Scientific, Technical, and Social Challenges of Coffee Rural Production in Ecuador

Abstract

The production of coffee in Ecuador a family activity carried out in rural areas. Due to the economic importance of this crop and its ability to adapt to different ecosystems, it has been widely introduced in government conservation and economic reactivation programs. At the present, it is cultivated in the four Ecuadorian natural regions that comprise the Amazon rainforest, the Andean mountains, the Pacific coast, and the Galapagos Islands. The different climate and altitude characteristics of these regions allow Ecuador to grow all commercial varieties of coffee. The variety planted, the region of origin, and the type of post-harvest processing gives each cup of coffee a unique flavor and aroma. To recovery the knowledge behind each production process, a complete review of the whole coffee productive chain was made. The information reviewed was compared with the available information of other neighboring countries and complemented with experiences described by small farmers. The analysis confirms that Ecuador has a competitive advantage due to its ecosystem diversity. However, the development of this industry depends on the correct implementation of policies that cover three main aspects: (1) farmers’ quality of life, (2) training and research programs, and (3) fair trade for small producers.

1. Introduction

Coffee is one of the most popular and consumed beverages in the world. High coffee consumption can have a substantial effect on health [1]. It is among the most traded agricultural commodities. In 2020, it is estimated that 10,520,820 tons of coffee were produced [2] and almost the same amount was consumed [3]. In Latin America, its production is an integral component of the livelihoods of millions coffee farmers, associates, and workers including their families [4].

Coffee has been cultivated in Ecuador since the eighteenth century. It is one of the ten most important crops, being grown entirely in rural areas. In total, the coffee area exceeds 30 thousand hectares planted [5]. Due to the geographical characteristics of Ecuador, it is one of the few countries in the world that cultivate the two commercial varieties: Coffea arabica or arabica coffee and Coffea canephora or robusta coffee. In 2020, Ecuador exported 14,828.15 bags of 60 kilos [6].

One of the advantages of coffee cultivation is its adaptability to different ecosystems, in which it produces important environmental benefits. In Ecuador, coffee trees are managed as agroforestry systems. According to each region and its climatic conditions, coffee is grown together with forest species, mainly fruit trees, which provide temporary shade to the crop, and timber species that provide permanent shade [7]. This landscape arrangement contributes to the maintenance of appropriate habitat for various species of flora and fauna, the capture of carbon in the soil, and the water balance of ecosystems [8].

Despite the environmental advantages offered by this crop, the productive sector is affected not only by the consequences of the pandemic and the deterioration of the global economy but also by the change in climatic conditions that promote the migration and spread of pathogenic organisms such as the coffee leaf rust [9] and the coffee cherry borer which is very difficult to eradicate [10]. They are not the only plagues that affect coffee cultivation, but they are the ones that have caused the greatest economic losses in coffee production around the world [11].

The combination of strategies such as the use of chemical fungicides, quarantines, cultural practices, biocontrol agents, and the selection of resistant varieties have helped to reduce pests and diseases. However, climate change is threatening the survival of Coffea arabica cultivation worldwide [12]. This pushed the producers to review the agronomic practices and search for new strategies. Among the different proposed options, forest conservation seems to be the most promising to guarantee coffee production in the future. The forests are a source of water, help to mitigate the global temperature rise, and are a source of microorganisms that could be used to regenerate eroded soils and counteract pathogenic organisms [13, 14].

Within this context, it is evident that Ecuador has optimal geographic and environmental conditions to produce quality coffee and overcome the new challenges of climate change. However, its production is lower compared with neighboring productive countries like Peru, Colombia, and Brazil. This fact is associated with other problems that are limiting the development of this productive sector. In this review, social, technical, and scientific aspects are analyzed in the whole production chain to understand the opportunities, needs of coffee growers, and the limitations in the production process. The importance of this research lies in unifying the information of the different regions and coffee productive associations that are scattered throughout the national territory and rescue the needs of small farmers often not considered.

The next sections will describe the production of coffee in rural areas, its challenges and opportunities, the development policies, the social and economic importance, and a description of the production process from planting to waste management. The tables and graphs collect important information about coffee growers-associations, crops distribution, cultivated varieties, and their characteristics. The photographs included in this chapter show images of a typical coffee farm in the Ecuadorian Andes.

2. Rural production of coffee in Ecuador: challenges and opportunities

In Ecuador, coffee farming is an activity that has been passed down from generation to generation. It is carried out entirely in rural areas, which are characterized by having very productive soils but a high rate of poverty, low percentage of basic education, absence of basic services, and bad connecting roads.

