Abstract
Chip-scale integrated optical devices are one of the most developed research subjects in last years. These devices serve as a bridge to overcome size mismatch between diffraction-limited bulk optics and nanoscale photonic devices. They have been employed to develop many on-chip applications, such as integrated light sources, polarizers, optical filters, and even biosensing devices. Among these integrated systems can be found the so-called hybrid photonic-plasmonic devices, structures that integrate plasmonic metamaterials on top of optical waveguides, leading to outstanding physical phenomena. In this contribution, we present a comprehensive study of the design of hybrid photonic-plasmonic systems consisting of periodic arrays of metallic nanowires integrated on top of dielectric waveguides. Based on numerical simulations, we explain the physics of these structures and analyze light coupling between plasmonic resonances in the nanowires and the photonic modes of the waveguides below them. With this chapter we pretend to attract the interest of research community in the development of integrated hybrid photonic-plasmonic devices, especially light interaction between guided photonic modes and plasmonic resonances in metallic nanowires.
Keywords
- plasmonics
- integrated optics
- nanowires
- optical waveguides
- hybrid modes
1. Introduction
Plasmonics, the science of plasmons, is a research field that has been extensively studied in recent years due to its multiple applications like biosensing, optical communications, or quantum computing, to mention but a few.
Generally, the field of plasmonics is associated with two types of collective oscillations of conductive electrons at the boundaries of metallic nanostructures, known as surface plasmon polaritons (SPP) and localized surface plasmons (LSP). While SPP are referred as surface waves propagating at a dielectric-metal interface, LSP can be regarded as standing surface waves confined in metallic nanoparticles embedded in a dielectric environment [1].
As it is well known, SPP modes can only be excited when appropriate phase match conditions are fulfilled. An option to achieve this condition, is by making use of the electromagnetic near field scattered by a local defect or emitter. To this purpose, the LSP mode of a metallic nanoparticle can be excited and coupled to the SPP of a metallic substrate, giving rise to hybrid plasmon polaritons [2, 3].
In addition to these types of plasmonic oscillations, there are other resonances named plasmonic chain modes. These modes can be generated in linear arrays of closely spaced metallic nanoparticles, including nanowires, and they result from the near field coupling between adjacent nanoparticles excited at their plasmonic resonances. Due to this coupling effect, light can propagate through the periodic arrays. Thus, these periodic structures can be regarded as discrete plasmonic waveguides [4, 5, 6]. When placing a periodic array of metallic nanoparticles in a layered media, under proper excitation conditions, the plasmonic chain modes can also couple to the SPP of a metallic substrate, forming hybrid SPP-chain modes [7].
In this same sense, when placing periodic arrays of metallic nanoparticles on top of dielectric waveguides, the plasmonic chain modes can couple to the photonic modes of the waveguide [8]. These integrated structures give rise to the so-called hybrid photonic-plasmonic waveguide modes [9], and they are the main subject of interest in this chapter. We will focus our attention to integrated structures consisting of periodic arrays of metallic nanowires integrated on top of two-dimensional dielectric photonic waveguides.
To this purpose, we will bring a comprehensive explanation about the physics behind the dispersion curves of integrated hybrid photonic-plasmonic waveguiding structures. Then will be studied the propagation of electromagnetic fields through the integrated systems varying the geometric cross-section of the metallic nanowires. For a better understanding, this comprehensive study will be accompanied by numerical simulations, making easier to elucidate the potential applications of these outstanding structures.
2. Hybrid photonic-plasmonic waveguides
2.1 Optical waveguides
From the analysis of the chemical composition of farer stars to imaging of microscopic living cells, information transport through light is one of the main subjects of interest in optical sciences. Among the different ways to transport light can be found optical waveguides, whose principle of operation is based on the total internal reflection effect. This phenomenon consists of the complete reflection of light within a medium surrounded by media with smaller refractive index, as depicted in Figure 1.
The schematic in Figure 1a represents an asymmetric planar waveguide invariant along the out-of-plane direction, consisting of a dielectric medium of refractive index
2.2 Dispersion relation
To determine the propagation constant of the modes supported by the waveguide, let us consider a waveguide with a core of refractive index
For each medium, the field can be represented as a sum of propagative and counter-propagative waves along the
where
where
At the interfaces
and
From the conservation of the tangential components of the electromagnetic field at the boundaries between two media [12] are obtained the relationships
with
By equating to zero the determinant of the matrix it is possible to obtain the non-trivial solutions of this eigenmode equation system, resulting in the dispersion relation of a three-layered media
We must notice that Eq. (8) is a transcendental function with no analytical solution, thus, numerical methods should be employed to solve it.
