\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8844",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Mechanics of Functionally Graded Materials and Structures",title:"Mechanics of Functionally Graded Materials and Structures",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The Functionally Graded Materials (FGM) concept originated in Japan in 1984 during the spaceplane project, in the form of a proposed thermal barrier material capable of withstanding a surface temperature of 2000 K and a temperature gradient of 1000 K across a cross section <10 mm. The materials can be designed for specific function and applications. FGMs offer great promise in applications where the operating conditions are extreme. For example, wear-resistant linings for handling large, heavy, abrasive ore particles; rocket heat shields; heat exchanger tubes; thermoelectric generators; heat-engine components; plasma facings for fusion reactors; and electrically insulating metal/ceramic joints. They are also ideal for minimizing thermomechanical mismatch in metal-ceramic bonding. This book is a result of contributions of experts from the international scientific community working in different aspects of functionally graded materials and structures and reports on the latest research and development findings on this topic through original and innovative research studies. Through its six chapters, the reader will have access to works related to processing, characteristics, modeling, and applications of functionally graded materials and structures.The book contains up-to-date publications from leading experts and the edition is intended to provide valuable recent information to the professionals involved in functionally graded materials and structure analysis and applications. The text is addressed not only to researchers, but also to professional engineers, students, and other experts in a variety of disciplines, both academic and industrial, seeking to gain a better understanding of what has been done in the field recently, and what open problems are in this area.",isbn:"978-1-78984-555-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-554-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-404-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81347",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"mechanics-of-functionally-graded-materials-and-structures",numberOfPages:126,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"dcaee033a035bfe8daa8ffa06b37b25f",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",publishedDate:"January 8th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8844.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4578,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 30th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 18th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 16th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 7th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 6th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",middleName:null,surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/20062/images/system/20062.jpg",biography:"Dr. Farzad Ebrahimi is an Associte Professor since 2010 in Mechanical Engineering at Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran. He has several years of teaching and industrial experience. Since 2002, he has been working at the \\\\\\Smart Materials and Structures Lab\\\\\\ Research Center of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Tehran, where he is a researcher of smart functionally graded materials and structures. He is involved in several international journals as editor and reviewer. He serves on the editorial board for \\\\\\Advances in mechanical engineering\\\\\\. He is the author of the books “Smart functionally graded plates” and “Progress in analysis of functionally graded structures”, Nova Science Publishers, NY. He has authored several referred international journals and conferences. His research interests focus on areas of smart materials and structures, Mechanics of Nanostructures; functionally graded materials and structures, finite element analysis; Mechanics of composite materials and structures and modeling and mechanical analysis of smart and multifunctional nanostructures and he has published several researches in these fields. His research in these areas has been presented at international conferences and has appeared in academic journals such as Composite structures; Applied physics A; Journal of Intelligent materials and Structures; Smart Materials and Structures; European Journal of Mechanics; Archive of Applied Mechanics and journal of vibration and control.",institutionString:"Imam Khomeini International University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"817",title:"Material Engineering",slug:"material-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"66810",title:"Free Vibration of Axially Functionally Graded Beam",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85835",slug:"free-vibration-of-axially-functionally-graded-beam",totalDownloads:1129,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Axially functionally graded (AFG) beam is a special kind of nonhomogeneous functionally gradient material structure, whose material properties vary continuously along the axial direction of the beam by a given distribution form. There are several numerical methods that have been used to analyze the vibration characteristics of AFG beams, but it is difficult to obtain precise solutions for AFG beams because of the variable coefficients of the governing equation. In this topic, the free vibration of AFG beam using analytical method based on the perturbation theory and Meijer G-Function are studied, respectively. First, a detailed review of the existing literatures is summarized. Then, based on the governing equation of the AFG Euler-Bernoulli beam, the detailed analytic equations are derived on basis of the perturbation theory and Meijer G-function, where the nature frequencies are demonstrated. Subsequently, the numerical results are calculated and compared, meanwhile, the analytical results are also confirmed by finite element method and the published references. The results show that the proposed two analytical methods are simple and efficient and can be used to conveniently analyze free vibration of AFG beam.",signatures:"Dongxing Cao, Bin Wang, Wenhua Hu and Yanhui Gao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66810",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66810",authors:[{id:"283678",title:"Prof.",name:"Dongxing",surname:"Cao",slug:"dongxing-cao",fullName:"Dongxing Cao"},{id:"295692",title:"Mr.",name:"Bin",surname:"Wang",slug:"bin-wang",fullName:"Bin Wang"},{id:"295693",title:"Dr.",name:"Wenhua",surname:"Hu",slug:"wenhua-hu",fullName:"Wenhua Hu"},{id:"295694",title:"Mr.",name:"Yanhui",surname:"Gao",slug:"yanhui-gao",fullName:"Yanhui Gao"}],corrections:null},{id:"68846",title:"Boundary Element Model for Nonlinear Fractional-Order Heat Transfer in Magneto-Thermoelastic FGA Structures Involving Three Temperatures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88255",slug:"boundary-element-model-for-nonlinear-fractional-order-heat-transfer-in-magneto-thermoelastic-fga-str",totalDownloads:763,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The principal objective of this chapter is to introduce a new fractional-order theory for functionally graded anisotropic (FGA) structures. This theory called nonlinear uncoupled magneto-thermoelasticity theory involving three