The first records of coffee export in Ecuador date back to 1980 in the province of Portoviejo Manabí [15]. Subsequently, thanks to the opening of world trade and the adaptability of this plant in the different Ecuadorian ecosystems, coffee is currently grown in 23 of the 24 provinces, becoming one of the 10 most important crops from an economic point of view [16]. Despite its importance, coffee production has been marked by ups and downs [17] and has substantially failed in improving the living conditions of rural farmers [18].

The crisis in the coffee sector covers many social and technological aspects and shows the little success of development policies. For example, the current Ecuadorian policy, in its 2015–2025 proposal, promote Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Literally, it suggests sustainable rural territorial development through the empowerment of the seven territorial planning areas that cover the entire country [19]. Even though, this policy has not been able to stop internal migration. According to projections by the National Institute of Statistics and Censuses (INEC), until 2010, only 35% of the population lived in rural areas with an annual decrease of 1.3% [20]. These data explain the aging of farmers because of young migration in search of better opportunities.

In the same way, the legal framework and the Constitution of Ecuador (2008) consider small farmers as priority groups for development. According to data from the FAO, more than 64% of the Ecuadorian agricultural production is in the hands of small producers categorized as Rural Farming Families (RFFs), on whom internal consumption depends. The RFFs represents 84.5% of the Agricultural Production Units (APU) [20]. These data highlight the importance of the rural sector in food production and the urgent need to change strategies to boost sustainable agriculture development. Unfortunately, not all NGOs development programs meet the needs of the population because they often replicate models used elsewhere resulting in a lack of cooperation between farmers.

In another context, Ecuador is considered a megadiverse country [21] and must find a balance between development and biodiversity conservation. With this goal, the Ministry of the Environment in 2011 proposed to increase protected areas by reducing the rate of deforestation, remedying environmental liabilities, reducing the use of pesticides, and addressing climate change through sustainable policies. To achieve part of this objective, the “Socio-Forest Program” and the “National Forestation and Reforestation Program” were created [22, 23]. However, there were many contradictions in the application of these measures. As an example, in the Amazon province of Orellana, palm crops (Elaeis guineensis) are still in constant and extensive growth, because of government subsidies. Currently, there are large private monocultures that displace other species, favoring the frontier expansion of agriculture and the loss of biodiversity [24, 25]. In the agricultural area, the government subsidizes and encourages the acquisition of seeds and the use of pesticides without appropriate control and monitoring.

For cocoa (Theobroma cacao) and coffee, the situation was more favorable, although some of the inconsistencies remain. These two crops form agroecosystems that, due to their structure and function, help to maintain a diversity of birds, bats, non-flying mammals, and invertebrates which in turn help to contain pathogens spread [26, 27]. In addition, these crops were part of the government’s economic reactivation program from 2012- to 2021 and were consolidated through the formation of the Coffee and Cocoa Coordination Unit to promote productivity and forest conservation [28]. The coffee-cocoa program achieved the goal of promoting its cultivation, increasing its production in rural areas. However, much remains to be done in terms of quality. Rural farmers put all their resources into this crop motivated by government incentives, nonetheless, many of them express a feeling of abandonment and expect greater support that allows them to recover the investment and get out of poverty.

In conclusion, the policies of economic reactivation and conservation of rural areas must be reconsidered and oriented to grant a good quality of life for farmers. It is the only way to ensure sustainable development.

3. Social and economic importance of coffee cultivation

Coffee cultivation covers about 14% of the agricultural area of the country [29]. It is known as the unit crop due to its extension throughout the territory and the inclusion of all indigenous communities such as Quichua in the Andean region, Tsáchila in the Coastal region, and Shuar in the Amazon region.

Coffee production has a growing world demand and generates rural and urban employment because field activities include those necessary for the commercialization, transport, and industrialization processes. Also, it generates foreign income due to exportation. Export earnings are estimated to be between 60 and 80 billion dollars per year [30]. This income indicates the economic importance of the coffee sector in Ecuador. However, farmers are not the main beneficiaries of the coffee industry. Most of the income remains with the intermediaries who sell coffee on the international market [30]. An indicator of this reality is the high poverty rates in rural areas, which exceed 42% [20].

To survive, small farmers had to diversify their cropland. A small part is used to grow short-cycle food for sale and self-consumption. They also raise animals to obtain more economic income [29]. The difficult economic situation explains the migration of the younger population to the cities in search of better economic opportunities. This migration has caused the aging of farmers. It is estimated that the average age of coffee farmers is 50 years [20, 29, 31]. This means that over time their work capacity will decrease and there will be no new generations that continue with the activity.

