The Vital Uses of Jojoba Oil and Its Derivatives in Daily Life and the Petroleum Industry

Abstract

Unlike other crops, the jojoba shrub contains around 50% by weight of an almost odorless, colorless oil made mostly of monoesters of the straight-chain alcohols and acids, C20 and C22, with one double bond on either side. The shrub is distinct from other species. In order to create modified jojoba derivatives, scientists can modify both the olefinic group and the ester group of jojoba oil, which is detailed in this book chapter. Jojoba oil has been modified in studies for various uses. These alterations include isomerization, bromination, sulfur-chlorination, sulfurization, hydrogenation, epoxidation, hydroxymethylation, phosphonation, ethoxylation, Diels-Alder adduction, pinacol rearrangement, bonding with polyethylene, and boning with polystyrene matrix. The next paragraphs will cover all of the applications for these modified jojoba oil derivatives, including medicine, emulsifiers, detergents, surfactants, lubricating oil, lubricating oil additives, leather tanning, texture, and corrosion inhibitors.

1. Introduction

Jojoba shrub is a drought-resistance shrub from Arizona, California, and Mexico indigenous [1, 2, 3]. Simmondsia chinensis is the evergreen and drought resistance. It can grow between 0.6 and 5 m in height and its roots can grow to 10 m in length. Jojoba’s shrub, which means either male or female (poisonous), produces flowers. Jojoba shrub is dioecious. The flowers will be pollinated by the wind at the end of March and by August, when the flowers will mature complete by October [4, 5].

1.1 General characteristics of jojoba oil

Jojoba is a vegetable oil obtained from desert shrub seeds native to Arizona, California, the North-West of Mexico, and Baja California (China simmondsia). The jojoba oil obtained differs from most other vegetable and animal oils because it is not a fat but a fluid wax [6]. Jojoba oil is unique in vegetable oils, since sperm oil is unique in animal oils. Never before has such a vegetable oil been accessible in commercially accessible amounts to sector. It has a liquid ester combination of 97%. It is a nondrying oil with elevated oxidation resistance, which can be stored without being rancid for years; its lubricity; its unsaturation (double bonds). The following are valued for the jojoba oil. It has its natural purity and molecular simplicity and stabilization [1, 2].

1.2 Extraction of jojoba oil

The extraction of jojoba oil from seeds has several techniques [6, 7, 8, 9]. Spadro et al. [9] used filtration—extraction process for extraction of jojoba oil. This method consists mainly of: 1) cooking oil seeds are flaked at reduced temperatures and greater humidity than usual in hydraulic and screw-pressure cooking; 2) crushing the baked material by evaporative cooling; 3) slurry of the material with a filter, and 4) filtration of the slurry and a counter that is being washed by a rotary vacuum filter. The pressing and leaching of jojoba oil were researched by Abu Arabi et al. [7]. Mechano-pressing of the plants with or without application of heat in a method called expeller-pressing is the most direct extraction method of jojoba oil [7]. Cold-pressing and second-pressing are purely mechanical techniques used for extracting jojoba oil. The jojoba oil is usually filtered and screened after mechanical removal. Jojoba oil is subsequently pasteurized for safety and quality assurance.

1.3 Jojoba oil physical characteristics

Raw jojoba oil is a light gold fluid, has little impurity, and needs little or no refining for most reasons. There are no resins, tars, and alkaloids and there are only traces of wax, steroids, tocopherols, and hydrocarbons. It is generally unnecessary to neutralize oil because the fatty acids are generally small. While bleaching is generally also unnecessary, easy business methods can be applied to remove and generate yellow pigments. Oil is frequently pasteurized to kill microorganisms for cosmetic and pharmaceutical purposes. Working with jojoba oil is simple. It is nontoxic and organically degradable. It is easily solved with benzene, petroleum ether, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and carbohydrate disulfide, but it does not contain methanol or acetone [10]. The oil has promising physical properties for numerous industry demands; high viscosity index, high flash and fire points, high dielectric consistency, and high stability. The composition of its low volatility is little influenced by repeated heating up to extremely elevated temperatures. Kuss et al. [11] have produced comprehensive density, compression, and viscosity measures in jojoba oil. Jojoba oil has conductivity values in the range of 34–140^oC comparable to oleic acid.

