Some of the emerging mycotoxin produced by
Abstract
Fusarium causing disease in maize is probably the one of the most serious diseases among the crop plants all over the world. It not only damages the maize plant, reduces its potential yield and its nutritional values but imposes threatening to the human life through the induction of mycotoxin development. F. graminearum and F. moniliforme syn. Fusarium verticillioides are two important maize pathogens that cause substantial damage to its ear, stalk and foliage, causing contamination of grains with mycotoxins. Since conventional methods of controlling the diseases including the chemical methods proved not enough for total control of the disease with creating situation even worse for our surroundings, the application of PGPR and PGPF can play significant role to control the damage caused by Fusarium.
Keywords
- mycotoxin
- PGPR
- PGPF
- Fusarium verticillioides
- F. graminearum
- pathogens
1. Introduction
Maize is one of the most important cereal crop cultivated worldwide. It is popularly known as queen of cereals because it has highest population yield among the cereals [1]. Maize is the crop of diverse environmental conditions and now considered as one of the fastest growing cash crops in the world [2] and may play significant role to satisfy the ever increasing demand of world population. It is a multi-utility crop with major source of food, feed, fodder and industrial raw material which also provides huge opportunity to various stakeholders for crop diversification, value addition and employment generation [3, 4]. Maize plant is often induced by various types of naturally occurring pathogens like bacteria, virus, fungi and nematodes etc. and are detrimental to the yield and quality of grains and thereby subsequently affect the economy and threaten the food security around the globe [5]. Diseases are one of major obstacle in understanding the yield potential of maize. Among the disease causing pathogen in maize, fungal diseases caused by
2. Fusarium disease of maize
3. Source of inoculum and infection pathway
Many
4. Fusarium associated mycotoxin and its toxicity
Mycotoxins are low-molecular-weight secondary metabolites produced by various fungal group specially
Fumonisins (FUMs), especially FUM B1 (FB1) produced by
Mycotoxin | Pathogen | Host | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Beauvericin | Maize | [54, 55] | |
Moniliformin | Maize | [17] | |
Nivalenol | Maize | [56] | |
Fusaproliferin | Maize | [17] | |
Fusarin and fusaric acid | Maize | [57] |
5. Diagnosis of pathogen
Earlier detection of plant pathogens is very important for plant health certification and to conduct the disease management appropriately [58]. The detection and enumeration of disease causing pathogen have always been challenging issues over the years. The environment form which they are originated, pose difficulties in identification, isolation and quantification of pathogen. Developing the accurate and effective detection methods and assay is very challenging for the pathogen like
6. Disease control through sustainable approach
The significant problems caused by
6.1 Antibiotic production
Antibiosis, a kind of interaction takes place between two organisms when one produces antimicrobial metabolites called antibiotics that directly check the growth and metabolism of the other organism. Antibiotics are low molecular weight toxic organic compound produced by many organisms in order control the growth of pathogen. It is assumed to be one of most effective measures having antagonistic activity against wide range of phytopathogen. Bacteria can either produce single antibiotic and toxin or can produce them in multiple numbers. The antibiotic and toxin produce by bacteria include pioluteorin, pyrrolnitrin, hydrogen cyanide (HCN), oomycins, polymyxin, circulin, colistin and tensin etc. [73]. Bacteria and fungi of various genera, such as
6.2 Production of extracellular enzyme
Cell wall-degrading enzymes produced by biocontrol strains of bacteria and fungi have a definite role in restricting the growth of various pathogenic fungi including
6.3 Competition for root niche and nutrient
Competition between pathogens and non-pathogens for nutrient resources is important for limiting disease incidence and severity. Rhizosphere is hotspot zone of microorganism and nutrient rich environment which provide a suitable platform for the interaction. Competition for these nutrients and niches is a fundamental mechanism by which beneficial microorganism both bacteria and fungi protect plants from phytopathogens. The interaction between them brings the beneficial microbes to control the disease causing pathogen. Soilborne pathogens, such as species of
6.4 Siderophore production
Iron is one of the most common trace elements in nature required by almost all the living organism for their growth and metabolism. Siderophores are low molecular weight extracellular chelating compounds and have a great affinity for ferric iron that are produced by many microorganism like
6.5 Induced resistance
Rhizospheric microbes protect the plant not only through their antagonistic properties but also help the plant to defend itself from the pathogenic attack. The term induced resistance is meant for the induced state of resistance in plants triggered by various biological inducers and subsequent protection of non-exposed plant parts against future attack by pathogenic microbes of any kind. Induction of resistance can be local and/or systemic in nature depending on various factor such as types, source, and stimuli. There are two types of induced resistance namely SAR and ISR which provide long-lasting resistance against plant pathogens. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is mediated by salicylic acid (SA) and produced following pathogen infection and leads to the expression of pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins. PR proteins include enzymes which may act directly to lyse invading cells, reinforce cell wall boundaries to resist infections, or induce localized cell death [78]. Induced systemic resistance is the process of active resistance against pathogen and is induced upon by colonization of beneficial microbes like PGPF and PGPR or infection by some specific pathogen. It does not rely on SA but depends on the pathways regulated by jasmonate and ethylene [86]. Pathogenic microorganisms trigger a wide range of defense mechanisms in plants through ISR. The major changes occurs in root of the host pant through ISR are: (1) Strengthening of epidermal and cortical cell wall; (2) increase in levels of defense enzyme such as chitinase, polyphenol oxidase, peroxidase, phenylalanine; (3) increase in phytoalexin production and (4) expression of stress related genes [80]. ISR extending up to the shoots from roots protects the unexposed parts of plants against pathogenic attacks by microorganisms in future [87]. The induced resistance is elicited by various beneficial and non-beneficial organisms and regulated by signal pathways, where plant hormones for example play a vital role in inducing the resistance which is regulated by networks of interconnected signaling pathways [88]. Several
7. Bioformulation
8. Conclusions and future prospects
Maize is one of the main contributors to the economy and food security of the world. A Suffering of maize plant by the
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