temperatures. Because of strong nonlinearity, it is very difficult to solve the problems related to this theory analytically. Therefore, it is necessary to develop new numerical methods for solving such problems. So, we propose a new boundary element model for the solution of general and complex problems associated with this theory. The numerical results are presented graphically in order to display the effect of the graded parameter on the temperatures and displacements. The numerical results also confirm the validity and accuracy of our proposed model.",signatures:"Mohamed Abdelsabour Fahmy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68846",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68846",authors:[{id:"283892",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Fahmy",slug:"mohamed-fahmy",fullName:"Mohamed Fahmy"}],corrections:null},{id:"66230",title:"DC Conductivity of Activated Carbon Filled Epoxy Gradient Composites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85233",slug:"dc-conductivity-of-activated-carbon-filled-epoxy-gradient-composites",totalDownloads:695,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter reports the DC conductivity behavior of activated carbon powder filled epoxy gradient composites. Gradient composites are the composite materials in which the there is gradually variation in some direction to achieve gradient in properties. Graded materials are generally defined as the materials, which exhibit variable functional performance with location and show continuous variations in morphology and composition. Functionally graded metal matrix composites have been of great practical importance. Graded metal matrix composite have gradual compositional variations from ceramic at one surface to metal at the other, leading to special advantages of smooth transition in thermal stresses across the thickness and minimized stress concentration at the interface of two dissimilar materials. Therefore graded metal matrix composites are finding applications in aggressive environments with steep temperature gradients such as turbine components and rocket nozzles. Since the properties of material in FGMs are variable across the entire material, and depends on the spatial position of the material. Functionally graded materials are designed with varying properties such as changing their chemical properties, changing mechanical, magnetic, thermal, and electrical properties. Now a days there are FGMs designed as stepwise-graded materials, while others are fabricated to have continuous-graded materials depending on their areas of application.",signatures:"Archana Nigrawal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66230",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66230",authors:[{id:"257011",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",surname:"Nigrawal",slug:"archana-nigrawal",fullName:"Archana Nigrawal"}],corrections:null},{id:"66961",title:"The Stochastic Finite Element in the Natural Frequency of Functionally Graded Material Beams",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86013",slug:"the-stochastic-finite-element-in-the-natural-frequency-of-functionally-graded-material-beams",totalDownloads:699,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, the stochastic finite element solution is given to obtain the variability in the natural frequency of functionally graded material (FGM) beam. The elastic modulus is assumed to vary in the thickness direction and the width of the beam to vary as well in the longitudinal direction following the exponential law. The random material properties of elastic modulus and mass density of the FGM beam are assumed to be one-dimensional homogeneous stochastic processes. The stochastic finite element analysis of FGM beam is performed in conjunction with Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) employing the spectral representation method for 16, the description of random processes of the random material properties under consideration. The response variability of the natural frequency due to random elastic modulus is evaluated for various states of randomness. Furthermore, the investigation on the effect of the correlation between random elastic modulus and random mass density on the response variability is addressed in detail as well.",signatures:"Nguyen Van Thuan and Noh Hyuk Chun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66961",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66961",authors:[{id:"287934",title:"Dr.",name:"Nguyen",surname:"Van Thuan",slug:"nguyen-van-thuan",fullName:"Nguyen Van Thuan"}],corrections:null},{id:"67159",title:"Development of Functionally Gradient Cu-Sn-Ni Alloy Using GTA Heat Source",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86315",slug:"development-of-functionally-gradient-cu-sn-ni-alloy-using-gta-heat-source",totalDownloads:651,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The impact of nickel content on surface hardness, microstructure and wear properties of surface alloyed Cu-10Sn bronze composite was examined in this chapter. Gas Tungsten Arc (GTA) was utilized as the heat source for the surface alloying/modification process. The surface modification process was carried out on bronze samples coated with various Nickel coating thicknesses. Vickers hardness tester was used to measure the surface hardness as well as the hardness along the depth of the modified layer and wear rate was measured using a pin-on-disc tribometer. The Ni concentration profiling was carried out using EDAX. Surface modification process resulted in the formation of a layered functionally graded bronze alloy. The average grain size was found to reduce upon surface modification process. Ni addition was observed to increase the hardness and reduce wear rate for the modified samples.",signatures:"Cherian Paul and Ramasamy Sellamuthu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67159",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67159",authors:[{id:"295062",title:"Dr.",name:"Cherian",surname:"Paul",slug:"cherian-paul",fullName:"Cherian Paul"},{id:"298259",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramasamy",surname:"Sellamuthu",slug:"ramasamy-sellamuthu",fullName:"Ramasamy Sellamuthu"}],corrections:null},{id:"69315",title:"Axisymmetric Indentation Response of Functionally Graded Material Coating",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89312",slug:"axisymmetric-indentation-response-of-functionally-graded-material-coating",totalDownloads:644,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, the indentation response of the functionally graded material (FGM) coating is considered due to the contact between the coating and axisymmetric indenter. The mechanical properties of FGM coating is assumed to vary along the thickness direction. Three kinds of models are applied to simulate the variation of elastic parameter in the FGM coating based on the cylindrical coordinate system. The axisymmetric frictionless and partial slip contact problems are reduced to a set of Cauchy singular integral equations that can be numerically calculated by using the Hankel integral transform technique and the transfer matrix method. The effect of gradient of coating on the distribution of contact stress is presented. The present investigation will provide the guidance for the indentation experiment of coating.",signatures:"Tie-Jun Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69315",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69315",authors:[{id:"305673",title:"Prof.",name:"Tiejun",surname:"Liu",slug:"tiejun-liu",fullName:"Tiejun Liu"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"111",title:"Advances in Vibration Analysis Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"37f0b30e647599448abb4a02ca595dde",slug:"advances-in-vibration-analysis-research",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/111.