To rescue coffee cultivation, small producers created the “benefits” that are legal associations that ensure fair trade. Unfortunately, 95% of coffee producers do not belong to any association [29]. One explanation for this fact is that most of the farms are in places of difficult access and do not have good communication channels. Phone signals do not work, and they live in isolation. Improving access to roads and basic services should be the government’s priority to improve productivity. Table 1 shows the main coffee growers’ associations in Ecuador.

Coffee growers Associations	Province of action
Asociación Nacional Ecuatoriana de café (ANECAFÉ)	All provinces
Federación Regional de Asociaciones de Pequeños Cafetaleros Ecológicos del Sur (FAPECAFE)	Loja, El Oro y Samora Chinchipe
Asociación Agroartesanal de Caficultores “Río Íntag” (AACRI)	Imbabura y Pichincha
Asociacion De Productores Y Comercializadores De Cafe Organico Bosque Nublado Golondrinas.	Carchi
Empresa de Comercialización Asociativa de Manabí (COREMANABA); Corporación Ecuatoriana de Cafetaleros (CORECAF); Federación de Asociaciones Artesanales de Producción Cafetalera Ecológica de Manabí (FECAFEM).	Portoviejo, Guayas
Asociación Aroma amazónico	Sucumbios y Orellana
Asociación Aroma amazónico	Sucumbios y Orellana

Table 1.

Ecuadorian coffee growers association by Provinces.

Another important issue is the fact that farmers produce coffee, but they don’t have the culture of coffee, understanding that they are not coffee drinkers. This is a fundamental difference from other neighboring countries such as Colombia where a true culture of coffee has been achieved and promoted through tourist activities that generates additional income for coffee growers. This data was observed after visiting several rural farms in the Andean region.

Creating a culture of coffee around this drink could influence the quality of the final product. The National Ecuadorian Coffee Association (ANECAFE) organizes different tasting events for this purpose.

4. Coffee production under agroforestry systems: farming practices, pest, and disease management

The quality of coffee depends on its organoleptic characteristics, which in turn depend on many other factors, including the genetics of the plant, the environmental conditions, the agricultural practices, the degree of cherry ripeness, and the post-harvest processing and the storage and transport conditions. Each step in coffee production is then of fundamental importance for obtaining the golden bean [32].

Due to the different ecosystem characteristics, Ecuador is one of the few countries in the world that can cultivate the two commercial species of coffee, Coffea arabica (70%) and Coffea canephora (30%). Figure 1 shows the distribution of coffee crops by region and the cultivated areas in hectares. As can be seen, the cultivation of coffee is spread practically throughout the territory. On the other hand, Table 2 shows the environmental characteristics of each region that directly influences the type of variety cultivated and the end quality of the final product [33, 34].

Figure 1.

Distribution of Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora in Ecuador.

Region	Environmental conditions for coffee cultivation
Andean	18–23°C; 1500–2900 masl
Coast	25–30°C; 40–600 masl
Amazon	23°; <500 masl
Galapagos	25°C; 180–450 masl

Table 2.

Environmental conditions of coffee plantations by region.

Of the two species, C. arabica is more appreciated for its organoleptic properties, and therefore it generates more revenue. The main characteristic of this variety is that it contains less caffeine compared with C. canephora. Caffeine is responsible for the bitter and strong taste [35].

C. arabica usually grows in cooler climates common in high altitudes (18–21°C). For this reason, it is known as mountain coffee. Despite its adaptability to colder climates, Ecuador benefits from the Humboldt Current that provides fresh cold air during coffee flowering. It allows the cultivation of arabica varieties also in lower and warmer regions of the country. For example, Manabí on the coast grows arabica coffee at 600 meters above sea level (masl) [36], and in Galapagos, Santa Cruz, and San Cristobal Islands, a premium arabica coffee is obtained at altitudes between 180 and 450 masl [33]. The cold temperatures let a slow ripening of the cherry which allows a greater accumulation of sugars and metabolites that contribute to improving the organoleptic properties [37]. Global warming is therefore an enemy that puts arabica coffee production at risk [38]. One effect of this warming is related to the resentful presence of the coffee berry borer (Hyphotenemus Hampei) in higher and colder areas [10].