1.4 Chemical properties of jojoba oil

The raw natural extract contains 97% linear wax esters (the rest consists of free fatty alcohols and acids and tocopherols) because of their molecular homogeneity. The oil contains two C=C and one ester group, which enable the oil to make all alkenes reactions and all esters reactions. It also has incredible acid/alcohol combinations with C₂₀ or C₂₂ carbon atoms chain lengths. Common vegetable oils have, by comparison, fatty acids, mostly 16- and 18-carbon long chain. The esters are almost completely comprised of straight and alcohol chain acids [6, 8, 10, 11]. Iodine value, peroxide value, saponification value, unsaponifiable matter, and acid value are the most significant chemical features in jojoba oil (Table 1).

Physical and chemical properties of jojoba oil
Freezing point	10.6–7.0°C	Viscosity		Iodine value	82
Melting point	6.8–7.0°C	Rotovisco. (25°C)		Saponification value	92
Boiling point at 757 mm under N2, 398°C	398°C	MV-1 rotor in MV cup	35cp	Acid value	2
Smoke point (AOCS Cc 9a-48)b	195°C	Plate and cone with PK -1	33cp	Acetyl value	2
Flash point (AOCS Cc 9a-48)b	295°C	Brookfield, spindle # 1, 25°C	37cp	Unsaponifiable matter	51%
Fire point (COC)	338°C	Cannon—Fenske, (25°C)	50cp	Total acids	52%
Heat of fusion by DSC	21 cal/g	Cannon—Fenske, (100°C)	27cs	Iodine value of alcohols	77
Refractive index	1.465	Saybolt, 100 oF	127 SUSc	Iodine value of acids	76
Specific gravity	0.863	Sayblot, 210 oF	48 SUSb	Average molecular weight of wax esters	606

Table 1.

Physical and chemical properties of jojoba oil.

Oil from expeller-pressed jojoba seeds start to freeze at 10.6°C (51°F). It solidifies into a thick paste at 7^oC. Frozen oil, allowed to warmup, melts at 7°C (45°F).

Smoke and flash points are determined according to the official method, Cc 9a-48, of the American Oil Chemists’ Society.

Saybolt Universal seconds.

SOURCE: T. K. Miwa [12].

1.5 Structure of jojoba oil

The structure of jojoba oil was elucidated, the double bond positions were almost exclusively ω-9, i.e., the ethylenic bond was between the 9th and 10th carbon atoms when counting from the methyl or terminal end of the backbone carbon chain. A small amount of the hexadec-9-enoic (0.1%) and octadec-11-enoic (1%) acids of ω-7 homologs have been found. All ethylenic bonds were cis in geometric configuration. Jojoba wax ester molecules are generally 98% cis- monounsaturated at the ω-9 position at both ends of the molecules. Figure 1 shows the molecular structure of the jojoba wax esters. Where (n) is 5, 7, and 9 and (m) is 10, 12, and 14, based on the environment in which the plant has grown [13, 14].

Figure 1.

Structure of jojoba wax.

1.5.1 Elucidation of chemical structure of jojoba oil

1.5.1.1 Using gas chromatographic analysis

In 1971, Miwa elucidated the structure of different types of jojoba oil [15]. In 1984, Miwa investigated the structure of jojoba oil. The sections are supplied as a single molecular species within a particular chain length [16]. Cis 13-docpsenyl Cis-11-eicosenoate or trivial name is a primary component (37%) followed by jojobenyl jojobenoate (24%) and jojobenyl erucate (10%). Cis-11-eicoseneic (jojobene) is the primary acid (71%), followed by erucic (14%), and oleic (10%). Erucyl (45%) is the primary alcohol, and alcohol (jojobenyl) closely follows. The primary component in the lowest median molecular weight was jojobenyl (46%) instead of erucyl (42%).

1.5.1.2 Using GC/MS

Gayland et al. [17] determined the double bond positions in the fatty acids by GC/MS of their methoxy derivatives. Jojoba oil wax esters were assumed to be ω9-unsaturated. Until a report indicated that several isomeric fatty alcohols were present. After a sample of the Apache oil had been saponified and the methyl esters, derived from the fatty acids, and alcohols separated, methoxy derivatives were formed and subjected to GC/MS. The derivatives of the methyl esters showed only small amounts of positional isomers other than ω9, and only in the 16:1 (0.1% ω7) and 18:1 (1.0% ω7).

