Indigenous Farming Knowledge as a Tool for Addressing Global Warming: A Case Study of the Bedouin in the Negev Arid Highlands – Water Catchments Construction

Abstract

In the previous century, the Bedouins a nomadic people who migrated all over the Arab peninsula with their herds began to settle in villages, one of their settlement areas is the Negev highlands. While the younger generation searches for similar occupations as the surrounding urbanized Israelis, the adult ones in many cases sustain their traditional farming practices. In many cases these practices are not profitable and not sustainable, nevertheless, these practices are based on long-term experience in arid terms. Until recently the municipalities did not invest money and efforts to collect this knowledge and render it a sustainable and profitable one. A mission that became crucial not only due to the adults aging and the risk that this knowledge will be lost but due to the rapid transition of un-arid regions into arid or desertified ones worldwide that requires suitable farming practices. Hereby the scheme of acquiring this knowledge from the Bedouin farmers, designing sustainable and profitable solutions, managing the cultivated lands, and analyzing with them the outcome will be described together with samples from the Negev highlands. This chapter will focus on water catchment construction, which became a crucial requirement for sustainable agriculture due to the increased intensity of the rainfall event worldwide.

1. Introduction

1.1 Indigenous farmers

Clusters of indigenous population settlements worldwide are located in marginal lands, which are characterized by low fertility, incised lands, and suffering from climate extremes, that the indigenous populations were pushed aside into them during the years [1, 2]. Nevertheless, the long existence of the indigenous populations in such areas enforced them to suit their agricultural cultivations to these terms until it became part of their life cycle. In many cases, these cultivations are traditionally utilized even after the terms were changed and these cultivations became unsustainable and unprofitable leading the authorities to treat these cultivations as improper ones. The recent years with a focus on 2021 and 2022 were characterized by climate extremes, such as long droughts, which are characterized, in many cases, by high-intensity rain events [3], bushfires, and intensive trophic storms that cause damage to public and personal infrastructure and even to human life. Additional damage, which is less discussed, but with broad effects that may be in many cases prolonged, is the damage to agricultural facilities expressed by massive soil erosion, land incision, and collapses that can lead at the end an area to a lack of ability for further agricultural utilization and desertification [4, 5]. This state arising the need to design cultivations and land management practices suited to extreme climatic and land terms. An important source of knowledge, still poorly studied, is the indigenous farmers existed one [6, 7]. Hereby, the research process and findings of recent studies dealing with land modification of wadis areas suited to wadis area of the Negev highlands using collected Bedouin knowledge will be described.

1.2 The Bedouin in the Negev highlands

Until the previous century, Bedouin tribes used to migrate with their herds between rangelands along the Arabian Peninsula and Mediterranean region, characterized by wadis landscape, flooded plains, gullied loess plains, and dunes acquiring knowledge about arid rain-fed and flood water irrigated agriculture, grazing, and cereals breeding in such areas [8, 9]. In the second half of the 20th century, part of the Bedouins settled in towns, which the municipalities built for them such as Hura, Lakia, and Rahat, while the other part settled in informal settlements, also termed: the Bedouin diaspora of the Negev. Recently, the municipalities encourage the population of the Bedouin diaspora to settle in touristic-agricultural villages. Such settlement is based on a village with allocated areal units per each Hamula (big family characterized by internal marriage correlations, composing the tribe) for carrying out its traditional farming practices, such as grazing and rainfed cultivations. Such design, as planned, will attract tourists from Israel and abroad and supply additional income to the residents [10].

Studies with Bedouin farmers are highly challenging. The first challenge of such studies is the interaction with the indigenous Bedouin farmers. Unfortunately, the core pattern of the correlation between the Bedouin farmers and municipalities is distrust, which is resulted from misconceptions or half-trues that the Bedouin destroy the Negev highlands. In addition, the authorities treat the Negev highlands as a backyard as expressed by spreading construction waste over a wide part of its open lands leading to changes in the topography and the land hydrology [8, 11]. The Bedouin youth due to these reasons and the lack of profitability in cultivation, or agriculture utilization as an example for grazing, enhance land degradation by carrying out improper land management practices, as summarized in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

The current loss-loss state between the public, municipalities, Bedouin adults and younger generation, and the land state [8].

To ‘break’ this ‘loss-loss’ state and achieve an alternative sustainable and profitable land management utilization, a scheme was designed aimed to encourage the Bedouin farmers to contribute their knowledge and cooperate with the project coordinating team (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

The scheme of acquiring traditional Bedouin knowledge from the farmers, designing a rehabilitation scheme for wide areas, sustainable and profitable utilization, and implementing it in-field.