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5097",title:"Advances in Functionally Graded Materials and Structures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3132c367d705b55e9a912527efef76ab",slug:"advances-in-functionally-graded-materials-and-structures",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5097.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6244",title:"Surface Waves",subtitle:"New Trends and Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"48a2c4d0d993b62e4fe46a77a7a6cc4c",slug:"surface-waves-new-trends-and-developments",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6244.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4753",title:"Graphene",subtitle:"New Trends and Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7a2a89285055016ae39942309f30c4b5",slug:"graphene-new-trends-and-developments",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4753.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6020",title:"Shape Memory Alloys",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89ba319783170fefc256fcfa0613a6c0",slug:"shape-memory-alloys-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3272",title:"Piezoelectric Materials and Devices",subtitle:"Practice and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a41c5bb092cc30980df760d6bec44c20",slug:"piezoelectric-materials-and-devices-practice-and-applications",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3272.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5271",title:"Advances in Tribology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cef4274b28d575de81e692b8d88b750d",slug:"advances-in-tribology",bookSignature:"Pranav H. 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Asthma usually starts at an early age, progresses differently, and the phenotype is fluid, which may worsen or disappear over time. At the same time, childhood asthma faces additional challenges due to the maturation process of the respiratory and immune systems, the natural history of the wheezing disease, the lack of good evidence-based medical evidence, the difficulty of establishing diagnostic and drug delivery pathways for disease, and the variable and often unpredictable response to treatment. The search is on for better ways to guide the diagnosis and treatment of asthma and even predict its occurrence. Therefore, non-coding RNAs have come into people's vision and play a great role in the occurrence and development of asthma through immune regulation and signal pathways. We have gained a lot of valuable experience in the continuous search for its relationship with asthma, and may even become a new target for the treatment of asthma in the future. So in this book, we will also mention the relationship between non-coding RNAs and asthma in the hope that more people will take notice.
\r\n\t
The population of students aged 3–2 with learning disabilities (LD) in USA was approximately 33% of the total number of students receiving special education services under IDEA as of 2019/20 [1]. As a result, LD has been considered the most common disability category among individuals aged 3–21. Learning disability constitutes a group of brain disorders that affect a broad range of academic and functional skills including the ability to read, write, listen, speak, reason, or complete mathematical tasks [2]. Although there is a technical definition for LD [3], LD are not identical across all individuals. Instead, the types of LD vary from individual to individual [4]. For example, while one child with a LD may struggle with reading and spellings, another child may love reading but struggle with math. Some children may struggle with understanding communication, whereas others struggle with organization. In other individuals, LD may exist as specific difficulties involving coordination, self-control, or attention. Such difficulties extend to schoolwork and can impede learning to read, write, or do math.
According to research, some categories of LD can appear more common in certain age ranges compared to others. For examples, signs and symptoms that are typically common among preschool children include problems pronouncing words, trouble finding the right word, difficulty rhyming, trouble learning the alphabet, numbers, colors, shapes, days of the week, difficulty following directions or learning routines, difficulty controlling crayons, pencils, and scissors, or coloring within the lines, and trouble with buttons, zippers, snaps, learning to tie shoes [4]. Among ages 5–9, the most common signs and symptoms include trouble learning the connection between letters and sounds, inability to blend sounds to make words, confusing basic words when reading, slow to learn new skills, consistently misspelling words and making frequent errors, trouble learning basic math concepts, and difficulty telling time and remembering sequences [4]. Finally, signs and symptoms common to students aged between 10 and 13 include difficulty with reading comprehension or math skills, trouble with open-ended test questions and word problems, dislike of reading and writing, poor handwriting, poor organizational skills, trouble following classroom discussions and expressing thoughts aloud [4].
LD can affect an individual’s quality of life. Research shows that approximately 75% of students with LD exhibit social skills deficits that distinguish them from their non-LD peers [5, 6]. Some studies have reported high unemployment rates among adults with LD [7, 8, 9], low literacy and adult adjustment to economic issues [10], and social and emotional problems in adult life [11, 12].
Learning disability and emotional disorders have been observed to potentially co-occur or interconnect [8, 13, 14]. According to the Learning Disabilities Association of America, most children with LD usually have comorbid conditions, most of which include behavioral/emotional issues and ADHD [8]. If LDs are not properly addressed at younger ages, they can develop into behavioral disorders when the children grow into adolescents [14]. Sections of prior research also show that some children with LD often exhibit challenges associated with creating and maintaining social relationships [15, 16]. This is usually a result of processing problems which make it difficult for children with LD to pick up social cues. Other related emotional problems common in children with LD include poor concentration, attention deficit, lack of social interactions and self-confidence, and emotional distractions among others [17]. Another earlier study [18] indicated several learning and behavioral characteristics commonly occurring in children with LD, which include attention disorders, social skills deficits, psychological processing deficits, and information processing problems. Smith et al. [19] asserted that several characteristics of LD often create challenges associated with social and emotional regulation. Other sections of previous research have also reported higher than normal rates of behavioral problems among children with LD [20]. Given the connection between LD and EBD, some interventions designed for students with EBD may often be effective to address academic and functional skills deficits across students with LD.