1.5.1.3 Using high-pressure liquid chromatography

Gayland et al., 1977 used high-pressure liquid chromatography (HLPC) to separate components according to chain length. When they use high-pressure liquid chromatography on a new micro-particulated reverse phase, rapid separation of long-chain triglycerides and wax esters by chain length and degree of unsaturation. Since the acids and alcohols of jojoba oil are virtually all monoenes, each peak in the chromatogram of jojoba oil contained the combinations of ester and alcohol of one chain length [17].

1.5.1.4 Using X-ray diffraction analysis

Simpson and Miwa [18] studied the structure of hydrogenated jojoba wax using X-ray diffraction analysis. They found that the chain shape is extended completely with ortho-rhombic 0⊥ perpendicular to packaging. In addition to the ester connection, the jojoba conformation appears to be unlike polyethylene. The jojoba unit cell is fundamentally rectangular and approximates the cell of polyethylene, compared to its oblique mono-clinical unit cells of long-chain esters earlier studied. The wax ester research shows mild chain tilt in relation to the abdominal plane. It is similar to polyethylene and contrasts again with the earlier researched esters. They found, finally, that hydrogenated jojoba wax appears to be more prevalent in polyethylene than in its own chemical generation.

1.5.1.5 Using differential scanning calorimetry

In 1996, DSC thermographs of native jojoba liquid wax esters were studied by David et al. [19] and found that one endothermal occurrence with a peak intake of 4.358°C, a maximum peak of 11.818°C and a total of 123.564 J/g, had been given by the thermogram of DSC for the native Jojoba liquid wax esters, while thermograms with fully hydrogen jojoba-wax esters were at their peak beginning, at a maximum of 67,575°C, and at a top maximum, at oscillating 69,066°C and at oscillating ∆HC of 218,269 J/g (Figure 2). Native wax esters, mainly the unsaturated shape, gave the 13.5°C falling point beyond the maximum DSC observed. However, compared to the maximum 69.1°C DSC, the fully saturated wax esters have a drop point of 72.3°C, as the dripping points are close to the highest DSC, the “A” endothermic event is di-unsaturated, and “C” is a fully saturated event, which is a maximum of 69.1°C.

Figure 2.

Transesterification of hydrogenated jojoba wax esters. Source: David et al. [19].

The DSC thermograms for the trans-esterified wax esters indicated that trans-esterified wax ester mixtures with 5 and 10% saturation have produced the two endothermic events marked A for the event at around 5°C and B at around 20°C; the 3rd endotherm is first observed at 15% saturation at around 45°C and is increasing in saturation by 50% [19].

1.5.1.6 By determination of oxidative stability

The oxidative stability of wax esters was determined by a thermogravimetric analysis in 1979 by Hagemann and Rothfus [20]. The relative oxidative stability of sperm whale oil and 8 wax ester preparations is determined by comparing oxidization profiles that have been corrected for ester volatility. They found that, although more volatile, wax esters with unsaturation near the ester bond are as stable for oxidation as those with double bonding close to the center of each aliphatic chain. The oxidative stability of jojoba wax was determined by Arieh et al. [21]. The autoxidation of crude, bleaching, and striped jojoba wax was measured by speeds with accelerated oxidation (98°C), and the long induction of raw yellow wax (30 h) was observed by raw yellow oxidation compared with bleached wax (10–12 h) and striped waxes (2 h). A 0.02% hydroxytoluene or butylated hydroxy anisole was added to the wax and even improved its stability. Wax autoxidation was also considered at room temperature. In presence of light and air, the activity of the natural inhibitor was lost rapidly.

2. Modification of jojoba wax

A change or modification is usually made to improve something. The presence of two double bonds at jojoba (one each in the alcohols and acids moieties) as well as the ester group provides lot of scope to modify the oil [22]. Chemical modification of jojoba oil varies according to the type of attack occurs into: (i) attack at the ester group, “trans-esterification, hydrolysis, saponification, hydrogenlysis, ammonolysis, quaternary ammonium salt,” (ii) attack at the double bond including, “geometrical isomerization of double bond, hydrogenation, halogenation, sulfurization, halo-sulfurization, oxygenation, epoxidation, phosphonation, phosphosulphidation, alkylation, oxidation, episulphidation and polymerization”. These reactions will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