The first step was analysis of the area, which is the Negev highlands. Therefore surveys all over the Negev indicated the following main agricultural Bedouin landform designs in the Negev are gully terraces using check dams, which will be exemplified by the study in PWA (Hura), and Elwashla family (El-Sir village); Hillslope terraces, which will be exemplified by the wadi Shualim (Yeroham) and Rahma foothill project; Flooded plain modeling into MAR (Mange aquifer recharge) area, which will be exemplified by El-Freijat (Rahma village); and wadi banks reclamation by small ruminants herding, Yeroham ephemeral stream.

2. Gully reclamation using check dams, PWA study

PWA (rectangular plot, sized 45 ha centered around Lat. 31°16′20″, Lon. 34°56′17″) is located in the Northern Negev in Hura municipality land on an area that statutory belonged to ILA (Israel Lands Administration) and was leased to Project Wadi Attir association for constructing a sustainable agricultural utilization in the Negev for the Bedouins (www.sustainabilitylabs.org/wadiattir/home).

2.1 Interacting with the local Bedouin farmers

Parallel to the PWA farm establishment, several actions were carried out to interact with the local indigenous farmers for encouraging them to contribute their traditional knowledge to the project. As an example, old Bedouin women guided a course for unemployed ones in Hura on the way of making traditional Bedouin cheeses, a knowledge that was integrated at the end into a modern dairy on the site. The second example refers to collecting ethno-botanic knowledge from local Bedouin Sheikhs (the religious Bedouin leaders) of local aromatic plants. This knowledge was used for commercial breeding that is managed by one of the sheiks, a nomination that was used additionally to encourage his participation [12]. The third example refers to area rehabilitation. The main reason that PWA belongs to ILA and no farmer claims ownership of it was its extremely degraded state is expressed by a dense net of gullies that prevents its’ cultivation. The soil is loess and the Bedouin used to construct dams over the crossing gullies from the local soil, and waste to enable partially agricultural utilization. Nevertheless, this solution enhances in many cases the land incision [13].

Previous studies indicated the positive influence of tree plantation on area stabilization [14]. Therefore, the project managers consult with the local Bedouins on preferred trees and shrubs that may suit a plantation in the rehabilitated gullies that were bred in a unique nursery at Hura. One of the Bedouin farmers was nominated to manage it.

2.2 Survey of the area

The hydrological experience of the Bedouin farmers, which was achieved during the years of existence in these extreme arid terms, is highly important for designing the rehabilitation plan of the area, nevertheless, this knowledge is partial, cannot be calibrated, and cannot be digitized on a geographic coordinates system for further analysis and for designing a rehabilitation plan. Therefore, the areas of study were air photographed in high-resolution mode n using a drone or unmanned plane together with the heights over Above Sea Level (ASL) to form a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) map and orthophoto [15]. PWA is characterized by highly incised land that is expressed by a multi-landform landscape. Therefore, in addition, the land fertility and stability were characterized by 3D maps that were calculated based on ~30 drilled bore-holes over the site of study using kriging (ArcGIS^® Pro.) (Figure 3).

Figure 3.

3D map of soil Nitrate content and soil depth in PWA (7/2013) important survey in the initial state of each rehabilitation survey [16].

Based on the Bedouin knowledge and scientific data, chains of checked dams were constructed along the crossing gullies aimed to absorb the floodwater from the surroundings, prevent soil erosion and stabilize the area (preventing further incision). Based on the Bedouin advice in each soil rampart manure from adjacent small ruminants’ enclosure was added as bio-cementation [17]. The width of the confined area between the check dams, which is termed: the ‘gully terrace’, was determined based on the Bugeat formula [18]. Over the gully terraces, surface a mix of savanna trees and ones that were bred in the Bedouin nursery were planted. Inside the dam at a height of 1 m, a drainage pipe was laid to drain out the excess water that may be accumulated inside the gully terrace and may lead to the check dam collapse (Figure 4) [19].

Figure 4.

The checks dams’ design in PWA, which is based on the integration of the indigenous Bedouin knowledge and scientists’ analysis. Blue arrows—water flow direction.

2.3 Designing rehabilitation scheme for sustainable cultivation

The collected data was analyzed and integrated with scientific ones by experts for designing the water catchments, which are suited to PWA and Rahma-Yeroham sites. The construction of the water catchments was carried out by the project managers and the nominated Bedouin farmers not only to increase their willingness to cooperate in the projects but also as an additional way to acquire from them the traditional knowledge that may be integrated with the project and further ones [20, 21].

