove habitat (Figure 7).

Figure 7.

Flora Fauna in the Segara Luhur Batu Lumbang mangrove (photos 2021 and 2022).

3.3 Mangrove ecotourism of Kampoeng Kepiting

The Kampoeng Kepiting mangrove ecotourism area is part of the Tahura Ngurah Rai mangrove forest area. Geographically it is located at coordinates 8°44′38.62“S and 115°11’0.03”E. This mangrove ecotourism was developed by the Nelayan Wanasari Group, Tuban Badung Village, Bali. Ecotourism activities by this community group are fostered by the Ngurah Rai Pertamina Depo (CSR Program) and the Forestry and Environment Service Tahura Ngurah Rai. Coaching is carried out for business development and ensuring that the use of mangroves for tourism activities still prioritizes the conservation of flora and fauna and mangrove ecosystems (Figure 8).

Figure 8.

Mangrove ecotourism of Kampoeng Kepiting (photo: 2021).

The uniqueness of the mangrove flora and fauna and the ecosystem in the Kampoeng Kepiting area is an attractive attraction for ecotourists. Ecotourism attractions in Kampoeng Kepiting include mangrove tour packages using traditional boats, mangrove tours using canoes, fishing mangroves with traditional boats, crab aunt release tours, volunteer tours (planting mangrove seeds and cleaning mangroves from plastic waste), educational tours of mangrove ecosystems (Figure 9).

Figure 9.

Voluntourism in Kampoeng Kepiting mangrove (photos: 2021).

3.4 Mangrove tour tourism Nusa Lembongan

The mangrove forest in Nusa Lembongan which covers 202 ha [24] has been utilized by the community for mangrove tour tourism activities. Several tourism organizations that have developed a mangrove tour program in Nusa Lembongan include the Bali Tours Club, the Jungut Batu village mangrove tour group, Travelfish.org, the Tangjung Sanghyang tour group. In this activity, traveling tourists explore the mangrove forest by using rowing canoes, motorized canoes, some are via a trail. Throughout the tour, tourists are accompanied by local guides to enjoy the beauty of the expanse of mangrove forests.

One of the community groups developing a mangrove tour in Nusa Lembongan is the Sari Segara Mangrove Tour Group. The mangrove area developed by this group is located at coordinates 8°40′1.25“S and 115°28’1.79”E. This group utilizes several parts of the mangrove forest area in Nusa Lembongan, specifically the mangrove forest in the northern part of Nusa Lembongan. The facilities used for the mangrove tour are canoes, traditional boats or canoes. Tourists can go around the mangroves while observing the diversity of flora and fauna (Figure 10).

Figure 10.

Mangrove tour in the mangrove forest of Nusa Lembongan (photos: 2022).

Nusa Lembongan’s mangrove forests support a diversity of mangrove plants, bird fauna, crustaceans, mollusks which are very interesting for tourists to enjoy. At least 11 species of true mangrove plants, 27 species of birds, 22 species of mollusks and 11 species of crustaceans have been recorded in the mangroves of Nusa Lembongan [5, 17, 25]. Most of the mangrove plant species are included in the rare LC, Vu and NT categories according to the IUCN Redlist. Likewise, most of the bird species found are endangered species, especially the LC category (Tables 3 and 4).

No	Species name	Common Names	Conservation status
1	Rhizophora mucronata	Asiatic mangrove	LC, decreasing
2	Rhizophora apiculata	Red mangrove	LC, decreasing
3	Rhizophora stylosa	spotted mangrove	LC, decreasing
4	Excoecaria agallocha	blind-your-eye mangrove or milky mangrove
5	Xylocarpus granatum	cannonball mangrove	LC, decreasing
6	Sonneratia alba	apple mangrove	LC, decreasing
7	Bruguiera gymnorhiza	oriental mangrove	LC, decreasing
8	Lumnitzera racemosa	white-flowered black mangrove	LC, decreasing
9	Ceriops decandra	ten male mangrove	NT, decreasing
10	Avicennia marina	gray mangrove or white mangrove	LC, decreasing
11	Avicennia lanata	white mangrove	VU

Table 3.

Mangrove plant species on Nusa Lembongan.

Scarcity: LC: Least Concern, VU: Vulnerable, NT: near threatened, base on IUCN Red List, version 2022, [23]; L: protected status according to Regulation of the Minister of Environment and Forestry No. P.106 of 2018 [10].