2.1 Isomerization of jojoba

In 1982, Brown and Olenberg [23] found that acidic bentonite clays initiate the isomerization of the cis configurations over a certain temperature when contacting jojoba oil. The technique of preparing jojoba oil isomerates melting above 25°C was used, consisting of the measures of contact between jojoba oil and acidic bentonite type clay at temperatures in the area between 150 and 350°C for adequate moment in order to instill in an adequate amount an isomerate with a melting process from natural cis configuration to a trans configuration. In 1984, Galun and Shaubi [24] perfumed jojoba wax over a variety of temperatures in a thermal insulation. They are isomerized to a temperature between 250°C and 400°C in the vacuum-sealed ampoules. The specimens have been heated for 192hrs at 53.3% trans jojoba wax isomerized at 300°C to 37.6% partially decomposed. Heating up 65% brassy in vacuum-sealed ampoules for 216 hrs at a rate of 300°C to 38%.

In 1984, Galun and Shaubi [24] were photosensitizing to investigate the cis-trans isomerization of jojoba wax. In the presence of sensitizers, wax solutions from jojoba have been radiated at room temperature over 366 nm at wavelengths. Only sensitizers with triple energy greater than 68kcal/mol have been isomerized by cis-trans. Quantum yields were low and the photostationary state achieved the conversion of up to 25% of the trans isomers. The general mechanism of the photosensitized process was originally proposed by Hammond et al. [25] and has been broadly applied.

2.2 Diels-Alder adducts of jojoba

The reaction of Diels-Alder is an organic chemical reaction [4 + 2] that forms a cyclohexene substituted system, between the conjugate diene and an alkene substituted, usually called the dienophile. In 1928, Otto Paul Hermann Diels and Kurt Alder described it for the first time and in 1950 they were awarded the Nobel Prize for chemical medicine. In 1982, Shani [26] introduced new jojoba adducts based on Diels-Alder reaction of jojobatetraene with three typical dienophiles (maleic anhydride, N-methylmaleimide, and acrylonitrile). Shani [27] also reacted oxygen with a conjugated diene to form cyclic peroxide, which lead to the formation of a furan derivative.

2.3 Oxidation of jojoba oil

In 1984, Galun et al. [28] examined the use of potassium permanganate and hydrogen peroxide for the oxidation of jojoba wax. Using the appropriate stage catalyst transfer, permanganate in aqueous structures oxidized the double bonds to carboxylates. Wax reaction in the acid formats, which was then hydrolyzed into nearby glycols, was caused by hydrogen peroxide. The hydrogen peroxide oxidation of these di-glycols was benzoylated.

2.4 Halogenation of jojoba wax

2.4.1 Chlorination of jojoba wax

In 1984, Gulan et al. investigated the halogenation of jojoba wax [28], including allylic chlorination with jojoba wax in organic solvents with t-butyl hypochlorite. They noted that when jojoba wax was reacted in presence of benzoyl peroxide with two equivalents of t-butyl hypochlorite, the di-chloro derivative was given. Chlorine atoms seemingly have a double bond on both sides. Chlorination of two equivalents of t-butyl hypochlorite without benzoyl peroxides as a catalyst also applies to the product of allylic, but there was also some addition to the double bond. In the presence of benzoyl peroxide as a catalyst, jojoba wax with four equivalents of t-butyl hypochlorite was combined with a compound of allylic chlorination and double bonding as well. Jojoba wax responded to the addition compound (VIII) by combining t-butyl hypochlorite and 6-chlorohexanol in benzene.

2.4.2 Bromination of jojoba

Shani added bromine to jojoba oil and trans-isomer [29], which, with the removal, provided the acetylene and allene components, respectively, if the base is excessively reacted. When limited base volumes were used, allylic bromine of liquid wax and trans-isomer and later HBr removal, the bromoolefinic products resulted in the two conjugated diene systems in either side of the ester (jojoba tetraene). Jojoba oil and trans-jojoba oil were also brominated using N-bromo succinamide (NBS). Two hexabromo-jojoba isomers were produced by Shani [30] in 1988 with bromine added to the bromoolefinic and bromolylic derivatives and one by jojobatetraine. Bis-Jojoba wax allylic or jojobatetraen monolylic bromination and HBr removal produced jojobahexaene which has two conjugated triene units on both components of the ester. In 2017, Rabab [12] prepared tertrabromojojoba via direct bromination of jojoba oil in an ice bath.

