Monitoring of Temporary Ponds as Indicators of Environmental Quality

Abstract

Temporary ponds represent a specific type of ecosystem extensively widespread worldwide. They are better known as copular pools, ephemeral waters, karst sinkholes, seasonal wetlands, and vernal pools. Among these, Mediterranean Temporary Ponds (MTPs) represent a priority habitat according to the Natura 2000 network of the European Union. Their main characteristic is represented by their depth of only a few centimeters and lack of communication with permanent water bodies. MTPs habitats are vulnerable to human activities, especially agriculture, and they are considered priority habitats to safeguard. Threats affecting this habitat are various and many and depend on specific site conditions, including intensive agriculture, tree planting, abandonment of traditional land use, and excessive grazing. In the present manuscript, we report the results of monitoring activity of some of these sites in Southern Italy aimed at understanding the ecological status of these ephemeral ecosystems with a specially developed methodology based on data integration.

1. Introduction

Temporary ponds are a common natural habitat, abundantly widespread in all biogeographical regions [1]. Other ecological studies indicate that temporary ponds are habitats of some biological importance because they can host a considerable number of rare and endemic species [2, 3, 4]. These habitat types are currently highly threatened. Almost all temporary ponds are shallow, and most can be easily destroyed by drainage works for agricultural or urban development purposes [5]. Their small water volumes influence their high susceptiblity to pollution [6, 7], including emerging pollutants such as microplastics (MPs) and pesticides [8, 9]. To these threats is added that deriving from a lack of awareness: even if located within protected areas, temporary ponds have not always been evaluated by professionals in the same way as other freshwater ecosystems better known as lakes, rivers, and permanent ponds. Consequently, the conservation of the temporary ponds has never been to the attention of the administrators, and without any criteria, they have been destroyed over time for various purposes [2].

Among the threatening factors for these environments, we must also consider the ongoing climate changes on a global scale: it is probable that temporary ponds, with their delicately balanced hydrological regimes, are susceptible particularly to these changes and over a few years they could significantly reduce [10]. Another aspect of difficulty in providing correct information to the administrators of the territory to combine development needs with conservation criteria for these habitats is the lack of information.

Studies on temporary ponds are at least 50 years late compared to those of better-known water bodies, so this article aims to propose a multidisciplinary methodology to carry out the monitoring of temporary ponds to identify the pressures that insist on the hydrographic basin and sub-basin of interest. Temporary ponds (Figure 1) can be defined simply, as “lentic water bodies with a recurrent dry phase” [1]. This description includes a large range of water bodies, including tiny puddles that can hold water for only a few days and water bodies subjected to dryness after a few weeks or years. Like other freshwater habitats, temporary ponds are also changeable: as the duration of the hydroperiod increases, they turn into semi-permanent ponds and dry out only in years of drought.

Figure 1.

Some temporary ponds in the Puglia region (South Italy).

A distinctive feature of temporary ponds is that they can form almost anywhere, it is only necessary for water to accumulate in a depression in the ground and silt to prevent water from infiltrating underground quickly. Their ease of formation and, at times, their persistence over time means that they are present almost everywhere in different types of ecosystems, both of natural and non-natural origin. They can form as a result of small barriers created by the fall of trees as in depressions caused by man: vehicle furrows, quarry bottoms, etc.

Among the temporary ponds, the ponds located in the Mediterranean region, so-called Mediterranean Temporary Ponds (MTPs) [11] are classified as priority habitats according to the Natura 2000 network of the European Union (Natura code 3170, Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC). They are situated in many Mediterranean countries. They are categorized as “priority” due to their elements with a unique and important meaning for one or more living species. They include a peculiar flora composition, succession stage, and/or structural factor. Since they are humid depressions, periodically subject to temporary seasonal submersions, they host plant communities of great richness and originality even if not very showy, they are rich from a floristic point of view with rare and exclusive species of these environments [12, 13]. Several temporary ponds in the Mediterranean region vary from small copular ponds 50 cm deep hollowed out in rocks to almost permanent lakes, sometimes covering more than several hectares. They present a consistent variability in size, shape, depth, biodiversity (flora and fauna), and time of flooding [14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. The increased urbanization and agriculture combined with climate change has led to the extinction of a vast number of temporary ponds in the Mediterranean region [18].