The most cultivated varieties of C. arabica in Ecuador are Bourbon, Typica, Caturra, Geisha, Catucaí, Timor, Castillo Sachimor, and Sidra [39]. Choosing the right variety is the first important decision that agriculture must take. As reported in Table 3, some varieties seem to be more productive, resistant to pests, and more adaptable to high temperatures [40]. On the contrary, other varieties are less productive or resistant but have superior organoleptic characteristics. The genetics of the plant mostly determines the biochemical composition of the fruit (caffeine, sugars, lipids, and chlorogenic acids) and therefore the organoleptic properties [41]. For this reason, the decision of which variety to plant depends not only on the place of cultivation and climatic condition but also on the quality or volume of coffee that is desired to produce.

Variety	Characteristics
Bourbon	It is originated from the Typica variety. It is known for its excellent cup quality. It has a 30% higher productivity than the typical variety. It reaches heights of 3 m, being susceptible to winds. Its maturation is early and there is a risk of fruit falling due to rain
Typica	Originally from Ethiopia, it began the history of coffee cultivation in America. It is characterized by being high (4 m). It has low productivity and is susceptible to rust. However, its cup is highly valued. It grows between 1300 and 1800 masl
Caturra	Arose from a mutation of bourbon. It is a low height (1.8 m). Its fruits can be red and yellow. They are characterized by early maturation. They tolerate drought, wind, and sun exposure better
Geisha	Originally from Ethiopia. The most important characteristic is its excellent cup and for that reason, it still occupies a place in production, however, it has low productivity and resistance to rust
Catucaí	It comes from an artificial cross between the Mundo Novo and Caturra varieties carried out in Brazil. They reach heights of 2.25 m and have high productivity (7.9 tons/hectare). The maturation of its fruit is late, being beneficial for areas where maturation coincides with the rainy season
Timor	The Timor Hybrid is originated from a spontaneous cross between the Typica variety of C. arabica and Robusta of C. canephora, identified around 1917 on the island of East Timor (Indian Ocean). Highly resistant to rust pathogen. The trait of genetic resistance comes from the species C. canephora
Castillo	It is originated from Colombia. It was developed by the National Coffee Research Center (Cenicafe). It is a pest-resistant plant characterized by being precocious and highly productive
Sidra	Discovered in Ecuador as a result of a cross between the Typica and Bourbon varieties. It is known for its aroma of flowers and fruits
Sarchimor	The Sarchimores are plants of low size, green or bronze bud, vigor, and high production, well adapted to low and medium altitude areas, and good cup quality

Table 3.

Most common C. arabica Varieties cultivated in South and Central America.

Most coffee growers in Ecuador prefer the quality of the final product due to the higher economic income obtained with an excellent coffee rating. The National Ecuadorian Coffee Association (ANECAFE), for example, awards the best producers with the “golden cup”. The golden cup is a contest in which international experts evaluated different coffee quality parameters like aroma, sweetness, body, color, and others. In 2021, the Sidra and Geisha varieties, grown in the Andean provinces of Pichincha and Loja, were the most appreciated by the expert’s panel, achieving quality scores higher than 90 points [42]. This nomination allows farmers to sell coffee at prices 10–100 times higher.

On the other hand, robusta coffee grows in warmer places on the coast and in the Amazon region. It is more productive, resistant to high temperatures and pests, and contributes mainly to the local market. It is appreciated in special mixes and soluble coffee production [43]. Maincrop differences between C. arabica and C. Canephora are summarized in Table 4 [40].

	Arabica	Robusta
Time from flower to ripe cherry	9 months	10–11 months
Yield (kg beans/ha)	1500–2000	2300–4000
Optimum temperature (yearly average)	15–24°C	24–30°C
Optimal rainfall	1500–2000 mm	2000–3000 mm
Optimal altitude	1000–2000 masl	0–700 masl
Caffeine content of beans	0.8–1.4%	1.7–4%

Table 4.

Maincrop differences between C. arabica and C. canephora.

In terms of genetics, there is significant variability of bean chemical composition and organoleptic characteristics between arabica and robusta and within variety levels [41]. Therefore, genetic gains for quality can be achieved by hybridization strategies and the use of new genomic tools that offers the opportunity to accurately decipher the genomic control of quality components.

Coffee is grown under agroforestry polyculture systems that, on the one hand, allow the conservation of biodiversity and, on the other hand, provide multiple advantages to coffee plantations. The trees provide shade, helping to maintain a suitable temperature. They also form a barrier that prevents damage from strong winds and rain and counteracts the spread of pathogens. In addition, they prevent soil erosion, forming ecosystem corridors that allow maintaining a considerable biodiversity of flora, fauna, and beneficial microorganisms [44].