2.5 Sulfurization of jojoba wax

The word sulfurization refers to sulfur treatment and impregnation. Variations of the reaction conditions were used to make several sulfurized jojoba oils. The products vary in sulfur content and composition, sulfurisation of jojoba oil was researched in detail by Bhatia et al. [31], using elementary sulfur. To add total sulfur, four equal parts have been split. At 125°C, 130°C, 160°C, and 180°C, each part was added followed by a 30-minute rubbing after each addition. For 3 hrs, the sulfurized product obtained was SJO1, which provided SJO2 and SJO3, respectively, with air and nitrogen at 185 ± 5°C. SJO4 was acquired under the above-mentioned circumstances by sulfurization of jojoba oil, followed by nitrogen flushing.

2.6 Ozonolysis of jojoba oil

The cleavage of an ozone alkene or alkyne forms organic compounds in which the double oxygen bond replaces the various carbon bonds. The outcome of the reaction depends on the type of multiple bonds being oxidized and the workup conditions. In 1986, the results from Zabicky and Mhasalkar [32] show the ozone reaction of jojoba wax in order to produce a stable diozonide which can be the starting material for multiple synthetic routes. In contrast to other fatty products, the reaction of wax with oxygen occurs undervarious circumstances, namely, the solvent, temperature, and ozone concentration.

2.7 Hydroxymethylation of jojoba oil

McLellan et al. [33] indicated that Lewis’ acid-catalyzed additions to jojoba oil are readily available for the transformation to a range of derivatives of hydroxymethyl-substituted analogs.

2.8 Amination of jojoba oil

Amination is the method of incorporating an amine group into an organic molecule. In a number of ways, such as ammonia or other amines reactions such as alkylation, reductive amination, and Mannich reaction. This may be possible. Amination responses are usually associated with the amine as a nucleophile, as well as the organic compound as an electrophile. Amino derivatives of jojoba were synthesized in two stages by Victor and Arnon in 1994 [34]: Step one: azido derivatives synthesis: (i) by replacing the bromine atom or mesylate group already with an azide ion on the jojoba molecule; (ii) through ring-opening reactions of the azide ion with the epoxide; or (iii) direct adding bromoazide to the double C = C binding. Step two: aminojojoba hydrogenation of the azides. Another explanation is that the high azide excess (2-mol equivalent), the attack of one azide as a base on the more acidic hydrogen simultaneously with the nucleophilic attack of azide ion.

Reduction of azides into primary amines: azides of the jojoba series were thought to be reduced by means of sodium borohydride, a common azide-reducing reagent [34]. Rabab [12] prepared four different types of aminated jojoba derivatives by reacting brominated jojoba with (aniline, 2, 4—dimethylamine and 4—amino benzoic acid).

2.9 Epoxidation of jojoba oil

Jojoba oil is uncommon for vegetable oils because it does not contain glycerides, since jojoba oil includes both acid and alcohol in its moieties mono-unsaturation, the epoxidation of oil is expected to lead to the creation of a single product. Jojoba oil was epoxied using peracid catalyst [35].

2.10 Polymerization of jojoba oil

The unique structure of jojoba oil molecule enables it to undergo polymerization readily. The presence of two (carbon = carbon) double bonds introduces the jojoba molecule as a monomer for free radical polymerization. Liu et al. 2014 [36] prepared new dimers of jojoba oil wax esters using acidic catalyst in supercritical CO₂ where the double bonds of the jojoba wax esters were opened and formed dimers. Jojoba oil also undergoes homopolymerization, copolymerization, and also terpolymerizaion [37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42].

3. Applications of jojoba oil

Jojoba is the only known plant species containing fluid wax esters for seed storage. It is the vegetable oil of the crushed bean of the shrub (Simmondsia chinensis). Oil is approximately half the weight of the nut. However, Jojoba oil (JO) consists almost entirely (97%) of two monounsaturated hydrocarbon chains associated with ester. The characteristics of JO differ completely from those of other common VOs [6]. In fact, conventional oil plants produce three fatty acids which are attached to a molecule of glycerol, whereas JO is immune to glycerol, which consists of directly related acids. Jojoba oil has many uses. In the following paragraphs, we will discuss the uses of jojoba oil and its derivatives in life applications such as cosmetics and pharmaceutical, and their application in petroleum and energy sector such as; lubricants, corrosion inhibitors, biofuels, and the main unit in material synthesizing. In the following paragraphs, the useful uses of jojoba are mentioned.