Temporary Mediterranean ponds exhibit significant variability regarding the length of their hydrological period. They often form in karst areas and are in equilibrium with the aquifer, which in some circumstances can lead to a rise in the water level. In natural karst environments, the permeability and slope and other geological properties determine how much water the duration of the hydroperiod and therefore the composition of the ecosystem generated by the temporary ponds.

As temporary ecosystems, MTPs represent an important and sensitive transition between aquatic and terrestrial environments and act as retention basins for macroplastics and MPs [8]. However, only a very few works to date have investigated the presence of MPs in temporary ponds and in particular in mountain karst ponds [19], rainwater retention ponds [20, 21, 22], and sport fishing ponds [23], or small water bodies [24].

Mediterranean temporary pond habitats are very susceptible to anthropic pressures [25], due to their particular physical and ecological features. Their value is frequently overlooked [26, 27] due to their small size and seasonality.

In many Mediterranean temporary ponds, human activities create great pressure. However, the high biodiversity that can be found has been preserved thanks to balances with human activities that have become less and less impacting [12, 27].

The development of agriculture and urbanization in the Mediterranean region influence the health status of numerous sites with temporary ponds [27, 28].

The increase in urbanization in the Mediterranean region has led, due to urban expansion and connecting infrastructures, to the extinction of numerous temporary ponds. Inadequate management practices, such as soil removal, drainage, overgrazing, and intensive agriculture, have seriously endangered these fragile ecosystems [29].

Intensive farming practices can lead to significant changes in the catchment area. Since a large part of the territory is ploughed, consequently, an increase in erosion is induced and the transported sediments are increasingly filling the small depressions of the ponds, thus modifying the hydroperiod.

The same phenomenon always has another consequence, namely an additional supply of nutrients to the ponds, thus contributing to their eutrophication and a decrease in environmental quality.

Furthermore, the pollution of temporary ponds is increased by intensive agricultural activities due to the extensive use of pesticides and fertilizers. Not infrequently, there is also the abandonment of domestic and industrial and polluting waste (as in the previous image) [30, 31]. The overload of nutrients reaching temporary ponds is a widespread danger in the Mediterranean-macroclimate territories. This occurs mainly due to the fertilizers run-off from neighboring areas [32].

Temporary ponds can be used to understand the quality of the environment of the basin concerned as being small areas in which pollutants transported in run-off water are deposited. So they can provide an assessment of the quality of the soil and water matrices of large areas by sampling at a single point and having some information about the places, also available from open-source databases [33]. Following this methodology, it is possible to use temporary ponds as indicators of quality and possible environmental degradation.

2. Material and methods

2.1 Study area

The temporary ponds investigated are located within the area of the Lama Balice Regional Natural Park, a territory that still preserves, despite the various scattered phenomena of consolidated and ongoing use, a high landscape quality, attributable to the typical features of the agricultural landscape of the Puglia countryside. These ponds are formed due to heavy rains and are very ephemeral as the karst landscape accentuates the leaching of water into the subsoil.

In the Lama Balice Torrent Basin, lithological terms of the Cretaceous carbonate succession of the Murgia emerge on which deposits of the Plio-Pleistocene coverage rest; there are also alluvial deposits from the Holocene age located on the bottom of the main erosive furrows. Referring to the geological map of Italy in 1:100,000 scale [34] and the geological map of the Murge and Salento in 1:250,000 scale [35], in the area of the Lama Balice Torrent basin (Figure 2), the following lithostratigraphic units are recognized: Murge’s limestones, Gravina’s calcarenite, terraced marine deposits, and alluvial deposits [36]. The water inputs come from rain, surface run-off, snow melt, and also from groundwater. Outflows occur by infiltration, overflow, and evapotranspiration. If the groundwater level is higher than the bottom of the pond, the pond water will tend to replenish the aquifer.

Figure 2.

The Lama Balice Torrent basin (Base map from Bing Maps).