The most common trees found in Ecuadorian coffee plantations are a mix of fruit trees (Musa paradisiaca, Carica papaya, Citrus limon, Psidium guajava, Inga edulis, and Theobroma cacao) and timber trees (Cordia alliodora and Ochroma sp) [44]. In Galapagos is common to find other endemic species such as Scalesia pedunculata, Psidium galapageium, and Zanthoxilum fagara [45]. Figure 2 gives an idea of the biodiversity around coffee trees.

Figure 2.

Coffee trees under agroforestry system. Intag-Ecuador. (Source: Sania Ortega).

Because of all positive factors, the agroforestry system is more sustainable. However, it is important that farmers adapt this system to their specific conditions to avoid competition between species for nutrients and water. This competition could decrease production. The tree density recommended by the sustainable agriculture network (SAN) is 40%. Higher densities subtract sunlight from coffee, producing opposite effects [46]. The choice of shade trees is also important. Trees with deep and widely branched roots are generally preferred. Leguminous trees are also relevant for their ability to fix nitrogen. In Ecuador, the leguminous Guaba tree (Inga edulis) is widely found also because its fruit is locally consumed [47].

Coffee trees tolerate a wide range of soils if they are deep, porous, well-drained, and well balanced for their texture. Coffee is not very demanding in soil fertility, and it can be cultivated in fertile as well as in poor soils even in acidic soils. Ecuadorian volcanic soils are particularly well suited for coffee [48]. Nonetheless, the production of green coffee leads to the depletion of nutrients. This depletion needs to be compensated by appropriate fertilization to keep a constant and high production. Proper nutrition is important for vigorous plants. Parameters such as the age of the coffee trees, the planting density, and the degree of intensification must be considered [46]. It is advisable to take soil samples before applying fertilizers. Foliar fertilization is often used to compensate deficiencies in micronutrients like zinc, boron, iron, and manganese [49].

Ecuadorian rural farms do not have nearby laboratories to monitor the nutrient content in the soil. So, fertilization and fumigation are based on farmers’ intuition and experience. Unfortunately, this is a problem that could seriously affect the quality of the soils as well as coffee production. Another problem is the lack of records of the treatments applied.

Although correct fertilization can supply any nutrient deficiency, to guarantee sustainability it is important to preserve the soil microbiota. Microorganisms play a very important role in soil fertility and crop production because of their ability to promote plant growth, enhance biotic and abiotic stress resistance, and facilitate and improve the absorption of nutrients by the root [50].

Plant growth-promoting microorganisms, and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) have been used in coffee trees to improve productivity and reduce the application of chemical fertilizers [50, 51]. In a study carried out in Mexico, for example, it was shown that the inoculation of coffee seedlings with Azospirillum sp., Glomus intraradices, and Azotobacter sp. improved root structure [52]. Azospirillum promoted the formation of root hairs, which in turn facilitated the plant-mycorrhizal association. This association increased the uptake of phosphorus and the secretion of radical exudates that favored the development of Azotobacter known for its ability to fix nitrogen. In conclusion, the colonization of the roots by beneficial microorganisms stimulates plant growth and improves nutrients uptake obtaining healthy plants. The presence of beneficial microorganisms in the rhizosphere decreases the presence of other non-beneficial or plant pathogens. Microorganisms produce elicitors such as volatile organic compounds, antimicrobials, and/or competition. These elicitors can induce the expression of pathogenesis-related genes in plants through induced systemic resistance or acquired systemic resistance channels [53].

A critical task for coffee growers around the world is the control of pathogens and diseases. The biotrophic fungus Hemileia vastatrix, or coffee leaf rust is considered one of the most devastating in Latin America [54]. In Ecuador, in 2013, it caused losses greater than 50% of total production [55]. To save production and reduce the incidence of rust, in 2012–2021 Ecuadorian coffee-cocoa reactivation program, coffee growers were encouraged to plant species with resistant genotypes as a strategy to control coffee rust [26]. However, some coffee farmers fear lowering cup quality by replacing one variety with another. Among the agricultural practices used to stop coffee rust, the use of shade trees for temperature control is the most common. However, this management practice is effective only if it does not produce excess humidity or decrease photosynthesis, which promotes the growth of the fungus [56]. Another common practice to reduce fungus colonization is the application of silicates at the foliar level. Chemical control with cupric fungicides is also widely used despite the increasing interest in organic certification [57]. The biological control of coffee leaf rust by antagonistic bacteria was also studied. Bacteria belonging to the genus Bacillus and Pseudomonas showed a great potential for rust control in Brazil [58]. Also, the entomopathogenic and mycoparasite fungus Lecanicillium lecanii proved to be effective in rust control [59].

