Abstract
Dry rot of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is an important postharvest disease during storage. The decay can be caused by several different species of Fusarium spp., such as, F. sambucinum, F. coeruleum, F. oxysporum, F. avenaceum, F. culmorum. The pathogen of Fusarum spp. causing dry rot of potato is considerable different in different countries and regions. The typical symptom of potato dry rot is sunken and wrinkled brown to black tissue patch on tuber with less dry matter and shriveled flesh. Fusarium spp. only invades host through wound or natural orifice during pre-harvest, storage and transportation period. Some Fusarium species infection associated with mycotoxins accumulation, which has phytotoxicity and mycotoxicoses in humans and animals. Synthetic fungicide is the main strategy to control the dry rot of potato, however, there are series of problem, such as environmental pollution, pathogen resistance. An integrated approach to manage the disease includes the introduction of resistant cultivar, appropriate cultural practices, and storage conditions combined with the application of synthetic fungicides pre-harvest or post-harvest. Moreover, some chemical fungicides and microbial antagonists have been integrated into potato dry rot management.
Keywords
- Fusarium spp.
- potato dry rot
- pathogenic mechanism
- mycotoxins
- control
1. Introduction
Region | Source | |
---|---|---|
North Amercian, China and some regions of Europe | [3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13, 24] | |
United Kingdom | [6, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19] | |
China, South Africa | [20, 21, 22, 23] | |
Finland and USA | [7, 25, 26] | |
North Dakota | ||
Egypt, Norway, Michigan | [27] | |
[28] | ||
Egypt | [29] | |
The frequency of the
2. Symptoms of dry rot, infection process of Fusarium and potato tuber tissue reaction
The symptom of potato dry rot includes sunken and wrinkled brown to black tissue patch on tuber with less dry matter and shriveled flesh. The initial symptoms of dry rot of potato appear on tubers at wound sites as shallow small brown lesions after approximately one month of postharvest storage. The infected lesions enlarge in all directions, then the periderm sinks and collapses, eventually, the growing lesion may appear as concentric rings as the underlying dead tissue desiccates [1, 4]. Cavities underneath the rotted tissue are usually associated with cottony white, purple, pink or brick orange spore and mycelia of pathogenic fungus [30]. The whole rotted tubers always become shriveled and mummified (Figure 1). Dry rot lesions may be infected by some bacterial pathogens and cause soft rot decay, especially when the tubers are wet or stored at high relative humidity storage conditions [3].
The wound healing process includes two stages of wound-induced suberization: the closing layer formation and wound periderm development, accompanied by deposition of SPP and SPA on the wounded site [32]. It was reported that both SPP and SPA can resist bacteria and fungi invade by the formation of an effective physical barrier [33]. Jiang et al. [31] suggested some synthesis substances, such as benzo-(1, 2, 3)-thiadiazole-7-carbothioic acid s-methyl ester (BTH) can accelerate the wound healing of potato tuber by elevation of phenylpropanoid metabolism.
3. Mycotoxins production associated with dry rot of potato
The dry rot, caused by some species of
Beauvericin (BEA), enniatins (ENNs), zearalenones (ZEA), fumonisins (FUM), sambutoxin (SAM), fusaric acids (FA) and fusarin C (FUS) are usually detected in dry rot of potato tuber. BEA and ENN are cyclic hexadepsipeptides, which has antimicrobial, insecticidal, phytotoxic and cytotoxic characteristic properties [45]. ZEA belong to non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxins, accompanied with estrogenic syndromes in some experimental animals [46]. FUM have been linked to leukoencephalomalacia, in horses and rabbits and have hepatotoxic and carcinogenic influences, as well as esophageal carcinoma in human, phytotoxic symptoms in plants [47]. SAM was detected in dry rot of potato caused by
The trichothecenes are the main kind of mycotoxins detected in dry rot of potato, which is a kind of chemically related sesquiterpenes compound. Presently, more than 190 known trichothecenes are detected. According to their chemical structure, they can be classified into four groups: types A, B, C, and D, the chemical structure are shown in Figure 3.