These environments, considering their proximity to an urban area, can play an essential role in maintaining and strengthening the link between human populations, wild flora, and fauna (mainly local and migratory birds) and can also be considered:

• A stepping-stone that is a fragment of natural habitat surrounded by an unsuitable landscape, which acts as a rest area, refuge, and dispersal for various species;

• A new biodiversity hotspot;

• A playful-educational and esthetic-recreational type tool for schools and cultural associations.

The protection of this pond is a great opportunity for the two districts. Its small size makes it easier to manage and protect and its perception by the public.

2.2 Water matrix sampling and chemical analyses

Three sites classified as MTPs habitats located in Southern Italy (Puglia region) and called MTP n.1, MTP n.2, and MTP n.3 were investigated to assess their role in the accumulation of Plant Protection Products (PPPs). Moreover, several environmental parameters were monitored on a seasonal basis at each site, including water depth, temperature (T), pH, dissolved oxygen (D.O.), redox potential (ORP), salinity, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDSs), chemical oxygen demand (COD), nutrients (phosphates, nitrates, nitrites, and ammonium), and alkalinity.

Water samples composed of, at least three replicates for each site, were collected for a minimum of 3L of water volume for each sample and preserved in dark glass jars stored at 4°C until analyses [37].

Significant ions and nutrients were quantified by ion chromatography. Otherwise, the environmental parameters were measured in situ by a field multiparameter probe from HANNA Instruments.

The analysis of more than one hundred PPP residues was performed through Ultra High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS), mainly based on multiresidual methods.

Following is reported the list of the PPPs investigated (Table 1).

n°	Substance	LOQ (μg/L)
1	2.4-D	0.005
2	Acetamiprid	0.005
3	Acido Gibberellico	0.025
7	Azinfos etile	0.005
8	Azinfos metile	0.005
9	Azoxystrobin	0.005
10	Bensulfuron-methyl	0.005
11	Bentazone	0.005
12	Boscalid	0.005
13	Bromoxinil	0.005
14	Chlorantraniliprole	0.005
15	Chloridazon	0.005
16	Chlorotoluron	0.005
17	Chlotianidin	0.005
18	Cicloxidim	0.005
19	Cimoxanil	0.005
20	Clodinafop-Propargyl	0.005
21	Clopyralid	0.005
22	Cyazofamid	0.005
23	Cypermethrin	0.025
24	Cyprodinil	0.005
25	Dazomet	0.025
26	Deltamethrin	0.005
27	Demeton	0.005
28	Diclorvos	0.005
29	Difenoconazol	0.005
30	Dimethenamid	0.005
31	Dimethomorph	0.005
32	Ditianon	0.025
33	Diuron	0.005
34	Dodina	0.005
35	Ethofumesate	0.005
36	Etofenprox	0.005
37	Etoprofos	0.005
38	Fenamidone	0.005
39	Fenhexamid	0.005
40	Fenpirazamina	0.005
41	Fention	0.01
42	Flonicamid	0.005
43	Fluazifop-P-Butile	0.005
44	Fludioxonil	0.005
45	Flufenacet	0.005
46	Fluopicolide	0.005
47	Fluopyram	0.005
48	Fluroxypir	0.01
49	Formetanato	0.005
50	Hexythiazox	0.005
51	Imidacloprid	0.005
52	Ioxynil	0.005
53	Iprovalicarb	0.005
54	Isoproturon	0.005
55	Lenacil	0.005
56	Malation	0.005
57	Mandipropamid	0.005
58	Mcpa	0.005
59	Mecoprop (MCPP)	0.005
60	Mesosulfuron-Metil	0.005
61	Metalaxyl-M	0.005
62	Metamidofos	0.005
63	Metamitron	0.005
64	Metazaclor	0.005
65	Methiocarb	0.005
66	Metomil	0.005
67	Metossifenozide	0.005
68	Metrafenone	0.005
69	Mevinfos	0.005
70	Myclobutanil	0.005
71	Oxadiazon	0.005
72	Oxamil	0.005
73	Penconazol	0.005
74	Phenmedipham	0.025
75	Phosmet	0.005
76	Picoxystrobin	0.005
77	Pinoxaden	0.005
78	Prochloraz	0.005
79	Propamocarb	0.005
80	Propiconazolo	0.005
81	Propizamide	0.005
82	Pyraclostrobin	0.005
83	Pyrimethanil	0.005
84	Quinoxyfen	0.005
85	Sedaxane	0.005
86	Spinosad	0.025
87	Spiroxamine	0.005
88	Tebufenpyrad	0.005
89	Terbutilazina.desetil-(metabolita)	0.005
90	Terbutrina	0.025
91	Tetraconazole	0.005
92	Thiamethoxam	0.005
93	Thiophanate-Methyl	0.005
94	Tiacloprid	0.005
95	Tolclofos-Methyl	0.025
96	Triallate	0.005
97	Tribenuron Metile	0.005
98	Triciclazolo	0.005
99	Zoxamide	0.005