2.4 Maintenance and monitoring profitability and influence on the ecosystem

Farm maintenance is carried out by the incorporation of the initiators and local Bedouin delegates and the farming activities by employees from Hura to raise their awareness of sustainable land management practices. The profitability is determined by a wide range of economic tools [22], fertility by chemical measurements [23], and land stability by manual and satellite imaging [24]. The finding was used to suit the cultivation regime to the current terms. The cultivations and measurements, based on the study narrative, are carried by the local farmers, Still, dozens of years after completing the gully terraces construction, the employed Bedouin farmers on the farm are using in many cases unsustainable land management practices such as inadequate tillage and manure spreading due to inherent traditional customs.

2.5 El-Whashle, El Seer village

An additional example of agricultural utilization of gully terraces located in a wide wadi is the Bustan of El-Whashle hamula in El-Seer village adjacent to Dimona municipality (a rectangular area, centered in 31°5′45″25N, 34°58′39″89E, sized 3 ha). The gully terrace was constructed by bordering the wadi in the middle of the village with soil ramparts of 1.5 m in height and width and letting the drained water from the open and settled areas in the north and south sides irrigate it [24]. The area was planted with 100 olive trees in 2019 and aimed to analyze the influences of traditional Bedouin Bustan on the ecosystem. The trees were uprooted and replanted due to disagreements with other El-Seer residents and governors, which indicates the importance of taking care of positive kin relationships between the Bedouin Hamulas for successive rehabilitation by the land managers (Figure 5).

Figure 5.

Elwashla olive orchard in the wadi of El-Sir village.

3. Hillslope Bedouin terraces, Rahma-Yeroham site

The second study site is located in the open lands of Rahama a Bedouin touristic-agricultural village and the adjacent Yeroham municipality [10]. The methodology of these study stages will be discussed in detail as case studies.

3.1 Interacting with the local Bedouin farmers

The Bedouins in Hura can be defined as urbanized, therefore the formation of communication with them was relatively easy. In Rahma-Yeroham it was more challenging due to the spread Hamulas settlement and the reduced communication between them and even the people inside the Hamula. Therefore, to communicate with them, we first map the Hamula settlements in the area, secondly, study the kin interrelations in the Hamulas, Thirdly, form unofficial communication with the Hamula heads through their hosting rituals [25], and only then isolate the ones who wish to cooperate and contribute knowledge. The hamuals in Rahma-Yeroham site and the sites of study are presented in Figure 6.

Figure 6.

The hamulas in Rahma-Yeroham area and the site of study.

3.2 Survey of the area

Rahma-Yeroham site demonstrates an additional and important pattern of the Bedouin farmers, which relates to knowledge acquired by them from the existence of ancient agriculture systems. It seems somewhat unreasonable due to the extreme climate terms, but evidence all over the Negev highlands indicating intensive agriculture utilization which is dated to the Roman (63 BCE–324 CE), Byzantine (324–638 CE), and Early Islamic (638CE–1099CE) eras. More than that, new measurement instruments indicated even an earlier utilization that is dated even to the Late Bronze age (3300BCE–1200BCE) and the Iron age [26, 27]. The Bedouin farmers reclaimed part of these ancient agriculture systems, constructed new ones aside from the ancient ones, or used the blocks for their own farming (termed also: ‘Secondary utilization’ [28]). Therefore, to get a comprehensive insight into the land’s potential agricultural utilization and the hydrological patterns, the area was photographed using an unmanned plane, and then the plots of interest (Bedouin and ancient facilities), were analyzed in-field (Figure 7).

Figure 7.

Bedouin agricultural dams and their integration with ancient agricultural facilities, Rahma open lands.

In Rahma-Yeroham site the soil and the topography differ from the ones in PWA. While in PWA the landscape is hilly loess plains, in Rahma-Yeroham the landscape is mountains and the soil is in the interface of loess, calcite (bedrock), and sand [9]. Therefore, based on the ancient ruins and the Bedouin experience, the project managers decided to rely their rehabilitation scheme on rocky dams and retaining walls. While in PWA the construction of the check dams was carried out using heavy machinery, in the Rahma-Yeroham site the construction of the rocky facilities requires manual labor. Therefore, one of the study goals was to determine the required amount of manual labor, nevertheless to minimalize it by using machinery that will not damage the landscape and ecosystem. The project in Rahma-Yeroham is been carried out in two stages. The first site over wadi Shualim (Basin size is 24 km², centered in Lat. 30°95′86″N, Lon. 34°92′42″E, radius 2.4 km, western aspect) subjected to analyze the influences of the constructed retaining walls on the hydrological functioning of the existent Byzantine terraced system. The retaining walls were constructed by three courses, the lower one, which composes of rock segments sized 20–30 cm was laid at the bottom of a dug slot 30–40 cm depth. Then rock segments sized 30–40 cm were laid with their wide edge outside the wall in two vertical units, and between them, rock segments smaller than 10 cm were laid over the wall space for filling. From both sides, local soil was poured aside for stabilization (Figure 8) [13].