One of the key areas of deficit in academic performance among children with LD lies in reading. Research shows that a large proportion of learning disabilities are often associated with reading deficits [21]. When LD interconnects with behavioral disorders, students perform approximately 2.2 grades below standard performance in reading [22]. Reading skills deficits among children with LD present several problems in other areas including poor performance in other subjects, lower academic grades, behavioral problems, and inattention [8]. Worse more, poor reading outcomes have been shown to be associated with numerous lifelong problems including high school dropout, juvenile delinquency, and high probability to enter juvenile justice system [23].
There are two types of reading deficits in LD, basic reading problems and reading comprehension problems [24]. Basic reading problems occur when students have a difficulty understanding the relationship between sounds, letters, and words [24]. The basic reading problems are generally considered the elementary reading skills that are an essential pre-requisite for students to be able to develop higher order reading skills like comprehension. Reading comprehension problems occur when students are unable to understand the meaning of words, phrases, and paragraphs [4]. Reading comprehension is more complex as it involves a lot more “cognitive and linguistic skills” [25]. Overall, signs of reading difficulty include problems with letter and word recognition understanding words and ideas reading speed and fluency general vocabulary skills [4].
In LD, reading problems are considered to be the most common learning deficit more than any other area of academic performance, yet the skills are so fundamental that they affect other learning areas [26]. The National Reading Panel Report Reading identifies 5 areas essential to effective early reading, which are phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension [27]. Students with learning disabilities in reading generally show severe deficits in the 5 areas as shown by poor phonemic awareness, challenges in learning phonics and decoding words, and struggles to comprehend written materials due to language processing deficits [28].
In order to address reading deficits in students with LD, there has been an increased emphasis to adopt evidence-based instructional practices that are supported by strong empirical evidence. Part of prior research on this topic indicated the existence of practices that are either ineffective or are not empirically demonstrated to be effective [32, 33]. Furthermore, prior research indicates some obstacles associated with finding evidence-based practices by teachers [34]. For instance, lack of trust of research in preference for personal experience by teachers tends to lead teacher to rely more on practices they perceive to be effective as opposed to research based. Sometimes, teachers’ personal beliefs and feelings of self-efficacy tend to result in them picking up practices that they perceive to be effective even if they are not backed by data.
Evidence based instructional practices are characterized by four elements of focus, namely experimental research, high quality methodological rigor, more supporting studies, and demonstrated quantitative effects [35]. Regarding experimental designs, the expectation is for an instructional approach to be supported by empirical studies conducted using experimental designs that demonstrate a clear functional relationship between interventions and target outcomes. In educational research, these include group or single case designs. Group designs are typically considered the gold standard in education and other fields and have traditionally been used in majority of experimental research in social science. Although these methods have been demonstrated to be effective, they tend to mask individual differences among individual participants. The nature of populations in special education particularly makes it difficult to entirely rely on group designs. Single case designs on the other hand evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention on a single unit of analysis. The single subject acts as both the control and experimental unit, with pre-treatment scores serving as baseline and intervention scores functioning as the posttest scores.
The second factor considered in identifying EBP is the quality of research supporting a practice [35]. Essentially, research quality is targeted at ensuring validity of research findings [36]. In order for a study to be valid, researchers must control for potential threats to validity to the greatest extent possible (e.g., history, maturation, statistical regression, selection, experimental mortality; [37]). Researchers using SCDs and group designs take measures to control for extraneous variables that either correlate with independent variables of interest in influencing the outcome variables, or influence both independent and dependent variables in a manner that makes it difficult to ascertain the nature of relationship between the variables of interest [36]. Failure to control for extraneous variables can result in biased outcomes, whose findings cannot be applied to participants (i.e., lacking internal validity) or non-participants (i.e., lacking external validity; [38]).
Quantity of studies supporting an instructional practice must be sufficient enough to ensure that findings are generalizable to populations not included in the primary studies [35]. Studies conducted in a single environment, with the sample of participants drawn from a single population limit the chances that findings are generalizable to non-participants. More studies investigating a single intervention, conducted at different times, in different places, and with different participants therefore increase the possibility of findings being applicable to individuals who did not participate in the studies [39]. Finally, EBP further requires that researchers demonstrate, in quantitative terms, the magnitude of effect of the researched interventions [35]. More specifically, researchers use statistical methods to assess the changes in outcomes of interest that are a result of interventions. In educational research, meta-analyses are typically used to synthesize quantitative effects of interventions across multiple studies. In order to determine the EBP recommended in this chapter, we conducted a meta-analysis study which also examined the methodological rigor of the primary studies on reading interventions for EBD [40].
Phonological awareness constitutes the most basic or elementary skill in reading. It involves the detection and manipulation of sound. It is regarded one of the strongest predictors for a child’s future reading success [41, 42]. Phonological awareness creates the skills to segment and blend words together to produce reading and spelling. Children with weak phonologic awareness skills are likely to struggle to read and write properly [42]. All other future reading skills like fluency, comprehension, and vocabulary build from an initial set of these important skills.