Table 1.

PPPs analyzed by multiresidual method and related limits of quantification (LOQ).

Regarding glyphosate, AMPA, and glufosinate, a test aliquot from each water sample was treated following the derivatization procedure described by [38].

The instrumental analysis was conducted with a triple quadrupole mass-spectrometer system (TSQ Altis, Thermo Scientific, Massachusetts, USA) equipped with an Electro Spray Ionisation (ESI) source and coupled to a Vanquish Horizon UHPLC System (Thermo Scientific, Massachusetts, USA).

2.3 Insect monitoring

Reference studies on insect populations are increasingly relevant and necessary in the middle of the acceleration of concern for current trends of insects. The need to monitor insects is increasingly emerging as considered in continuous decline and above all because they can provide an ecological response based on many aspects such as occurrence and distribution, phenology, abundance and biomass, diversity and composition of the species [39]. Visual investigations are commonly used to document the abundance and diversity of insects that can be easily identified on the field, often with the help of binoculars and close focus networks. These investigations generally involve researchers who document the presence of a species or count the total number of individuals of each species observed during a standardized investigation. The most frequently used methods include (1) transepts, (2) counts for points, and (3) counts for areas. We specify that visual investigations are commonly used to document the abundance and diversity of insects that can be easily identified on the field, often with the help of binoculars and nets with a closed focus. These investigations generally involve researchers who document the presence of a species or count the total number of individuals of each species observed during a standardized investigation. For this type of monitoring, 1 km transepts were considered with the high sun on a windless and rainless day.

2.4 GIS procedure

To identify a functional operational flow, the areas of interest that act as a hydrographic basin for each temporary pond identified in the area along the main branch of the Lama Balice were first identified. This procedure was implemented in a Geographical Information System (GIS) software by processing the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the Puglia region with the module watershed basins in the open-source software SAGA GIS [40, 41].

In addition, for each sub-basin, again through a GIS-based procedure, the main crops present are identified and sorted from largest to smallest by extension in hectares. This procedure makes it possible to correlate any identified pesticide residues with the prevailing crops [30].

Finally, always through this methodology, it is possible to identify the areas of the territory where other temporary ponds could potentially form.

2.5 Landscape metrics

Again through GIS and supported by the use of recent high-definition maps, such as those achievable through a drone [42], it is possible to calculate the following metrics relating to the anthropogenic activities associated with disturbance activities and which can contribute in various ways to the evaluation of the quality status of the water matrix of the ponds. These metrics consist of mapping quarries, paths, and land cover changes for each sub-basin to obtain information with high added value with the analysis of the distance matrix and concentration maps. Specifically, the assessments are carried out through the calculation of anthropic pressure indicators such as the degree of fragmentation of the biotope produced by the road network (IND1PA), constriction of the biotope (IND2PA), diffusion of anthropic disturbance (IND3PA) [43], and as foreseen in the Manuals for habitat monitoring by ISPRA [44] get this information:

1. Nearness to environmental detractors, such as:

   • mining and landfills;

   • potentially contaminated areas;

   • contaminated areas;

   • vulnerable areas from nitrates of agricultural origin and vulnerable areas from plant protection products (also useful for measuring the pressure on the habitat due to agricultural activities);

   • areas at risk of desertification;

   • areas with strong tourist pressure;

   • proximity to treatment plants and pipelines for urban wastewater;

