Perspective Chapter: The Role of Learning Styles in Active Learning

Abstract

Active learning has a wide range of definitions, depending on the authors who define it. However, it can be understood as an instructional method that involves students in the learning process. Learning styles refer to the preferences that students have in their learning process. Learning styles emerge due to our genetics, life experiences and the demands of our current environment. These preferences can be classified and applied in activities that actively and passively require the participation of students. This chapter will attempt to describe active learning and learning styles separately. After that, the theoretical-practical intersections of active learning and learning styles are presented. Students’ learning preferences may (or may not) be accommodated by active learning practices. Sometimes the nature of the style results in an innate passivity in the student. What follows is the teacher’s action to engage students in a more active learning environment despite their predominant style. Based on research, some suggestions are presented in this regard.

1. Introduction

There are different ways in which a person can learn, not only because of the circumstances in which it occurs but also because of the cognitive structures of each person [1]. In this sense, individual differences emerge as a key element that supports the idea that each person has a different pace and way of learning. Therefore, everyone cannot be taught the same way [2]. Individual differences include aspects beyond the cognitive area; For example, some differences can be detected with the naked eye, such as height, weight, complexion, skin color, eye color or hair type. Other differences, such as attitudes, personality traits or preferences, may not be readily apparent unless a person is asked about them [3].

In a specific school setting, such as the classroom, student preferences may go beyond cognitive ones. In other words, a learner may prefer to work individually, but the teacher requests that they work in small teams. There will be a difference between what you prefer and what you get in a classroom. Herein lies the importance of recognizing the particular learning preferences of students. Not all students have the same learning preferences, just as not all teachers have the same teaching preferences.

Preferences and tendencies have been pointed out as common features to differentiate learning styles from cognitive styles [4]. Preferences have been classified in various ways. Dunn & Dunn’s work identifies what they call stimuli but refer directly to preferences: environmental, emotional, sociological, physiological and psychological. The first has to do with sound (those who like to study in silence or with some noise or music), light (those who prefer white light or darkness), temperature (those who like cold places or temperate) and how the classroom is arranged (desks in a row or a half circle) [5]. On the other hand, tendencies have been associated with cognitive processes with two poles [6]. Several authors do not agree to discriminate learning styles from cognitive ones. The evidence indicates that most theories of cognitive styles refer to two opposite poles: the works of Witkin and Goodenough with field dependence/independence, and Kagan’s proposal with reflection/impulsivity, to mention a few examples [4].

This chapter is intended to show the relationship and importance of learning styles in what has been called active learning. Since there are many learning style theories, we will try to rescue various concepts from some of them to illustrate their possible applications in an instructional model that addresses the active mode of learning.

2. What is a learning style? How can it be used in the teaching-learning process?

Learning style is a common personal and preferred method of acquiring, processing and maintaining new data and skills [7], more recently defined as a combination of distinctive cognitive, affective and psychological variables that indicate how an apprentice observes and interacts with a learning environment [8].

Style is defined as a set of preferences, tendencies and dispositions that a person has to do something and that manifests itself through a behavioral pattern and different strengths that make it stand out from others [4]. Learning styles also can be defined as cognitive, affective, physiological traits, preferences for the use of the senses, environment, culture, psychology, comfort, development and personality. These serve as relatively stable indicators of how people perceive, relate and respond to their learning environments and their methods or strategies in their way of learning [9, 10].

The learning styles have a huge influence on the educational field, and one of its main goals is to improve the results of the teaching-learning process, both in the short and long term [11]. These characteristics play an important role in electing the most suitable methods and learning strategies [12]. Also, the comprehension of these styles enhances the elaboration and development of more effective curricula and programs [13].

These styles considerably impact teachers’ creation of material, instruction alternatives, evaluations and students’ class material process. Therefore, it is important to connect learning styles and teaching practices, for example, through music, visuals or experiential activities [14]. Employing a set of teaching methods is founded on the postulation that, to some extent, some of the course content should be provided in a way that suits every type of learner [15].

Learning styles could provide a basis and a profitable framework that captures students’ diverse cognitive and affective characteristics. This framework may serve to encourage differences among students [16].