Types A and B are usually found in cereal grains, animal feed, and human food made from contaminated grains. In addition, they were also found in potato tubers infected by
Mycotoxins | Sources | |
---|---|---|
DON, HT-2, 3-ADON | [49] | |
DON, 3-ADON | [39] | |
NIV, FX, DON, 3-ADON | [50] | |
NIV, FX | [37] | |
NIV, DAS | [38] | |
FX | [50] | |
NIV, FX, 4,15-MAS, DAS, SCR | [50] | |
T-2, | [27] | |
DON, NIV, FX, 3-ADON, 15-ADON | [51] | |
DON, NIV, FX | [37] | |
NIV, T-2, 3,15-ADON, 15-SCRP | [52] | |
NIV, FX, DON, 3-ADON, 15-ADON | [50] | |
DON, 3-ADON, 15-ADON | [41] | |
T-2 | [27] | |
DAS, MAS, NEO, T-2, HT-2 | [53] | |
DAS | [39] | |
4,15-DAS, 15-MAS, 4-MASc | [54] | |
DAS | [40] | |
DON, NIV, HT-2 | [49] | |
T-2 | [27] | |
MAS, DAS | [56] | |
3ADON, DAS, FX, T-2 | [22] | |
3ADON, DAS, FX, T-2 | [34] | |
3ADON, DAS, FX, T-2 | [34] |
In order to investigate the stability for heat, the effect of cooking on the trichothecenes was carried with potato tubers infected with
4. Dry rot control
4.1 Cultural practices and storage
The excellent cultural practices combined with appropriate of storage conditions are the most important and crucial factors which affect the incidence and severity of potato dry rot. In addition, planting healthy seed tubers in field, avoiding tuber injuries during harvesting, taking some steps to accelerate wound healing, providing appropriate storage conditions, these steps are the crucial factors, which provide good control to dry rot of potato [58]. In most cases, care is indispensable when harvesting that can minimize bruises and wounds for the harvested tubers. The tuber without wound may restrict the fungal spore colonization and germination, finally prevent major rotting. The 10–18°C temperature of the pulp is the suitable period for tuber harvesting [59]. The suitable temperature combined with high humidity (95–99%) and excellent ventilation is crucial for wound healing in tubers after harvest. After 7–14 days of vine killing, it is suitable for tuber to harvest, which has enough time to wound healing and reduce the chances of pathogen attack [59]. Planting certified seed tubers having <2% disease symptoms is recommended. The infected seed tuber is not recommended to introduce into field, because this will lead to pathogen survive during the whole growing period, finally cause dry rot. Moreover, proper disinfection treatment for storage facilities and implements used in handling and cutting of tubers are mandatory. Physiological maturation of the tuber is another important influence factor to affect dry rot development. Heltoft et al. [28] indicated that maturity plays an important role, in generally, late maturing cultivars are much more resistant to
As we know, the dry rot of disease can infect through wound, when one single tuber is rotten, it can infect to other tubers around the rotten tuber, which will lead to a disastrous disease during storage. Therefore, it is necessary for any wounds (including pests and disease appearance) to have a thorough examination of tubers before storage, and that is the reason for proper grading before storage [60]. For storehouse, proper circulation of cool air is very crucial as respiration in stored potatoes generates excessive CO2 and heat that can facilitate the growth of adhering fungal spores. The CO2 concentration in a well-maintained storage facility is about 1200 to 1500 ppm. When the CO2 concentration is more than 5000 ppm, which indicates storage rots and/or insufficient ventilation in the storage [60].
4.2 Host resistant
Host resistant play an important role in control postharvest disease. Xue et al. [34] compared two cultivars of Longshu No 3 (susceptible cultivar) and Longshu No 5 (resistant cultivar) susceptibility to dry rot disease and trichothecenes accumulation, the result showed that Longshu No 3 has more lesion diameter and the contents of FX, DAS, 3ADON and T-2 toxin in tubers inoculated
4.3 Chemical control
The most popular and effective the management of dry rot is pre- and post-harvest management, that is to say, seed piece decay management before planting is combined with post-harvest treatments of tubers before storage. Presently, thiabendazole is the most effective and extensively used benzimidazole fungicide to control the dry rot disease caused by
The increasing resistance against fungicides, environmental pollution, and food safety problems, it is urgent to explore new and safe strategies to manage dry rot diseases. Some generally recognized as safe (GRAS) compounds, such as several inorganic and organic salts, essential oils and phytohormones, display good effect in sustainably managing dry rot of potato. Potassium metabisulfite and sodium metabisulfite showed 100% control of dry rot while magnesium sulfate, potassium sulfate, ammonium sulfate, sodium carbonate, sodium sulfate, calcium phosphate and potassium phosphites significantly reduced the infection percentage [67]. Li et al. [21] suggested sodium silicate significantly inhibited the growth of
The use of chitosan as GRAS food additive is approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration. A recent study showed that a concentration of 0.25% chitosan completely inhibited
Recently, some other GRAS compounds, such as essential oils and plant extracts also manifested a good effect in inhibiting growth of fungus and the development of dry rot caused by
4.4 Biological control
Numerous researches focused on the application of antagonistic microorganisms to the control postharvest diseases. Presently, antagonistic microorganisms are considered as an attractive alternative to replace synthetic chemical compounds to manage postharvest diseases. Bio-pesticide is considered more green and safety for the environment and human health than conventional synthetic pesticide. Antagonistic microorganisms can effectively control dry rot during the wound healing period when the potato tuber is at its most vulnerable. The first report that isolates from the genera
5. Conclusion
Dry rot of potato, caused by
An integrated disease management strategy is necessary in order to efficiently management of dry rot, which includes appropriate harvesting conditions to avoid bruise for tubers, suitable storage conditions, as well as the pre- or postharvest application of registered synthetic chemical fungicides. In addition, the GRAS compounds and microbial antagonists as alternative strategies are being developed to control potato dry rot. The successful management of dry rot will certainly rest on additional research and development efforts between scientists and industry to implement an integrated strategy towards the efficient and durable management of dry rot.
In future, the application of omics technology will supply further functional genes and proteins that can be targeted for designing non-transgenic and transgenic management approaches. The integrated management of dry rot mainly depend on the additional research on the identified gaps and collaborative efforts of stakeholders (including researchers, industrialists and farmers) in developing an succesful management strategy from field to storage.
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