   • pollution of surface waters (if applicable) measured as pollution by N, P, BOD due to the drainage basin;

2. Pressure on habitat due to agricultural activities is measured as:

   • nearness to agricultural activities and to areas vulnerable to nitrates of agricultural origin and vulnerable areas to plant protection products;

   • assessment of the degree of habitat fragmentation based on Corine Land Cover [45];

3. Proximity to the road network is measured as the distance of the habitat from the nearest road segment;

4. Habitat consumption measured in % of the habitat occupied by anthropogenic artifacts;

5. Proximity to an airport facility is measured in % of the habitat within 5 km of an airport.

2.6 Field surveys

During the field surveys, it is advisable to note down what may be additional disturbing factors of the habitat, with an intensity scale that will allow identifying the factors that most negatively affect the habitat: for example, waste abandonment practices (it is suggested to count only areas in which the abandonments cover an area greater than 30 square meters), massive spreading of livestock effluents, and any other aspect that could interfere with the naturalness of an area.

2.7 Data integration

Given the different data sources, it was necessary to think about a data integration methodology. It is often necessary to compare different types of data, and therefore it is necessary to make them comparable through the creation of a single unified dataset. The resulting dataset differs from a simply combined superset in that the points in the new dataset contain information that is new to the data that originated it.

To this end, a form for field surveys was created by integrating other aspects required by the Italian Environmental Agency (ISPRA) [46] with normalized scales to be able to compare the collected data. The purpose of this action is precisely to standardize a method for fine-tuning the estimate of anthropogenic activities on habitats and ecosystems capable of combining multiple cognitive needs.

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Results of chemical investigations

Following (Tables 2 and 3) the results of the chemical investigations carried out in the three MTPs identified are reported.

Parameter	Unit of measure	MTP n.1	MTP n.2	MTP n.3
pH		8.28	7.2	8.3
D.O.	%	120.55	47	281.2
D.O.	mg/L	9.6	3.77	19.4
ORP	mV	139.4	158.2	102
CONDUCTIVITY	ms/cm	09.46	11.28	23.07
TDS	ppm	9.74	10.14	11.65
SALINITY	PSU	08.63	9.16	14
T	°C	19.63	18.47	24.5
PHOSPHATES	mg/L	0.32	0.13	0.15
NITRATES	mg/L	< 1	< 1	< 1
AMMONIUM	mg/L	<0.02	<0.02	0.258
NITRITES	mg/L	<0.02	<0.02	0.0329
COD	mg/L	31.2	37.4	113.4

Table 2.

Results of the analyses of the environmental parameters and nutrients investigated in the three identified study sites.

PPP name	Biocide action	CAS	MF	MW	LOQ (μg/L)	Concentration (μg/L)
						MTP n.1	MTP n.2	MTP n.3
Acetamiprid	Insecticide	135410-20-7	C10H11ClN4	222.67	0.005	< LOQ	< LOQ	< LOQ
AMPA	Herbicide	1066-51-9	CH6NO3P	111.0	0.025	0.075	< LOQ	0.085
Bentazone	Herbicide	25057-89-0	C10H12N2O3S	240.28	0.005	< LOQ	< LOQ	0.006
Carbendazim	Fungicide	10605-21-7	C9H9N3O2	191.19	0.005	< LOQ	< LOQ	0.05
Glyphosate	Herbicide	1071-83-6	C3H8NO5P	169.1	0.025	< LOQ	< LOQ	0.05
Imidacloprid	Insecticide	138261-41-3	C9H10ClN5O2	255.66	0.005	< LOQ	< LOQ	0.09
Metalaxyl	Fungicide	57837-19-1	C15H21NO4	279.33	0.005	< LOQ	< LOQ	0.006

Table 3.

Results of the PPPs investigated in the three identified study sites.

MF: molecular formula; MW: molecular weight; and LOQ: limit of quantification.

As far as the environmental parameters and the concentration of the nutrient observed, the MTP n.3 resulted in the richest of the investigated elements among the three sites selected. The proximity to the marine environment is demonstrated by the higher levels of conductivity and salinity encountered compared to the other two internal sites. Noteworthy is also the water temperature of 24°C revealed in MTP n.3 very higher compared to the other two sites, and it is also greater concerning the mean seasonal values.