Another important issue consists of the implications of these preferences in educational environments. A transition from traditional settings to environments that consider the different learning styles is necessary. The individual variations in educational environments must consider the student’s differences and teachers’ diversity due to the important role of these factors in the teaching-learning settings [17].

Although most of the time learning styles are widely related to sensory preferences (visual, auditory and kinesthetic), it is important to highlight that there are a large number of theories that have focused on different types of preferences, like the Dunn & Dunn model [18]. Some conceive models of learning styles in packages of four; among them are the works of Anthony Gregorc [19], David Kolb [20], Honey and Mumford [21], Catalina Alonso and Domingo Gallego [22] and Berenice McCarthy [23], to mention a few. Others establish packages of five and six, as is the case of Anthony Grasha [24] and Richard Felder and Linda Silverman [25], respectively. Furthermore, others propose up to 16 styles, as is the case of Myers et al. [26].

Learning styles theories have been classified by different authors. The first was proposed by Lynn Curry [27, 28] with the metaphor of the layers of an onion. The first layer refers to instructional preferences: how the student likes to receive a lesson or learn content in a classroom (Grasha’s model and Dunn & Dunn’s model fit very well here). The layer that follows has to do with social interaction preferences, that is, those individuals who like to interact with others or who prefer to remain isolated (the MyersBriggs and Dunn & Dunn models are clear examples). The third layer has to do with information processing preferences, that is, whether learners learn by steps or by intuitive jumps, whether they acquire information in isolation or together, etc. (Theories that allude to processes of perception and information processing appear here, such as the models of Kolb, Gregorc, Alonso and Gallego and McCarthy). The last layer has to do with personality preferences, that is, if a learner is introverted or extroverted and other similar characteristics that model the personality of an individual (the MyersBriggs model fits here).

Another proposal for classifying theories was proposed by Sternberg and Grigorenko [29]. His classification of the different style theories responds to those that existed before the 1990s. The first approach is centred on cognition, which located the theories of cognitive styles. Among them were authors such as Witkin (dependence - field independence), Kagan (reflection - impulsiveness), Smith and Klein (flexible control - constrictor control). Most of these theories shared the fact that styles were seen as trends rather than preferences. A typical characteristic of this conglomerate was that since it contained only two style possibilities, its values could be visualized in a continuum, in such a way that a person could move in the line without having one hundred per cent of a particular style.

The second approach is focused on personality. This approach can include the theory of the sixteen styles of Myers-Briggs [26], which in turn had been based on the Swiss psychologist Carl Jung’s model of types. Not only how an individual learns is identified but also attitudes, roles and lifestyle. Also, in this group, the model of Gregorc can be located [19]. The third and final approach is activity-focused. Here are many theories of learning styles that, from the point of view of Sternberg and Grigorenko [29], do not have the same theoretical weight as the two previous approaches. They mention Dunn’s model and Kolb’s.

Some theories of learning styles for virtual environments have appeared in recent years. One of these theories was proposed by Melaré-Vieira [30], which identifies four styles in the use of virtual space. The first style is participatory and likes discussion forums and chats, and it is proactive and risky. The second style is called search and investigation, and it likes to investigate, organize content and synthesize information. The third style is structuring and planning, it likes theory, enjoys projects and is methodical and farsighted. Finally, the last style is called concrete and production, It likes to discover new software, enjoys social networks, multitasks and likes to do things online (electronic banking, hotel reservations, etcetera.).

For their part, Lozano-Rodríguez, Tijerina-Salas and Valenzuela-González [31] proposed a model that considers preferences related to the use of computer equipment. In addition to chronobiological, sensory, psychological and dependency preferences, a section was included to consider technological preferences. From this attempt, Lozano-Rodríguez, Tijerina-Salas and García-Cué [32] proposed another instrument to measure learning styles in online environments. The difference with the previous one was that this initiative rescued the essence of attendance. However, the set of specified preferences could be applied to face-to-face and virtual environments alike. The proposal included four types of preferences: perception, autonomy, orientation and sensory preferences.