3.1 Application of jojoba in the pharmacology field

The multiple plant medicinal, pharmacological, and human health applications of Jojoba are summarized in Table 2. The American people have traditionally used sunburn, wound, kidney colic, hair loss, headache, and soreness extracts from crushed plant products, Ranzato, and others [45]. Jojoba grains have produced highly unique waxy oil, which is similar to human sebaceous natural oil, making oil the most efficient candidate for skincare, Henderson 2015 [57].

Plant parts or products	Applications	Ref. No.
Ethanolic seed extract	Inhibit oxidative stress induced by fumonisins (mycotoxins)	[43]
Meal (left over after oil extraction)	Livestock feed	[43]
Oil	Bioenergy	[43]
Simmondsia and its derivatives	Antifungal	[44]
Oil	Anti-inflammatory (e.g. treatment for throat inflammation, wound treatment)	[45, 46]
Oil	Relief for headaches	[45]
Oil and seed extracts	Antimicrobial and antifungal	[47, 48, 49]
Leaves (flavonoid compounds)	Antioxidant and lipoxygenase inhibitor	[50]
Leaves and seed coats	Antibacterial and anticancer	[51]
Oil	Lipoxygenase inhibitor	[52]
Simmondsia, its derivatives and seeds	Antioxidant	[51, 53, 54]
Oil	Pharmaceuticals	[55, 56]
Oil	Skincare treatment/skin health	[57, 58]
Meal	Anti-rodent	[59]
Oil	Antifungal/insecticidal properties	[60]
Crude extracts	Cyclooxygenase inhibitor (anticarcinogenic)	[61]
Oil	Free radical elimination	[62]
Oil	Skin antiaging	[61, 63]
Oil	Replacement of sperm whale oil	[64]
Oil	Stroke and diabetes treatment	[65]
Oil	Antivirus properties	[55, 56]
Oil	Hair health	[66, 67]
Oil	Lubricating oil additives	[37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42]

Table 2.

Summary of the medicinal and industrial applications of jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis).

The phytochemical compounds were obtained by Akl et al. [66], with effective jojoba and jatropha hull treatment which can be used for industrial, pharmaceutical, and nutritional uses. Belostozky et al. [68] have embedded and solidified liquid jojoba oil into porous, SiO₂ (MS) hollow uniforms and have pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications in prepared compounds. In 2008, in skincare compositions, Hössel et al. [69] used cross-linking cationic copolymers and in skin cure compositions, consisting of at least one copolymer. A mix of oils for the therapy or prevention of skin ailments, for example, diaper rash and eczema and for skin softening was used by Henderson, 2015 [57].

3.2 Leather tanning

One crucial phase in the production of leather is the fat-liquoring procedure, which aims to produce leather with a full, soft handle, suppleness, and pliability as well as to enhance its mechanical qualities. For industrial applications, jojoba oil is of enormous significance. In 2011, El- Shahat et al. [70] studied jojoba oil for further use as a fat-liquoring agent in the leather sector. The investigation includes sulfiting jojoba fat liquid in order to prepare it for use. Under phase transfer catalysis, the sulfitation process was improved based on combined SO3 content (PTC). Phase transfer catalysts of the phosphonium and ammonium kinds were studied using two differently manufactured types: triethylbenzylammonium chloride (TBAC) and benzyltriphenylphosphonium chloride (BTPP) (TEBA). The tensile strength and elongation at the break of the leather were improved by the fat-liquoring process. Additionally, it was discovered that jojoba fat-liquor significantly improved the texture of the leather after treatment, by using SEM photos.

3.3 As plasticizers

In a standard formulation of polyvinyl resin, Fore et al. [71], ten maleinated Jojoba oil products have been screened for Buna-N rubber softener as plasticizers. They created methyl and butyl esters of maleinated jojoba oil, methyl esters of maleinated jojoba acids, hydrogenated methyl esters of maleinated jojoba acids, butyl esters of maleinated jojoba acids, hydrogenated butyl esters of maleinated acetylated jojoba alcohols, hydrogenated methyl esters of maleinated acetylated jojoba alcohols, and the ester preparations were assessed as softeners in a nitrile rubber composition and as plasticizers in a copolymer vinyl composition (polyvinyl chloride—polyvinyl acetate) (butadiene—acrylonitrile). Results from the plasticizer screening tests for all jojoba esters that worked well as primary or secondary plasticizers on milling wheels. Following a thorough analysis of the data, it was found that methyl esters outperformed butyl esters in terms of compatibility with milling rolls and plasticizing efficiency, as evidenced by lower modulus, decreased hardness, and increased elongation. Butyl esters only outperform methyl esters in terms of flexibility at low temperatures.