Regarding the residues of the PPP investigated, about 7 % of the substances analyzed were revealed in a quantifiable amount. Among the substances positively quantified, two of these were insecticides (Acetamiprid and Imidacloprid), two fungicides (Carbendazim and Metalaxyl), and three herbicides (Bentazone, Glyphosate, and AMPA). In the MTP n.3, all these pesticides were found to be above the limit of quantification and with higher concentrations. On the contrary, in MTP n.2, just two of these were positively quantified and in MTP n.1 six of seven. At no site were any exceeding of the regulatory threshold values found.

3.2 Results of the GIS procedure

The results of the applied GIS procedure are reported below. In Figure 3, it is possible to observe the subdivision of the main basin into subbasins and the actual coincidence, with margins of error of a few meters (absolutely acceptable given the presence of morphological aspects that can alter the natural conformation of the territory such as roads and small bridges) of the temporary ponds with their closing sections. It is interesting to note that other temporary ponds could potentially form in areas with other closed sections.

Figure 3.

Basins and sub-basins identified.

The identification of sub-basins and cultivation practices for each of them is very important as it allows to identify the potential origin of the sources of contamination that have the greatest impact on these delicate ecosystems. The proposed monitoring sheet is filled out for each of them.

3.3 Results of insect monitoring

The results relating to the number of identified insects, for each monitored site, are reported directly in Table 4.

	Monitored sites n.	%x10 Land Use of the sub-Bacin			n. of illegal landfills for km^2	n. of water discharges for km^2	n. sites with sparks of zootechnical effluents for km^2	others for km^2	Historical information, for example reclaimed sites for km2	n. asphalted roads that intersect a transept	n. diseases identified on plants	Insects		sum of the voices and subtraction of the number of useful insects	Mean	Number of pesticides found	Number of contaminants (metals) found	TOTAL
					max 10	max 10	max 10	max 10			max 10
		Agricultural	Pasture	Urban								n. exclusive species	n. opportunistic species
Sub-Basin n. 1	1	9	1	0	1	0	0	0	1	0	2	5	5	4	3.00	1	0	0.25
	2	8	2	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	4	5	2
Sub-Basin n. 2	1	9	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	1	0	7	8	3	2.67	0	0	0.38
	2	9	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	6	8	3
	3	9	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	7	8	2
Sub-Basin n. 3	1	8	1	2	2	0	1	0	2	2	3	2	6	14	11.00	5	3	0.05
	2	9	1	0	1	0	0	0	0	1	1	1	6	8
Sub-Basin n. 4	1	7	1	2	3	0	1	0	2	1	3	1	7	16	14.50	5	3	0.04
	2	7	2	1	2	0	0	0	2	1	4	2	6	13
Sub-Basin n. 5	1	7	1	2	3	0	2	0	3	1	2	1	7	17	14.50	5	3	0.04
	2	7	2	1	2	0	1	0	2	1	2	2	6	12
Sub-Basin n. 6	1	7	1	2	2	0	2	0	3	1	3	3	7	15	14.00	5	3	0.05
	2	7	2	1	2	0	1	0	2	1	3	2	6	13
Sub-Basin n. 7	1	6	1	3	8	1	3	1	2	4	3	2	10	30	30.67	5	3	0.03
	2	6	1	3	6	2	2	2	1	3	4	1	9	28
	3	5	2	3	6	0	3	2	4	5	5	0	9	34
Legend of the classification
0	very bad
0,1	bad
0,2	scarse
0,3	medium
0,4	good
0,5	very good

Table 4.

Results achieved after applying the methodology for each monitored temporary pond.

3.4 Data integration results

Below are the results achieved for each temporary pond monitored and the relative monitoring carried out at different points for each sub-basin. Table 1 shows the data for a simple and immediate comparison.

In Figure 4, the resulting data integration values mapped on GIS are reported.

Figure 4.

The classification of the state of sub-basins carried out through the monitoring of temporary ponds.