On the other hand, coffee berry borer (Hipothenemus hampei) is the most challenging insect pest of coffee throughout the globe. Adult females bore the berry and deposit eggs inside it, altering the organoleptic properties of the bean and reducing the selling price between 20% and 40% [60]. In addition, it causes premature fall of youngberries and the increased susceptibility of infested ripe berries to fungus or bacterial infection [61]. Due to its nature and behavior, the borer is very difficult to eradicate. The fact that it lives inside the fruit makes contact insecticides ineffective. Organochlorine and organophosphate insecticides are the most widely used but produce high environmental costs [62]. In countries like Brazil, Mexico, and Colombia traps have been designed. The most technological ones allow to capture up to 10,000 adults per day [61]. Biological control with entomopathogenic fungi has also been an option, although it is not sufficiently effective until now. The most used microorganism to control insect pests is Beauveria bassiana [63].

With this overview, obtaining quality coffee is not an easy task and requires extensive technical and scientific knowledge. The error of the programs carried out by the Ministry of Agriculture was to generalize production and not consider the unique characteristics of each ecosystem. Successful models in other countries are not always adapted to the reality of each region. In conclusion, there are research lines that must be established to select varieties with superior characteristics, understand the ecological relationship of coffee in each ecosystem and isolate native microorganisms useful to improve plant growth and pest. It is also important to register the treatments and practices carried out by the farmers and learn from their experiences.

5. Technical and scientific aspects of coffee processing and wastes disposal

The cup of coffee has a process behind it that varies according to the region, the variety of coffee planted, and the use of the different post-harvest treatments. All these factors give each coffee a unique flavor.

Coffee trees, depending on the specific variety, take between 3 and 4 years to bear the first fruits. Generally, coffee cherry ripening is faster in lower and warmer areas. Nonetheless, slow ripening is more advisable to achieve better organoleptic characteristics [64]. To guarantee coffee quality, it is important to harvest only ripe fruits. The coffee tree declines its productivity after 20 years [65]. Therefore, it is important to renew coffee plantations.

The process of harvesting coffee beans can be carried out by different methods, among which are manual or mechanical. In Ecuador, a manual process is the most used. Workers collect the coffee berry, avoiding collecting green ones and discarding the grains that are dry or damaged. All coffee fruits are collected in plastic handcrafted containers and transported to the classification area. Harvesting depends on the labor and skill acquired to select the best fruits. In general, it is hard work since the collectors must walk long distances on slopes where a big part of coffee plantations are located.

After fruits collection, the flotation technique is used for the selection of the beans. It consists in covering the cherries with water. Contaminants such as stones, garbage, and floats are discarded. Subsequently, a second review of the fruits is carried out, spreading them on African beds or similar structures to discard those that are not cherry-colored. All discarded fruits (pasilla) are considered inferior in quality and therefore have a lower price in the market.

Post-harvest treatments are part of the coffee production process, the latter can be classified into three different types of processing: wet or washed, dry or natural, and semi-dry or honey. The country’s coffee growers carry out empirical experiments to determine which treatment provides the best quality results. In general, dry processes are applied in the Robusta variety, and wet ones in Arabica [66, 67]. The different steps of each process are summarized in Figure 3.

Figure 3.

Coffee processing technologies.

All treatments share the harvest and flotation stage. The natural or dry process is considered the simplest and most traditional at the national level since it consists of the direct drying of the fruits and the subsequent removal of the dry pericarp by manual or mechanical action [68]. On the other hand, the semi-dry process has a previous stage of mechanical pulping to remove the pericarp before drying [67]. Finally, the wet process requires a fermentation step which needs robust control. The quality of the coffee obtained from the wet process is generally higher compared to the other processes [68].

5.1 Dry or natural process

Natural processing is considered the oldest and most traditional technology. It is relatively simple and inexpensive. Previously selected cherries went through a drying process, to finally be shelled and pulped. The drying process prevents the growth of microorganisms. It is done under the sun or through air dryers that allow reaching a humidity of 10–12%, which is considered a standard measure for the coffee to retain its volatile compounds until roasting [67, 68].

In Ecuador, the Robusta coffee is dried directly under the sunlight. The advantage of this process is the cost. However, there are several disadvantages such as the time of the process which depends on the weather conditions, and the constant control required to prevent damage due to dust, rain, or storms. This process ends with the extraction of the pericarp and the dry pulp to obtain only the green coffee beans that will be later stored. This can be done manually through a mortar or threshing machine, or through mechanical hullers.