As indicated before, children with LD typically struggle to develop the basic phonological skills. However, previous research has demonstrated some potentially effective strategies for teaching phonemic awareness. The Phonological Awareness Training for Reading (PATR; [43]) is an early reading curriculum program which is designed to teach students sound structures. The program is divided into four phases which include warm up, sound blending, sound segmentation, and reading and spelling. The four phases are organized strategically to build the reading skills from learning sounds, blending the sounds, segmenting the words to make meaningful words, and subsequently to present the phonemes in words and apply to reading and spelling. Several studies have examined the efficacy of PATR in improving phonological skills and subsequent academic improvements in behavioral and social domains (e.g., [44, 45, 46, 47]). The studies listed were examined for methodological rigor using the Council for Exceptional Children Quality standards (i.e., CEC: [39]). Across the studies, researchers found significant improvements in academic, social, and behavioral outcomes. For example, Lane et al. [46] reported significant improvement in reading fluency measures indicated in the DIBLES and reduction in total disruptive behaviors, negative social interactions. Other studies have been reported to have found positive effects of PATR on phonological awareness across populations with LD (e.g., [48, 49]).
When examined for literacy skills for adolescent readers, literature shows some mixed findings regarding the efficacy of corrective reading for this group of students. A synthesis of literature by the What Works Clearing House indicated a lack of evidence regarding the efficacy of corrective reading for struggling adolescent readers [38, 52]. When examined for methodological rigor using the WWC evidence standards, several studies on corrective reading were found lacking in evidence due to failure to address the WWC standards (See [38, 52]). However, a recent review of literature analyzing the methodological rigor of primary studies on reading interventions for students with EBD using the CEC quality indicators showed that corrective reading was supported as an effective instructional practice across at least 4 single case design studies and 2 group experimental studies [40]. All across, the strategy was observed to close the reading achievement gap for students with EBD. Corrective reading intervention strategy has also been identified as a tier 3 EBP ideal for the learning needs of students who are most at risk or who fail to respond to tier 2 instructional methods [53]. The publisher for corrective reading instructional programs list various formats of the program that are tailored for different grades and content areas (see [53]).
When selecting instructional practices for teaching reading skills to students with LD, it is important for teachers to adopt methods that are sufficiently demonstrated to be effective. As indicated in prior research, some teachers had relied on instructional practices that were not evidence-based. Part of the reasons for this was teachers’ lack of knowledge regarding what practices are effective or not, lack of skills to find EBP, and a traditional preference for methods they perceived to be effective. The emphasis on EBP in the field ensures that teachers are selecting interventions that are backed by data and empirical evidence, as well as high quality research. With EBP, teachers can substitute the practices that were formally dominant with interventions that are more likely to produce positive results for students. Evidence-based reading interventions for students with LD can help close the skills gap in this group of students.
The mathematical model of moving fluid includes a set of equations, which are usually written as transport equations of main physical parameters—density, velocity, energy, etc. These equations are conservation laws in fluid flows. Traditionally the component form of the equations is usually used, but at the same time, the componentless form (Gibbs approach) could be applied to obtain and transform these equations. In this chapter several main conservation laws are discussed and represented in tensor form, which has many advantages against usually used component form, like simplicity and compactness, independence on reference frames, less errors in transformations, etc. Below we obtain and analyze continuity and momentum equations and vorticity and energy transport equations, and we discuss also about the divergent form of transport Eqs.
Continuity equation is the mass conservation law for a fluid flow and is presented as a scalar equation, which connects density
where
Hereinafter, the Einstein summation convention is used by default.
It also can be written in two other equivalent forms [1, 2]:
In the case of incompressible fluid, we could obtain its simplified form:
Let us apply gradient operator to continuity equation (Eq. (1)):
As a result, we obtain vector equation:
which could be written in a more compact form:
or by a little bit different way:
These equations contain gradient of vector
For incompressible fluid the left part of this relation is equal to zero; therefore for rotation of velocity vector, we can write:
In the case of compressible fluid in accordance with Eq. (6), we have additional terms in the right part of the equation:
Continuity equation can be also written in tensor form:
The tensor
Finally, continuity equation can be written in form
Convective derivatives of density and pressure (and any another scalar quantitatives) also can be written in tensor form:
i.e., convective derivative is equal to trace of corresponding tensor.
In addition, for the divergence of the product of scalar and vector functions, we can obtain the following relation:
The equation of a motion in terms of stress [4, 5] is
where
where
Then equation of motion of incompressible fluid (Navier–Stokes equation) at
Additional term
In case of compressible fluid with variable viscosity, the equation will contain a term with divergence
Let us introduce the denotation:
then we can write Eq. (16) as
Divergence of this tensor at
As a result, equation of motion of compressible fluid with variable viscosity has the form:
in Cartesian coordinates
If we represent fluid particle acceleration as the sum of local and convective terms, then (Eq. (19)) will take the form:
considering viscosity variability is especially important for turbulent flow modeling using the Boussinesq hypothesis with turbulent viscosity
Let us apply divergence operation to the Navier–Stokes equation for compressible fluid with variable viscosity. With this purpose we shall apply operation
If the fluid motion occurs in gravity force field, then there is potential
Function
As a result of applied divergence operation to Navier–Stokes equation at
In the case of incompressible fluid, we have
if also
Now we consider the general case of fluid motion, taking into account its compressibility.
The set of equations of motion of an incompressible fluid contains two—Navier–Stokes and continuity (one vector equation and one scalar equation) [2, 3]:
This set of two equations is closed: it contains two unknown quantities—velocity vector
In case of compressible flows at
where
where
Mendeleev-Clapeyron equation has the form
where
For liquids it usually supposes
Eqs. (1), (25), (26), and (27) are valid for laminar regime of motion. In case of turbulent regime in these equations, correlations will appear, caused by velocity, density, and temperature pulsations. For closure of the set of equations of turbulent motion, additional relations are required.