4. Discussion

The results show that along the path from upstream to downstream of the entire catchment area of the Lama Balice, n. 3 different situations: upstream, the quality state can be defined as intermediate and going downstream, it first becomes good and then worsens. This can be explained by the presence of a highly natural area between the mountain area where the city of Bitonto is located and the valley area where, in addition to the city of Bari, there are numerous anthropogenic activities, especially of industrial type.

Rather than evaluating the absolute value of the score obtained, this methodology is considered more appropriate for a relative evaluation of the state of the places. The colors that are assigned also represent a priority for intervention in certain areas and facilitate the understanding of dynamics in progress: for example, discontinuous colors suggest the presence of limited and site-specific changes.

The different inspections carried out and the results of the application of this methodology made it possible to identify some best practices to be implemented for the management of the embankments, such as:

• avoiding the use of herbicides to control the vegetation of the ditches and their embankments and also to maintain a high diversity of habitats along the banks of the canals;

• favor grazing along the edges of the ditches to the advantage of annual plants and some invertebrates;

• keep isolated trees and patches of shrubs to allow shading of large sections of the ditches;

• avoid planting new trees or hedges with species that are not typical of the ecosystem and keep existing plants low and manage shrub vegetation along the ditches to increase the presence of waterfowl and other animal species;

• maintain these ecosystems to create suitable habitats for invertebrates, a source of food for avifauna;

with the following application implications:

• review of the authorization processes (discharges and withdrawals);

• review of environmental impact assessment procedures so that they take into account these fragile ecosystems;

• implementation of the codes of good agricultural practice that fall within the field of measures aimed at achieving/maintaining the quality objectives of a water body according to the DQA.

The innovative aspects that can be introduced by adopting this methodology refer to the systematic use in operational investigation practices of methodologies based on “knowledge management” that allows the collection, evaluation, analysis, integration, and interpretation of all the information available regarding decision-making or investigative need, allowing to represent the interactions and evolutions. This technique favors the deepening of the theoretical bases of predictivity, through the more intrinsic analysis of the cases that led to the configuration of environmental pollution, the reconstruction of the relative model and the interpolation, for predictive purposes, of what and when it may occur. The development of the monitoring method, predictive analysis, the creation of concentration maps, and overall the creation of an information system for the management and use of the data collected and transmitted can be based on techniques of knowledge extraction through Machine methodologies. Learning and Data Mining (clustering, sequence clustering, decision trees, time series, and logistic regression) and Association Rules Discovery to identify information based on associative rules are able to describe an interesting relationship between different phenomena taking place in extremely complex environments and ephemeral [47].

5. Conclusions

It is most important to recognize the crucial ecological role of temporary ponds. The numerous threats interesting these habitats are gradually causing their extinction, especially in the Mediterranean region where, unfortunately, not all states must comply with European legislation because they are not included in the Economic Community. Therefore, the aforementioned environmental legislation does not apply to them. However, the conservation of ponds, regardless of laws and states of origin, is essential, and appropriate political and management measures should be taken immediately to prevent their disappearance.

The results of the present study show how temporary ponds can be used to improve the knowledge necessary for understanding the matrices’ quality status in the River Basin of interest. The application of the proposed methodology made it possible to identify that in some areas, there is a greater risk on the water matrix and in others on the soil matrix based on a retro analysis based on the evaluation of pressures.

As far as water bodies are concerned, this type of monitoring not only allows the identification of a series of site-specific pressures but also an assessment of the state of the water matrix when monitoring operations are challenging to implement due to environmental conditions (e.g. dense vegetation or the presence of difficult accesses). In addition, considering these types of torrents, they are naturally created in a karst landscape, and therefore, their monitoring is carried out only on underground water bodies increasing costs for the opening through excavation and maintenance of wells. With this methodology, monitoring surface water bodies could be extended by increasing the cognitive picture of the quality of the water matrix with a minimum cost.

The integrated evaluation of the analysis of pressures and monitoring data can therefore be used to guide environmental control activities based on criteria of priority. This approach makes it possible to integrate the results of environmental controls, for example, both in the planning of monitoring and in the definition of protection measures.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Domenico Bellifemine for his valuable support in data acquisition campaigns.