3. What is active learning?

Active learning does not have a singular definition. Karamustafaoglu [33] mentions that this concept can be defined ‘as any instructional method that engages students in the learning process’ (p. 28). This practice implies active involvement in the learning process and not a passive attitude [34]. Also, active learning activities require students to think about what they are doing. The teacher’s role in the student’s active learning should not be overlooked. It is important to keep it in the setting where the teaching-learning process takes place.

The word ‘active’ implies activities requiring students’ involvement beyond mere reception, such as listening to an explanation or narration. Being active involves the student manipulating something, moving the body, executing different movements or doing something more than just contemplatively or passively watching something [35, 36].

Active learning has often been related to teaching techniques, such as problem-based learning or project-oriented learning [37, 38, 39]. The underlying idea is that these techniques involve collaborative learning as an active way of learning. Students are encouraged to interact with each other by exchanging points of view and perspectives on a particular issue.

Interaction in small groups entails applying different social skills, such as negotiation, conflict resolution, argumentation and agreement [40, 41]. Each student learns based on her active participation in the discussion. Usually, problem-based learning includes a series of steps or stages that students go through until they reach the point of preparing a final report. On the other hand, in project-oriented learning, students focus on the product they must deliver at the end of the day.

Other teaching techniques involving active learning are challenge-based learning [42, 43] case study, and collaborative learning per se [44]. In the first one, students sometimes analyze a challenge, which can be a situation that previously occurred in a given setting or was invented by the teacher. The purpose here is to solve a difficult situation in a real or imaginary scenario.

In the second one, students address the case as an independent study phase and then a small group discussion leading up to a plenary discussion. In the third one, collaborative work can be reflected in the approach to a challenge, problem, project or case. In other words, collaborative learning is the common denominator of the four previous teaching techniques (see Figure 1). In the same way, it was found that medical students who worked with team-based learning had better academic performance than those who did not [45]. In addition, there was an involvement of the students in their learning.

Figure 1.

Teaching techniques for active learning.

The notion of representing a type of active learning in the form of didactic techniques mentioned above is equivalent to the fact that the passive aspect of the student, where he/she acts as a receptacle of information or knowledge. The same dynamic of interaction involved in each technique avoids this feature. There is an activation of knowledge, reflection, connections with other prior knowledge and, most importantly, social exchange of ideas encourages active participation [46].

In addition to teaching techniques, the construction of models and mock-ups is a clear example of how to promote student learning in an active and participatory way. A study was designed where medicine and nutrition of students worked with the elaboration of models to illustrate the different processes of human physiology [47]. Through presentations in small teams, students had the opportunity to visualize concepts more clearly that could be more abstract than they seemed.

The practical aspect highlighted in the experience of building models and mock-ups fosters the understanding and recall of the information learned. The inclusion of games in non-playful contextual environments is another way of visualizing a form of active learning. Alsawaier [48] highlights the importance of gamification as an alternative to increasing motivation and engagement. Students see their participation increase due to the adrenaline of wanting to beat others or obtain a characteristic badge of this modality. In the same way, another study was designed with active learning experiences through the use of puzzles for teaching dentistry [49]. The experimental group students were exhorted to work with crosswords and word search puzzles. Their results suggest an increase in student participation versus those in the control group who did not use them. Students became more excited by using a resource that had not been used before.

The use of concept maps can also evidence a form of active learning since the student puts into play their acquired knowledge in the form of representing it on a map. A study with pathology students suggests that the implementation of concept maps favored academic achievement [50]. Besides the teacher’s oral presentations, the students made a concept map each week as a closing learning activity. Also, Clarkson [51] points out that using IPad in the classroom promotes a more collaborative and authentic learning experience and improves critical thinking. According to this author, active learning strategies focus on the student, facilitate collaboration and reflect workplace practices that can help develop the necessary skills. Finally, Rodis and Locsin [52] applied a series of active learning strategies based on peer-learning and peer-teaching in English-language dental students from Japan. The students reported that the activities had contributed significantly to their training as dentists and they preferred active learning styles.