5.2 Wet or washed process

The wet process is the treatment with the best results in terms of coffee quality [69]. The main difference with the dry process is the pulped step. The pulping is carried out mechanically and consists of the removal of the exocarp and part of the mesocarp of the coffee cherry. Figures 4 and 5, show a classical pulped machine used by smallholders. The pulp is squeezed through a rotating disc or drum. This process must be carried out in a way that does not damage the bean which could lead to microbial attack or contamination. The part of the remaining mesocarp is the mucilage, which will be important in the subsequent fermentation process [67, 70].

Figure 4.

Pulped Machine in Piedra Grande San Jerónimo’s Farm, Lita-Imbabura (source: Sabastian Obando).

Figure 5.

Pulped process of a family agroforestry system. Intag-Ecuador. (source: Sania Ortega).

Mucilage fermentation is the important turning point for wet production due to the quality indicators that it provides such as aroma and flavor [70, 71]. The fermentation process is important to degrade the mucilage resulting from the previous process, containing a large amount of pectin, starch, and cellulose; being an ideal substrate for yeasts and bacteria [71]. In Ecuador, a metagenomic study on the fermentation processes of coffee was developed confirming the presence of enterobacteria, lactic acid bacteria, and yeasts as the majority of microorganisms’ groups [72]. Microorganism isolation and evaluation of fermentation ability must be the next step to improve flavor quality.

Microorganisms are the secret of fermentation. Its metabolic routes produce secondary metabolites and volatile compounds associated with aromas and flavors [73].

Studies have been carried out to isolate different microorganisms and evaluate their ability to produce volatile compounds and how they affect coffee quality [74, 75]. Alcohols are abundant volatile metabolites that fulfill various functions such as providing fruity aromas and flavors, contributing to physical characteristics e.g., adding viscosity to the beverage, and even serving as a solvent for other volatile compounds. However, some compounds such as aldehydes are variable and can give desired characteristics e.g., fruity, and almond aromas. But also, undesirable characteristics like the pungent taste. Finally, it is responsible for providing bitterness, an important characteristic in the evaluation of coffee cups [76].

The washing process must be carried out immediately after the fermentation process is completed to avoid an overfermentation and production of propionic and butyric acid that are related to onion flavors and aromas. Washing is done with drinking or irrigation water seeking to remove all the mucilage resulting from the fermentation process before drying. The drying and shelling are carried out under the same conditions as the dry or natural process [67, 68]. Figure 6 is a classical air-drying installation.

Figure 6.

Sun-drying coffee beans. (Source Sebastian Obando).

5.3 Semi-dry or honey process

The semi-dry process is a combination of the two previous processes. The bean with the layer of mucilage is left to dry directly in the sun, as in both processes. This step allows the layer of mucilage to impregnate the bean giving it a color and texture equal to honey. It is a process that requires less control. The fermentation process is considered to occur in the drying stage. Microbial inoculants have been also studied in this process [77, 78].

This process is the most recommended in Ecuador since it allows to obtain high quality and produces less wastewater. Some types of coffee processed with the wet and honey method have been awarded with the golden cup [42].

After coffee bean processing, bean coffee could be roasted or stored. Storage conditions must be controlled to prevent fungal growth and mycotoxin production [79].

Like cultivation, coffee processing requires extensive knowledge and special attention since it directly influences the quality of the final product. Each producer maintains in reserve the details of the processing, especially in the fermentation stage. However, cooperation between producers is a key factor in marketing. Coffee Associations often fail to meet the demand of international markets due to differences in quality obtained between partners.

As in cultivation, coffee producers experiment by varying production methods or parameters during the process. Although the experimentation carried out is a positive aspect, it is necessary to standardize the production to guarantee the same quality in all harvests. Research is also an essential component of development.

5.4 Waste disposal

Each process generates a different type and volume of waste such as water, pulp, and parchment (Figure 1). It is estimated that ¾ of the volume of the total beans harvested are residues [80]. Since in Ecuador the cultivation of coffee is a family and rural activity, the use of sophisticated technologies for the valorization of residues is not applicable. The most suitable technologies are related to reuse in agriculture, animal feed, and energy production [81].

A large part of the farmers processes their own coffee on the farm, so the waste is managed internally. A common practice is to spread the residues directly on the fields and let them naturally degrade. However, the application of not completely degraded residues produces adverse effects, including phytotoxicity [82]. On the other hand, this practice facilitates the spread of pests from infected and discarded fruits, and bad odors, among others. In addition, this bad practice produces contamination of water sources. Most of the farms are located on hills and when it rains the water carries pollutants to the lower areas that end up polluting rivers.