Figure 8.

Schematic description of courses in the constructed retaining wall in Shualim wadi.

The two constructed retaining walls and their integration with the ancient terraces system are presented in (Figure 9) [27]. The finding indicates that in addition to increased agricultural utilization of the area, reclamation of a wider terraced area may contribute to the area’s stabilization from soil erosion and incision [29].

Figure 9.

The integration of the constructed retaining walls with the ancient (Byzantine) terraced system of Shualim wadi.

3.3 Designing rehabilitation scheme for sustainable cultivation

The second stage became feasible in 2022 only after the regularization of Rahma statutory state [29]. Its’ design is based on the finding of stage one. Along the area contours of a highly incised slope on the lower part of Rahma, rock terraces will be constructed from rock segments. These terraces will cross the gullied area with two active gullies east–west located. Therefore, the parts, which cross the gullies will be composed of two vertical units: the vertical unit downstream, will be composed of massive rocks with a 0.4–0.5 m radius subjected to reduce the water flow intensity in the gully, while the upstream unit will be composed of rock segments sized 0.2–0.3 m subjected to prevent the soil runoff through the gully. In the remaining incised area, the rocks courses will be similar to the ones in Shualim wadi (Figure 10) [30].

Figure 10.

The terrace courses over the gullied area in Rahma foothill site.

Nine rock terraces will be located one by one differing by 1m height perpendicular to the slope direction (the location will be determined using GPS), along the sloped gullied area. The change of the incision will be determined by comparison of DEM maps achieved from drones over the years (Figure 11).

Figure 11.

Rahma foothill site that subjected to reclamation by rock segment terraces.

4. Flooded plain modeling into managed aquifer recharge area, El-Freijat, Rahma area

All over the Negev the Bedouin used the drainage patterns of the wadis flooded plains as MAR (managed aquifer recharge areas) for growing crops such as wheat and even grapes and olives with minimal supplementary irrigation. An example is located in the land of Salem El-Freijat, Rahma (31°0′52.57″N, 34°56′44.16″E, sized 1 ha). To suit the area for agricultural utilization a reclamation of the dike is needed. Such reclamation must be done together with the Israeli Drainage Authority, nevertheless, due to a lack of interaction between the Bedouin farmer and ILA, such an action is not carried out (Figure 12) [9].

Figure 12.

MAR area located on a remodeled wadis floodplain in Rahma foothill area.

5. Wadi banks reclamation by small ruminants herding

Grazing is not defined as a land modeling practice, nevertheless, similar to the other Bedouin practices is been considered in public as an ecosystem-destructive agricultural branch. Recent studies indicate many facets of controlled grazing may contribute to the rehabilitation of degraded lands, such as [31]. Hereby, one facet regarding the influence of controlled small ruminants grazing on the wadi’s landform will be described. The site of study is located on the wadi opposite Rahma foothills on the western side of Yeroham ephemeral stream (31°02′58″N, 34°55′43″E, 500 ASL). This wadi is composed of parts that were exposed to small ruminants grazing, while the others were not. The finding indicated that in the parts that were exposed to grazing a sediments layer from the wadi’ bank integrated with the small ruminants’ excretion, which was mixed by their trampling, was formed over the years. This layer decreased the incision in the wadi banks and moderated the slope and serves as beds for plant settlement and growth (Figure 13) [31].

Figure 13.

The influence of small ruminants grazing on the sediment layer formation in the lower part of the wadi banks [31].

6. Concluding notes

This chapter demonstrates the challenges in the implementation of profitable and sustainable agricultural systems in the Negev highlands, an area that suffers from intensive desertification and has been neglected for years by the authorities. The farmers of the Bedouin diaspora have to suit themselves to these terms using their long years of experience in breeding crops at extreme climatic and land terms (Figure 14).

Figure 14.

Adaption of Bedouin agriculture farming to desertification (reduced rainfall amounts), landform infringement by waste and landfills in El-Darghat village, traditional Bedouin olive grove on wadi (south of Yeroham).

Therefore, a successful rehabilitation scheme requires firstly regularization of the land’s statutory state, which includes allocating lands for livelihood and agriculture to them and nominating them as ‘ecosystem guards’ together with scientists and the municipalities. Such an attitude will arise awareness of the ecosystem state and sustainable utilization by the Bedouin farmers and youth and contribute to ecosystem rehabilitation.

Acknowledgments

The author thanks Dr. Stefan Leu, Prof. Jonathan M. Laronne, and Prof. Avinoam Meir for their guiding notes.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.