On the other hand, empirical evidence shows that active learning techniques do not necessarily increase academic achievement [36]. However, it has been shown that active learning positively influences the student’s involvement in what he/she learns, and his/her motivation is also increased [53]. Considering that not all students prefer the active mode of learning, it is possible to assume that active learning techniques do not necessarily work the same way for everyone. For example, in the theory of learning styles of sensory preferences, kinesthetic students will like activities that require them to move or manipulate objects. In contrast, visual or auditory students prefer to be spectators of a demonstration or an explanation. It sounds logical? The truth is that the same type of student cannot be generalized for any instructional technique, whether active or not.

4. Types of active learning activities

Not all active learning activities are the same. There are differences in the intentions, the cognitive demands and the involvement that students can have. Chi [54] proposes a difference between learning activities classified into active, constructive and interactive categories. The first ones fit the concepts that have been previously mentioned about active learning; that is, when the student physically executes something or manipulates objects, there is direct involvement. The second one is focused on the construction of things or products. Writing a sentence, writing a story or generating a product are examples of construction. The latter refers to students exchanging points of view, opinions and perspectives with their peers. In fact, the interactivity part is more than evident in the didactic techniques. Learning acquires a social nuance that accompanies individual participation.

An alternative proposal would have to do with the nature of the learning activities in terms of the cognitive demands placed on the student. So far, we have talked about teaching techniques involving collaborative learning, learning activities involving gamification, concept maps, crossword puzzles and models and mock-ups. To the above, theatrical performances, body language exercises, debates and the flipped classroom, to name a few, could also be integrated (see Table 1). It is important to mention that this list is not exhaustive and that it is intended to serve as a reference framework for instructional designs.

Types of active learning activities
Type	Activities	Category
Teaching techniques	Problem-based learning	Interactive
	Project-oriented learning
	Case study
	Challenge-based learning
	Collaborative learning
Use of electronic resources	Interactive videoclips
	Gamification	Active
	Flipped classroom
	Puzzles	Constructive
	Crosswords and Word Search
Physical resources and actions	Models and mock-ups making
	Handicraft
	Concept maps and mind maps
	Written products (reports, essays, narratives, etcetera)
	Role-playing	Interactive
	Theatrical performances
	Debates
	Guided discussions
	Peer-teaching

Table 1.

Types of active learning activities.

The instructional design of a specific course should consider the inclusion of active learning activities. However, selecting which type of activity is required will depend on the nature of the discipline to be taught and the educational level. The examples that will be addressed below have a lot to do, mainly with the areas of medicine and health.

5. The intersection between active learning and learning styles

Some learning style theories include styles that consider the active factor. For example, in perceptual preferences, the kinesthetic style refers to the possibility that the student can move or perform actions aimed at the learning process. Boctor [55] points out that nursing students are kinesthetic learners. They prefer a hands-on, movement involvement, active approach to education. However, in that sense, what happens with the other styles of learning? Are visual and aural learning styles out of the active learning? The answer could be affirmative, as long as the student’s activity is limited to passive viewing or listening, but it is not the case all the time. What happens when there are possibilities to make active what is considered passive? For instance, Palis and Quiros [56] observed that traditional classes in medical school, where the teacher explains a topic or a concept, could be enriched with some learning principles such as the needs of the student, the interaction in the classroom and the connection of the new knowledge with the old. The lectures can be classified as passive, but the difference in making them active lies in their learning principles-based complements. According to medical students, lecturers can promote deeper learning since reflection during lectures may be encouraged through debates, dialogs and questions.

In learning the laws of Physics through WebQuest, students who show active learning styles have better results in terms of their academic achievement, especially when it comes to science or mathematics subjects [57]. It is important to note that students who exhibit passive learning styles can still be encouraged to participate in active learning activities unless there is a physical difficulty or disability. Added to this, it was pointed out that also, in learning geometry through a creative process, students with an active learning style had a certain performance [58]. However, there was no way to compare it to other learning styles that were not active.

Research in computer science indicates that students in this area are inclined to be visual/intuitive learners. In these cases, an active environment is essential for the mastery of learning material. Based on this idea, a laboratory course was created to stimulate an active learning environment using techniques, such as frequent in-class problem solving, lab sheets and discussions. The results showed improved student grades and greater satisfaction with the course [59].