3.4 In candle manufacture

Jojoba oil can be hydrogenated easily into a soft wax and is suitable in candle wax various polishes, coating for fruits and pills, and battery and electric wires insulation [72]. There are numerous possible applications for jojoba oil and its derivatives, including the candle industry. Long-chain alcohols and acids with double bonds in slightly different locations (It is a source of monounsaturated acids and alcohols with 22 and 24 carbon chain lengths.) from those in other naturally occurring fatty acids are found in it. Jojoba oil can be utilized in the production of candles due to its high flash and fire points; it also has superior thermal stability.

3.5 In textile fibers

Jaâfar et al. [73] have made compressive knits infused with ethylcellulose (EC) microcapsules. Phase separation was used to create jojoba oil-filled ethylcellulose microcapsules. Jojoba oil was chosen because it prevents sebum buildup and is crucial for hydrating skin. Using acrylic resin (AR) as a binder, the resulting ethylcellulose microcapsules were impregnated into two distinct compressive knit surfaces. Scanning electron microscopy was used to examine the manufactured microcapsules (SEM). The resilience of the microcapsules, the effectiveness of the microencapsulation technique, and the estimation of jojoba oil concentration were also looked into. This method of application enhanced the fabric’s surface and made it possible to preserve knit’s original qualities, including touch, flexibility, and lightness, to the fullest extent possible, and to avoid the sebum accumulation [74]. Jojoba oil as natural biomaterial was also attempted for UV protective finishing of polyester and other textile substrates [75].

3.6 As surfactants, detergents, and emulsifiers

Jojoba oil has talented surfactant properties [76]. Linh et al. [77] prepared a promising surfactant mixture based on jojoba oil at a relatively lower salinity (0.5% NaCl) that is competitive with, or better than commercial detergents for application of the cold temperature detergent. Due to the elevated hydrophobic characteristics of jojoba oil, Magdassi and Shani have synthesized a number of surfactants [78], and indeed all of the cationic derivatives were surface-active agents. Szumała and Luty [79] demonstrated that jojoba oil, a liquid wax, can influence emulsion stability [80].

3.7 As corrosion inhibitors

Chetouani et al. [81] studied the effect of adding the natural material, jojoba oil, on molar hydrochloric acid corrosion, had been examined using measurement of weight loss and electrochemical polarization procedures. The rate of corrosion in the presence of jojoba was considerably decreased. The behavior of the amino jojoba derivatives has been examined by Rabab [12], by using mild steel at various temperatures (308, 318, 328, and 338^oK) in 0.5N HCl by weight loss and chemical analysis methods.

3.8 As lubricating oil/lubricating oil additives

The application of jojoba oil in the field of lubrication was discovered in the nineteenth century. Jojoba oil has been used as a vegetable oil also it might be used with or without further modification as an additive “Viscosity index improvers, pour point depressants, extreme pressure additives….” for the lubrication process [37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 63, 80, 81, 82]. Jojoba oil was also used in the formation of semisolid lubricants (Grease) (Table 3) [13].

	Monomer 1	Monomer 2	Monomer 3	Ratio	Initiator	Solvent	Role	Ref.
1	Jojoba	----	----	----	BPO	non	VIIs and PPDs	[37]
	Dodecylacrylate, tetradecylacrylate, and hexadecylacrylate	Jojoba oil	-----	2:1	BPO	non	VIIs and PPDs
	1-dodecene, 1-tetradecene, and 1-hexadecene
2	Dodecylacrylate, tetradecylacrylate, and hexadecylacrylate	Jojoba oil	Vinyl acetate	1:1:1	BPO	non	VIIs and PPDs	[38]
3	Dodecylacrylate, tetradecylacrylate, and hexadecylacrylate	Jojoba oil	Vinyl pyrrolidone	1:1:1	BPO	non	VIIs and PPDs
4	Decylacrylate	Jojoba oil	Dodecylacrylate; Tetradecylacrylate; Hexadecylacrylate	1:1:1	BPO	non	VIIs and PPDs	[39]
	Dodecylacrylate	Jojoba oil	Tetradecylacrylate; Hexadecylacrylate
	Tetradecylacrylate	Jojoba oil	Hexadecylacrylate
5	Dodecylacrylate, tetradecylacrylate, and hexadecylacrylate	Jojoba oil	1-dodecene; 1-tetradecene; 1-hexadecene	1:1:1	BPO	non	VIIs and PPDs	[40]
6	1-dodecene,; 1-tetradecene, and; 1-hexadecene	Jojoba	Vinyl acetate	1:1:1	BPO	non	VIIs and PPDs	[41]
	1-dodecene,; 1-tetradecene, and; 1-hexadecene	Jojoba	Vinyl pyrrolidone