No	Species	Common names	Conservation status
	Birds
1	Alcedo coerulescens	small blue kingfisher	LC, stable
2	Amaurornis phoenicurus	white breasted waterhen	LC, unknown
3	Anthreptes malacensis	brown-throated sunbird	LC, stable
4	Ardea purpurea	purple heron	LC, decreasing
5	Butorides striata	striated heron	LC, decreasing
6	Cacomantis merulinus	plaintive cuckoo	LC, stable
7	Collocalia linchi	cave swiftlet	LC, decreasing
8	Copsychus saularis	Oriental magpie-robin	LC, stable
9	Gerygone sulphurea	golden-bellied gerygone	LC, decreasing
10	Hirundo tahitica	Pacific Swallow	LC, unknown
11	Hypothymis azurea	black-naped monarch	LC, stable
12	Lalage sueurii	White shouldered triller	LC, increasing
13	Lanius schach	Long-tailed Shrike	LC, unknown
14	Merops philippinus	blue-tailed bee-eater	LC, stable
15	Nectarinia jugularis	live-backed sunbird	LC, stable
16	Oriolus chinensis	black naped oriole	LC, decreasing
17	Pachycephala grisola	mangrove whistler	—
18	Passer domesticus	house sparrow	LC, decreasing
19	Psilopogon haemacephala	coppersmith Barbet	LC, increasing
20	Pycnonotus aurigaster	Sooty-headed Bulbul	LC, decreasing
21	Pycnonotus goiavier	yellow vented bulbul	—
22	Thalasseus bergii	Greater Crested Tern	LC, stable
23	Todiramphus chloris	collared kingfisher	LC, decreasing
24	Todiramphus sanctus	sacred kingfisher	LC, increasing
25	Treron vernans	pink-necked green pigeon	LC, stable
26	Turnix suscitator	barred buttonquail	LC, increasing
27	Zosterops chloris	lemon-bellied white-eye	LC, stable
	Mollusks
28	Anadara antiquata	Shell fish
29	Anadara granosa	blood cokle
30	Crassostrea rhizophorae	The mangrove oyster
31	Modiolus micropterus	horse mussel
32	Assiminaea sp.	sea snail
33	Cerithidea obtusa	mud creeper
34	Conus asiaticus	cone snail	LC
35	Conus virgo	cone snail	LC
36	Cypraea boivinii	cowries
37	Cypraea caputserpentis	snakehead cowry
38	Hemifusus ternatanus	ternate false fusus
39	Indothais gradata	rock snail/murex snails
40	Littorina carinifera	Mangrove periwinkle
41	Littorina scabra	mangrove periwinkle
42	Littoraria undulata	mangrove periwinkle	LC
43	Nerita plicata	nerites
44	Nerita planospira	nerites
45	Pugilina cochlidium	spiral melongena
46	Terebralia palustris	the giant mangrove whelk	DD
47	Terebralia sulcata	sulcate swamp cerith
	Crustacean
48	Caenobita sp.	hermit crab
49	Platypodia granulosa	poisonous crabs
50	Scylla sp.	mud crab
51	Sesarma roberti	marsh /mangrove crab
52	Sesarma sp.	marsh crab
53	Uca dussumieri	Purple fiddler crab
54	Uca anulipes	fiddler crab
55	Uca lactea	fiddler crab
56	Uca tetragonon	fiddler crab
57	Uca triangularis	fiddler crab
58	Uca vocans	fiddler crab

Table 4.

Fauna species richness in the Nusa Lembongan mangrove.

Scarcity, LC: Least Concern, DD: data deficient, (IUCN Red List, version 2022, [23]).

3.5 Ecotourism in mangrove ecosystem Pejarakan Buleleng

The coastal mangrove forest of Pejarakan Village covers 160 Ha, located at coordinates 8° 7′32.16“S and 114°34’19.89”E, managed by the Nature Conservation Forum Putri Menjangan (NCF Putri menjangan). Management of the area includes efforts to conserve mangroves and develop educational tours, ecotourism. The diversity of mangrove plants, growth zoning patterns, diversity of birds, mollusks, crustaceans that interact with mangrove ecosystems is an attraction for ecotourism [26].

The Nature Conservation Forum, which is a local community organization, is developing this area for ecotourism-based tourism. Facilities developed: office, information center, tracking/trail, resting point. Ecotourism activities can be in the form of education on mangrove ecosystems, mangrove conservation (nursery, planting), introduction to the diversity of flora and fauna, and research (Figure 11).