Vorticity
in component form
where
Vorticity vector
And vice versa, vector
In Eq. (30) spin tensor
Let us prove expression Eq. (30):
The same for Eq. (31):
Let us descry components of this second-rank tensor: when
values for all
The matrix of components of this tensor is
It can be seen that it is a matrix of components of the antisymmetric tensor
It is easy to see also that
Rotation of convective acceleration of a fluid particle could be written as
Evidence of this equation can be performed by writing convective acceleration according to the formula:
Gradient of vorticity is the pseudo tensor of rank 2:
Trace of this tensor is
Let us assume that the fluid is incompressible,
now we apply curl operation (
We could rewrite the second term of the left part in this form:
but
As a result, we can obtain transport equation of vortices in an incompressible viscous fluid, which is named as the generalized Helmholtz equation:
or in more compact form:
It is necessary to note that in the case of compressible fluid and at
This transport equation can be written in another form, considering the equality
If we apply divergence operation to Eq. (36), then for incompressible fluid we obtain
because
On the other hand,
and, finally, we have
For the second power of vorticity, we can write
and now, if we scalar multiply transport equation of vortices by
then we obtain scalar transport equation of
For incompressible fluid
As we already know
Let us write one more equation:
Therefore,
This equation also can be written in the next form:
One more interesting relation is
but as we already mentioned,
The vector product of gradients of scalar functions gives us a vector; in terms of rotation of a vector function, we can write
Really, the left part of this equation is a vector:
and the right part is.
Therefore, Eq. (44) is valid.
The vector product of gradients of scalar functions also can be written as
Here we have in component form:
It is easy to see that this is equal to expression for
Mechanical energy balance equation can be obtained as a scalar product of each member of Eq. (12) on velocity vector
Transformations of the left part lead us to the following results:
It is easy to see that in sum the left part is the material derivative of kinetic energy of a fluid particle—quantity
Usually stress tensor is defined as the sum
Now we can represent equation of mechanical energy balance (Eq. (46)) considering
The first member of the right part of Eq. (46) is power of stresses
It is easy to be proven if we rewrite this expression in component form in Cartesian coordinates. In this case the left part of Eq. (49) is
The first term of the right part of Eq. (49) in component form is
The second term of the right part of Eq. (49) in component form is
Finally Eq. (49) in component form is
Due to the symmetry of the stress tensor
We could simplify the last term of the right part of Eq. (46) if we introduce potential
After substituting the above expressions into Eq. (46), we obtain the equation for mechanical energy of a fluid flow:
In the left part of this equation, we observe the total mechanical energy of a fluid flow as the sum of kinetic and potential energy of the flow [6]. Often the right part of Eq. (51) is written in another form, where stress tensor is written as the sum
The first member is
The third member is
When we substitute these terms in Eq. (52) and then in Eq. (51), the equation for mechanical energy of a fluid flow will take the form:
As a result, we could conclude that the rate of change of total mechanical energy of a flow is equal to the sum of the powers of the pressure forces and viscous friction.
Navier–Stokes equation for a steady flow of viscous incompressible fluid is
The Laplacian of velocity in the right part can be written in the form:
It can be obtained by consideration of operation
The member with the basis vector
The same can be written for the members with basis vectors
And therefore formula Eq. (55) is valid.
One more useful expression based on Eq. (55) is
Using Eqs. (34) and (55) and considering the mass force in field of gravity with the help of potential
where
In incompressible fluid
The gradient of total mechanical energy of a fluid particle
It is possible to obtain the divergence form of Eq. (54) for incompressible fluid considering
Then Eq. (54) will take the form:
Using concepts of identity tensor
The last term of Eq. (59) can be considered in a more simple form due to relation for incompressible fluid
The first law of thermodynamics connects internal energy, heat, and work. In the case of moving fluid, it can be written as follows:
where
The physical meaning of this equation is that the rate of change of internal energy per unit volume is equal to rate of energy supply due to heat conduction, due to dissipation of mechanical energy of the flow, and due to heat from external or internal sources. Since stress tensor
This is the energy equation in terms of transfer of specific internal energy
Vector
where
Fourier’s law of thermal conductivity can also be written in terms of enthalpy, which for an ideal gas is related to temperature by the formula
where
In Cartesian coordinates Eq. (62) can be written as follows:
The terms
where
Now we could write the dissipative term
Thus, in component form Rayleigh function
or in usual notations
This function can also be written in the componentless form:
For perfect gases [6, 7] internal energy is connected with temperature by the relation
The energy equation (Eq. (62)) can be also written in terms of enthalpy
Here we also used continuity equation (Eq. (2)). Finally, we can obtain energy equation in the form of enthalpy transport as
This is the second form of energy equation for the perfect gas in which
One more form of the energy equation can be written if we introduce stagnation enthalpy
Here we used the relation:
which is easy to be proven if we write it down in the component form considering symmetry of stress tensor
As a result, the dissipative term in Eq. (73) can be written as follows:
where
In usual axis designations, the first term is
while second term is
Finally function
The fourth form of the energy equation can be written in terms of entropy
Hence we have
and then if we substitute quantity
All forms of the equation energy (in terms of internal energy, enthalpy, stagnation enthalpy, and entropy) are equivalent.