Table 3.

Applications of jojoba oil derivatives as lubricating oil additives.

3.9 As biofuel, bio jet fuel, and bio-diesel

Jojoba oil can also be used as a substitute fuel in cars and lubricants [83, 84]. Jojoba oil has high seed energy potential and negligible SO_x emissions and relatively lower NOx emissions are exhausted when burned. This makes jojoba oil therefore an alternative fuel [85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90].

Biodiesel jojoba has been regarded in latest decades as one of many countries’ most renewable energy sources [91]. Jojoba oil is a source of significant combustion energy and stable at a diesel engine’s high operating temperature. The oil itself and the biodiesel it produces have viscosities slightly outside the normal range of diesel fuel, but the jojoba-driven biodiesel can be circumvented in a mixture with standard diesel (Table 4) [83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95].

Biofuel/biodiesel composition			Applications
80% diesel	10% jojoba methyl ester	10% ethanol	C.I. engine	[83]
60% diesel	20% jojoba methyl ester	20% ethanol
Jojoba oil	50/50blends of diesel fuel	---	Single-cylinder diesel engine	[84]
Jojoba cake	---	---
diesel	5% jojoba methyl ester	---	Diesel engine	[85]
	10% jojoba methyl ester	---
	20% jojoba methyl ester	---
Jojoba oil biofuel	Diesel fuel blends; (0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 50% and 100%)	---	Diesel engine	[86, 87]
Jojoba fuel; 0%, 20%, 35%, and 60%	Diesel fuel; 100%, 80%, 65%, and 40%	----	Small furance	[88]
Jojoba methyl ester; 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%	Diesel fuel; 100%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, and 75%	10% ethanol	Diesel engine	[89]
Jojoba methyl acetate	(B5) and (B20)	Ultralow sulfur diesel (ULSD)	Diesel engine	[90]
Jojoba biodiesel	Diesel	n-butanol (10% by volume)	Diesel engine	[91]
Jojoba methyl ester	(B5) and (B20)	Ultralow sulfur diesel (ULSD)	Diesel engine	[92]
Jojoba oil 20%	Pure Diesel fuel (B20) 80%	Sunflower oil S(100)	Diesel engine	[93]
Jojoba oil : methanol; 1:6; 1:9; 1:12	----	Calcined shells of Mytilus Galloprovincialis as Catalyst 6%, 8%, and 10%	-----	[94]
Jojoba methyl ester; 10%, 20%, and 30%	Diesel fuel; 90%, 80%, and 70%	-----	Diesel engine	[95]

Table 4.

Applications of jojoba oil as biofuel and biodiesel.

4. Conclusions

The jojoba plant attracted excellent interest among scientists and businesses in recent decades, particularly as the International Whaling Commission banned the spermaceti market in 1986, due to their distinctive features and phyisco-chemical properties. Over the last 20 years, Jojoba’s output has almost increased by 10 and oil demand clearly exceeds output. With these data in mind, the cultivation of the Jojoba plan is expected to grow exponentially in the next few years with the search for synthetic solutions to obtain similar waxy products to meet the absence of natural resources which provide monounsaturated esters over a long period of time. Furthermore, scientists have demonstrated an increasing concern about potential uses of jojoba meal, such as contaminant removal or insecticides, to use the waste produced following extraction. Jojoba oil is used in various apps in drugs or cosmetics and can be used to produce high-value products in a variety of distinct responses such as hydrogenation, halogenation, or sulfurization. In that article the jojoba planting, Jojoba oil’s chemical and physical characteristics were discussed, the characterization of jojoba oil using different methods and modification of jojoba oil by the esters and olefins and its various applications.

Acknowledgments

I’d like to acknowledge this chapter to my family.

Conflict of interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.