Figure 11.

Mangrove ecotourism facilities in Pejarakan mangrove (photos: 2017).

The diversity of mangrove plants and associated plants, the diversity of birds, mollusks, crustaceans and the typical landscape of mangrove ecosystems is an attraction for ecotourism attractions. Several true mangrove plant species have been recorded with particularities in root type, fruit shape, growth form and growing zoning in mangrove habitat. The species of mangrove species found include Rhizophora apiculata, Sonneratia alba, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, aviccenia sp. and Rhozophora stylosa.

In the Putri Menjangan mangrove area, 39 species of birds were found. The dominant species found were from the families Ardeidae and Alcedinidae, which are water bird species, including the gray herons (Ardea cinerea), sea herons (Ardea sumatrana), little silver egrets (Egretta sacra), silver egrets (Egretta intermedia), great egret (E. alba), kingfisher (Halcyon chloris), and blue shrimp (Alcedo coerulescens). The presence of these birds is an interesting attraction for bird watching ecotourism. The existence of mollusk and crustacean species is also an interesting attraction for ecotourism, several species of mollusks found include the canal monodont (Monodonta canalifera), giant mangrove whelk (Terebralia palustris), tropical periwinkle sea snail (Planaxis sulcatus), telescope snail (Telescopium telescopium), sea snail (Cerithidea obtusa), mud snail (Cerithideopsilla alata), periwinkle (Littoraria strigata). Several species from the crustacean group include sesarmid crabs (Sesarma roberti), Fiddler crabs (Uca anulipes), fiddler crabs (Uca vocans) and Uca tetragonon (Figure 12).

Figure 12.

Some interesting fauna that can be observed in pejarakan mangroves (photos: 2017).

3.6 Perancak mangrove ecotourism

Coastal mangrove forest area of Perancak Jembrana village, which covers 10 hectares. Located at coordinates 8°23′55.16“S and 114°37’17.22”E. This mangrove ecotourism is managed by the Perancak Customary Village-Owned Enterprise (BUM-Desa) and under the auspices of the Jembrana Regency Government and the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, for Ecotourism. Ecotourism activities are based on three concepts, namely the preservation of the flora and fauna of the mangrove forest is maintained, there is a sustainable economic value and the local community plays a role in its management. In this area several facilities supporting ecotourism activities were built, including a wooden trail for tracking, an office for ticket reservations, ecotourism information boards and toilets. All facilities are built with an environmentally friendly concept [27] (Figure 13).

Figure 13.

Perancak mangrove ecotourism object. (photo source: Bali tripon.com. Accessed: 2022).

The expanse of the coastal mangrove vegetation of Perancak and the existing biota is an interesting attraction. Mangrove plant species with a distinctive root type (stilt root, pneumatophor, knee root), various fruit shapes (ball-like, chili-like, heart-shaped, bean-shaped), unique growing habitat, namely in the intertidal area (tidal).

4. Conclusions

The conclusion is that by utilizing mangrove forests for ecotourism activities, there are several important things, namely:

1. Flora fauna, landscapes, ecological systems in mangrove forests are still running in balance.

2. The function of the mangrove forest is biologically, physically and chemically maintained.

3. There is a sustainable economic value for social and financial welfare for ecosystem recovery.

4. The mangrove forest is a research laboratory for researchers and students.

5. Mangrove ecotourism has value for environmental education for the visiting community, which in turn is disseminated to the community, government and entrepreneurs.

6. There is a change in perspective in the utilization of living natural resources, namely from exploitation to sustainable use.

7. Ecotourism Providing interpretive experience, good knowledge for visitors about the existence of flora and fauna, especially in the ecotourism area.

8. Ecotourism pays respect to regional and community religious values, local cultural wisdom, and the social life of local communities.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank the heads of the mangrove tourism groups, namely Segara Guna Batu Lumbang, Segara Luhur Batu Lumbang, Kampoeng Kepiting, the heads of the NCF Putri Menjangan and the Sari Sagara Lembongan Group for their permission and facilitation during the field survey. We hope that the information in this book chapter will benefit the development of ecotourism, especially mangrove ecotourism in Bali.

Conflict of interest

I declare that what I wrote in this book chapter is purely for the benefit of developing positive information for sustainable mangrove management and there is no conflict of interest with other parties.