Having a passive learning style and turning it into an active one depends on many factors. Can it be achieved? It was found that some pharmacology residents changed their learning styles as they moved into practice outside of the residency [60]. However, the study suggests that an opportunity is needed to guide pharmacists towards more active learning preferences through residency curricula, learning facilitation and mentoring.

One of the learning styles theories, which has undoubtedly had a profound impact on conceptualizing the different preferences for learning in a cyclical model (through perception and processing of information), is referred to by David Kolb [20]. Initially, this author distinguished only four learning styles: diverging, assimilating, accommodating and converging. The first and the last style had to do with concrete experience, where manipulation and social interaction have a lot to do with it. In terms of action, these styles are suitable for active learning. The second and third styles had more to do with contemplation and abstract abstraction; here, only reflective observation is highlighted. On the contrary, these styles are more related to passive ways of learning. However, more recently, this theory was upgraded to a nine-style scheme, proposed by Kay Peterson, Lisa DeCato and David Kolb [61]. In this new proposal, elements of effort are included and indicated in a continuum with two opposite values. These comprise the flow that goes from the free one to the restricted one, the weight that goes from the light one to the heavy one, the time that goes from the gradual one to the urgent one and an approach that goes from the indirect way to a direct one. At least five styles in this new model have to do with active learning.

It is important to highlight that almost half of the learning styles of this or other style models consider the possibility of carrying out activities that lead to an active character [18, 20, 24]. However, it has also been seen that there are styles that prefer passivity at all times in their learning process. The underlying idea is to realize the importance of inviting those students to explore styles other than their own.

Sternberg [62] already pointed out that styles can change over time and that they could also be socialized. If a student is invited by his/her teacher to explore new ways of learning, he/she will likely have no choice but to follow the recommendation. Many students discover new learning possibilities and make them their own, while others prefer to stay in their comfort zone. The teacher’s figure is also important because many students take him as a role model.

One of the first ideas that emerges from the relationship between learning styles and active learning is the necessity to identify students who really like active learning activities (see Figure 2). In other words, those students will voluntarily enjoy active learning activities. Those who present passive styles should be encouraged and persuaded to participate. In a second moment, the teacher faces the challenge of convincing these students to get involved with their own learning in a style that is not their own. Several models of learning styles propose that students activate all their styles when they are in a learning activity since no one has an absolute style but rather a collection of several [5, 62].

Figure 2.

Teaching steps considering learning styles in active learning.

The teacher’s intervention could be necessary when he/she detects that certain students are presenting difficulties in their learning process [63]. Sometimes it is not enough to observe them directly during their performance in some activity, but ask them directly if they have problems advancing in their objectives. In the end, an evaluation process will be required to identify areas of opportunity for subsequent activities.

The model of learning styles chosen will depend on the educational level and the characteristics of the class. As already mentioned, the variety of theories is very wide and should not be restricted to sensory preferences only.

6. Conclusions

The design of active learning activities must consider, at all times, the learning styles of the students. In this way, teaching efforts can be capitalized on to obtain the best results in terms of academic achievement. In this sense, applying an instrument to measure learning styles is highly recommended. Teacher knows the learning styles of their students is a powerful tool to be able to influence the teaching-learning process.

On the other hand, the inclusion of individual and team activities should have a similar weight throughout a course. In other words, not all activities are individual, nor are they all collective. Implementing teaching techniques is highly desirable, but so is the possibility that students alone can face a learning situation that challenges their intellect, imagination, creativity and critical thinking. Concept maps, mind maps, crossword puzzles and the creation of models and mock-ups are some recommendations.

In addition, with an overview of the class on the types of learning styles that students have, the teacher can make more organized combinations of students distributed in teams. Instructors can also pinpoint which students need more attention to achieve the course objectives, support those with more passive learning styles and encourage more active ones. Only this way can there be better results in terms of learning.

In summary, learning styles can be a great ally in the design of active learning activities, not only because they can enhance the result obtained but also because it allows students to enjoy the learning process more. The more the learning activities are adjusted to the styles of the students, the greater the possibility of academic achievement.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our special thanks of gratitude to our educational leader, Dr. María Luisa Madueño-Serrano as well as our principal Dr. Guadalupe De la Paz Ross-Arguelles who gave us the support to do this project. We are really thankful to them.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.