Other coffee growers take the harvested beans to the collection centers to be processed afterward. These collection centers usually have a place for composting. Compost obtained is then sold as an amendment to use in coffee or other minor crops. Data on the quality of this amendment is not available. Generally, composting process is carried out under partial or not controlled conditions. Something important to highlight is that each farm must be concerned about its sustainability to be competitive. Organic certifications are always more important to gain and guarantee a marketplace. On the other hand, chemical fertilizers are expensive. Therefore, taking advantage of nutrient-rich waste is the most viable option for self-sustainability.

Coffee by-products are characterized by a high concentration of nutrients and other compounds such as polyphenols and caffeine that in high concentrations could be phytotoxic [80]. For this reason, it is important to a stabilization treatment before its use in agriculture. Composting remains the best and cheapest way to achieve this aim. However, it must be a controlled process to guarantee phytotoxic reduction and pathogens elimination.

Because composting is a microbial degradation process. The selection of specific degrading microorganisms could be a good option to improve compost quality and reduce composting time. Compost can also be used as a strategy to introduce PGPR and biocontrol agents. A similar experience was achieved by the Italian olive industry which residues are very similar in composition to those of coffee [83].

Generally, coffee growers mix coffee by-products with other agricultural residues from minor crops and manure from raising pigs, chickens, guinea pigs, and cows. These processes are not technical and therefore the results obtained may be variable or not satisfactory. For this reason, boosting the correct management of composting technology would require appropriate training for groups. This should include appropriate training on quality control of the final product to guarantee the reduction of phytotoxicity, the elimination of pathogens, and the stabilization of the compost. Good results of compost application in rural areas were obtained in Vietnam [84].

Another re-utilization process is to use by-products as animal feed. The presence of tannins and caffeine diminishes the acceptability and palatability of husk by animals. So, the degradation of caffeine by microorganisms, especially bacteria, needs further studies.

In conclusion, composting is the most applicable technology to coffee waste management because it only requires a space that farms generally have and common work tools to remove de compost. It also helps to return to the soil part of the nutrients extracted by agriculture. Other technologies are too expensive and require big quantities to recover the investment. As in cultivation and processing, waste disposal should also be linked to research programs that over time can provide alternative solutions contributing to rural and sustainable development.

6. Conclusions and policy implications

Coffee is a strategic crop; it has a growing world market and therefore great economic potential. It also has environmental benefits that distinguish it from other expansive crops such as palm and banana.

On the other hand, Ecuador has optimal geographical and climatic conditions for growing coffee but has a lower production (3–5 quintals/ha) compared to other producing countries in the region such as Brazil and Colombia (35–40 quintals/ha) [20]. These competitive disadvantages prevent Ecuador from covering the market demand, which has affected the coffee trade [17]. The low productivity can be explained by many factors such as poverty in rural areas, lack of trained workers, inadequate management of pests and diseases, the presence of aged coffee plantations, insufficient infrastructure technology for post-harvest processes, and the lack of effective marketing channels [15]. To overcome these deficiencies, it is essential to improve the quality of life of farmers by guaranteeing access to basic services and education. Farmer’s income must be protected with adequate economic policies. This will allow new generations to see agriculture as a profitable livelihood and assure sustainability.

Scientific research is also important to overcome problems like pest control and productivity. Reactivation programs must include the active participation of research centers and not just incentives and subsidies.

The sustainable development of coffee farming in rural areas does not necessarily require large investments, but it does require cooperation between farmers and research centers to guarantee knowledge transfer. The variability of coffee quality between farmers fails to meet market demand. Coffee producers tend to compete rather work as a team and help others to achieve quality, so cooperation is a point of force.

Under current conditions, Ecuador is not competitive in terms of volume due to a lack of technology and workforce, however, it can be very competitive in terms of quality thanks to the variability of ecosystems that give coffee special characteristics.

The results of the coffee-cocoa reactivation program established by the Ministry of Agriculture of Ecuador in the years 2012–2021 are expected to show appreciable improvements in productivity. Furthermore, this program is expected to allow the renovation of coffee plantations, the technical training of farmers, and the implementation of modern infrastructure.

Making changes in public policies to comply with territorial development programs that are based on sustainable development objectives is needed. Public policy in the “Socio Bosque” Program, for example, should be strengthened to generate incentives for farmers who have or opt for agroecological plantations and have organic certifications. In this way, the program would ensure the maintenance of primary forests while increasing economic income for coffee-growing families. In this way, conservation would be guaranteed along with the improvement of life quality.

Acknowledgments

We want to thank the associations of organic coffee producers Bosque Nublado Golondrinas and Río Intag for opening the doors of their farms and sharing with us their day-by-day efforts in this wonderful activity.