Equation for temperature field of an arbitrary gas in the form of equation of transport of temperature
The subscripts in derivatives here fix the parameters, with the constancy of which the derivatives are calculated. From these formulas the expressions for derivatives can be obtained:
If we substitute them into Eq. (62) and Eq. (71), we obtain two forms of the equation energy in terms of temperature transport.
In heat transfer problems, boundary conditions are specified in three different kinds—the first, second, and third kind:
The boundary conditions of the first kind consist in setting the temperature on the surface of the body.
The boundary conditions of the second kind are setting of the distribution of the heat flux density q on the surface of the body.
The boundary conditions of the third kind consist in setting the temperature of the flow over the surface of the body and the heat transfer conditions on its surface.
Material derivative of any physical quantity Θ multiplied by density
This directly follows from the continuity equation [Eq. (2)].
Let us consider in detail the following cases for three ranks of a certain physical quantity Θ.
Let us assume that quantity Θ is temperature
We could prove this equality if we write the left and right parts in component form. For the left part, we have
For the right part, we have
Since the expression in parentheses is zero (due to continuity equation), the equality of the left and right parts is obvious.
Let us assume that quantity Θ is velocity
Here in the last term, we see tensor
We could prove this equality if we write the left and right parts in the component form and use continuity equation.
For the left part, we have
The first term of the right part is
The second term of the right part is
The right part as a whole is
Therefore, the expression (Eq. (83)) is valid in case Θ is a vector.
Let us assume that Θ is a tensor, for instance, stress tensor
The left part of this equation in the component form can be written as follows:
The right part is
Therefore, the expression (Eq. (83)) is also valid in case Θ is a tensor.
It is necessary to note the derivative
There are different forms of deviatoric stress rate for an arbitrary second-rank tensor
Jaumann G.:
Rivlin R.:
Truesdell C.:
Oldroyd J., Sedov L.I., etc. [8, 10, 11]
At present, the question of which derivative is more appropriate to use when constructing rheological equations is unclear. The most common is the rotational derivative by Gustav Jaumann. The corresponding material derivative in the form by Jaumann, for an arbitrary tensor of the second rank, has the form
Material derivative in the form by Rivlin is written as follows:
It is easy to see that Rivlin’s derivative differs from Jaumann’s one by the additional term
Rotational derivative of a symmetric tensor is also a symmetric tensor. As an example, let us consider the rotational derivative of strain-rate tensor and spin tensor:
As a result, we have obtained the symmetrical second-rank tensor.
In this chapter, some applications of tensor calculus in fluid dynamics and heat transfer are presented. Typical transformations of equations and governing relations are discussed. Main conservation equations are given and analyzed. The governing equations of fluid motion and energy were obtained.
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Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. 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The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"76640",title:"Control of Clinical Laboratory Errors by FMEA Model",slug:"control-of-clinical-laboratory-errors-by-fmea-model",totalDownloads:1118,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Patient safety is an aim for clinical applications and is a fundamental principle of healthcare and quality management. The main global health organizations have incorporated patient safety in their review of work practices. The data provided by the medical laboratories have a direct impact on patient safety and a fault in any of processes such as strategic, operational and support, could affect it. To provide appreciate and reliable data to the physicians, it is important to emphasize the need to design risk management plan in the laboratory. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is an efficient technique for error detection and reduction. Technical Committee of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) licensed a technical specification for medical laboratories suggesting FMEA as a method for prospective risk analysis of high-risk processes. FMEA model helps to identify quality failures, their effects and risks with their reduction/elimination, which depends on severity, probability and detection. Applying FMEA in clinical approaches can lead to a significant reduction of the risk priority number (RPN).",book:{id:"9808",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-patient-safety-volume-1",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety - Volume 1"},signatures:"Hoda Sabati, Amin Mohsenzadeh and Nooshin Khelghati",authors:[{id:"340486",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Hoda",middleName:null,surname:"Sabati",slug:"hoda-sabati",fullName:"Hoda Sabati"},{id:"348872",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Mohsenzadeh",slug:"amin-mohsenzadeh",fullName:"Amin Mohsenzadeh"},{id:"348874",title:"MSc.",name:"Nooshin",middleName:null,surname:"Khelghati",slug:"nooshin-khelghati",fullName:"Nooshin Khelghati"}]},{id:"64762",title:"Mechanism and Health Effects of Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans",slug:"mechanism-and-health-effects-of-heavy-metal-toxicity-in-humans",totalDownloads:10122,totalCrossrefCites:91,totalDimensionsCites:219,abstract:"Several heavy metals are found naturally in the earth crust and are exploited for various industrial and economic purposes. Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. 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Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"65467",title:"Anesthesia Management for Large-Volume Liposuction",slug:"anesthesia-management-for-large-volume-liposuction",totalDownloads:5761,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The apparent easiness with which liposuction is performed favors that patients, young surgeons, and anesthesiologists without experience in this field ignore the many events that occur during this procedure. Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",book:{id:"6221",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}]},{id:"30178",title:"Chest Mobilization Techniques for Improving Ventilation and Gas Exchange in Chronic Lung Disease",slug:"chest-mobilization-techniques-for-improving-ventilation-and-gas-exchange-in-chronic-lung-disease",totalDownloads:31045,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"648",slug:"chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-current-concepts-and-practice",title:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease",fullTitle:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease - Current Concepts and Practice"},signatures:"Donrawee Leelarungrayub",authors:[{id:"73709",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jirakrit",middleName:null,surname:"Leelarungrayub",slug:"jirakrit-leelarungrayub",fullName:"Jirakrit Leelarungrayub"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"3",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81967",title:"Cardiac Catheterization after Bypass Surgery",slug:"cardiac-catheterization-after-bypass-surgery",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104569",abstract:"After coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery, the typical patient will have progression of the original native coronary disease as well as atherosclerosis of the bypass grafts. When this leads to angina or myocardial infarction, repeat cardiac catheterization may be necessary. However, the risks of catheterization in post-CABG patients are higher than in non-CABG patients, and the benefits are smaller, so optimal medical therapy should be employed and clear indications should be present before post-CABG catheterization is undertaken. In the past decade, two advancements have been made in strategies for post-CABG catheterization. First, for patients with a left internal mammary artery graft, left radial access should be routinely used and is safer than femoral access. Second, diseased saphenous vein bypass grafts may offer a retrograde approach to chronic total occlusions of the native artery. When successful, retrograde stenting of the bypassed native coronary artery is more durable than interventions on the saphenous vein graft supplying it. This chapter summarizes indications, techniques, and tricks of catheterization and strategies for coronary intervention in patients with prior CABG.",book:{id:"11235",title:"Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11235.jpg"},signatures:"Reed M. Otten and James Blankenship"},{id:"81532",title:"Ethnobotany",slug:"ethnobotany",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104754",abstract:"Ethnobotany is a life science which studies the interaction between human beings and flora in particular and broadly deals with the investigations, observations, and identifications of botanical diversity used for the prevention and treatment of human and livestock ailments. The current chapter reviews the history and development of ethnobotany and the involvement of this branch of science in the innovation and derivation of drug products which is originated from plants and claimed by the traditional healers and indigenous people used for the prevention and treatment of disease. This chapter also combines interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary methods that can lead to further productive, comprehensive, and systemic guesstimates in the investigation of the relationship between the plants and humans. Regardless of its various bottlenecks, ethnobotany becomes an attractive and hopeful area of research. It also covers ethnobotanical knowledge and modern science, ethnobotany research and their applications, plant conservation and sustainable management practices, taxonomy, and economic botany. The chapter also deals with the ways in which different societies and cultures have come to perceive, know, use, classify, and symbolically represent plants and animals.",book:{id:"11299",title:"Medicinal Plants",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11299.jpg"},signatures:"Jafer Siraj"},{id:"81972",title:"The Submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum Malaria in Sub-Saharan Africa; Current Understanding of the Host Immune System and New Perspectives",slug:"the-submicroscopic-plasmodium-falciparum-malaria-in-sub-saharan-africa-current-understanding-of-the-",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105086",abstract:"The bottlenecks in malaria infections affect malaria control and eradication programs. The gaps in the relationships between stages specific parasites molecules and their effects in the various stages of malaria development are unknown. The challenge hampers the wholesome understanding of policies and programs implemented to control and eliminate malaria infections in the endemic areas. Submicroscopic malaria and its transmission dynamisms are of interest in malaria control programs. The role of various stages of natural protective immunity in submicroscopic malaria infections and the insight into the collaborative role of antibodies from antigens for maintaining lower and submicroscopic malaria could provide a relevant guideline for vaccine developments. The chapter discusses the roles of mosquito and malaria antibodies in maintaining submicroscopic P. falciparum infection and its transmission potentials in malaria-endemic areas and the new perspectives on the inter-relatedness of stage-specific antibodies to improve malaria control programs in Sub-Saharan Africa.",book:{id:"11576",title:"Malaria - Recent Advances, and New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11576.jpg"},signatures:"Kwame Kumi Asare"},{id:"81847",title:"Banks of Cryopreserved Skin from Live Donors and Total Skin Allografts in the Surgery of Major Burnt Patients",slug:"banks-of-cryopreserved-skin-from-live-donors-and-total-skin-allografts-in-the-surgery-of-major-burnt",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104451",abstract:"Scarectomy and prompt coverage are some of the main cornerstones of the actual treatment of major burnt patients. This coverage can be definitive using autologous tissues or temporary with allografts, xenografts, and/or biosynthetic products. Skin allografts (SAs) are the gold standard therapeutic alternative among temporary coverages, since they mimic skin functions. However, cadaveric skin donation and procurement, a common SA source, are infrequent. On the other hand, there is a significant number of patients that, given their health condition, large amounts of skin must be resected for their clinical recovery, including patients submitted to corporal contouring surgeries with esthetic and/or reconstructive motives, usually eliminating the redundant skin as biological waste. 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Interventions that may counterbalance the continued gender gap within surgical fields include the implementation of implicit bias training, increasing institutional support, establishing formal mentorship initiatives, the introduction of early exposure programs during medical training, transparent institutional promotion policies, childcare support, and accommodation of maternity leave. The purpose of this chapter is to educate the reader regarding gender inequality in surgery and related fields and to highlight key issues central to the propagation of gender biases specifically as they relate to female surgeons across various roles and responsibilities (e.g., clinical practice, education/training, and leadership) within the contemporary academic landscape.",book:{id:"6947",title:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education - Volume 2",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6947.jpg"},signatures:"Minuette Laessig, Lauryn Ullrich, Thomas J. Papadimos, Erin A. 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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). 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