When solving this dispersion relation, it is obtained the mode propagation constant,
being
As the refractive index of a dielectric medium, as well as the dielectric constant, is a real number equal or greater than the unit (
2.3 Plasmonic waveguides
As previously explained, dielectric waveguides guide light modes by using the total internal reflection principle and self-consistency condition. These waveguides are diffraction limited due to the dielectric constant values. However, if the dielectric constant is a complex number, it would be possible to obtain solutions to the dispersion relation (Eq. 8) below the diffraction limit. This is the case of metallic materials. Hence, if at least one of the three media in the waveguide structure is metallic, it is always possible to obtain a propagative mode in the structure. The price to pay for this solution is that due to ohmic losses in metals, these modes propagate just few microns, in opposition to dielectric waveguides where light can propagate through kilometers.
These structures are known as plasmonic waveguides, and their operation principle is based on SPP mode propagation. These surface waves are the result of collective oscillations of the conductive electrons at a metal-dielectric interface induced by the electric field of an electromagnetic wave. For a system invariant in the
Different combinations of insulator (I) and metallic (M) materials can be used to define a plasmonic waveguide. In Figure 3 are represented IIM, IMI and MIM plasmonic waveguide structures as well as the amplitude distribution of the out-of-plane electromagnetic field (
As plasmonic waveguides allow light propagation beyond the diffraction limit, these structures have been used for the development of integrated nanophotonic devices for optical signal transportation, optical communications, biosensing and even imaging applications [13, 14, 15].
2.4 Hybrid photonic-plasmonic waveguides
From the previous waveguiding configurations, it is natural to think that modes propagating through a dielectric waveguide can be coupled to a plasmonic waveguide. This kind of structures is named hybrid photonic-plasmonic waveguide, or simply hybrid plasmonic waveguide.
The structure depicted in Figure 3a can be considered as a hybrid plasmonic waveguide, but more complex multilayered systems can be designed to propagate more than one mode in these structures. For instance, in Figure 4 are presented two examples of hybrid plasmonic waveguides able to support symmetric and antisymmetric SPP modes coupled to photonic modes of a dielectric waveguide.
To compute the supported modes of these structures, we can make use of the dispersion relation for a N-layered medium in terms of the T-matrix that relates the amplitudes of propagative and counter-propagative waves,
where
with
2.5 Dispersion curves and mode analysis
Before studying light propagation in complex hybrid plasmonic waveguides, it is worthily to briefly comment on the dispersion diagrams that would help to perform an analysis of the modes propagating through these waveguides. So far, we have presented the dispersion relation for a multilayered media. It is not our intention to explore the numerical methods that can be employed to solve this transcendental equation, but to analyze the information obtained from these results. The reader can look at references [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22] to have an insight of how to solve the dispersion relation.
As an example, let us analyze the modes of a four-layered media as schematized in Figure 4a, consisting of a glass substrate with refractive index
The vertical constant lines at 1, 1.5 and 2.0 correspond to the refractive index of each dielectric medium: air superstrate, glass substrate and silicon nitride core, respectively. These vertical lines are also referred as light lines, as they are linked to the propagation constant of light traveling in that specific homogeneous medium through Eq. (9).
These light lines define four different regions. The first region, for effective index values below 1 (gray region), are numerical solutions without physical meaning: if the effective index is smaller than unit, the modes would travel faster than speed of light in vacuum (which obviously is not our case). The second region between the refractive index of glass and air refractive index (orange region) defines modes with effective index smaller than glass but greater than air. Hence, they are modes whose energy is propagating in the glass substrate, and they are referred as radiated modes. The third region, between the silicon nitride (core) light line and glass light line, define modes whose energy is propagating in the core of the waveguide: as the effective index is higher than glass substrate index, the energy of these modes does not propagates in glass, so the energy is confined in the core. These are guided modes. The value at which the effective index of these modes matches the refractive index of the glass substrate determines the cut-off wavelength of guided modes. For the analyzed example, these values are
The fourth region (blue colored) correspond to modes whose energy does not propagates in any of the dielectric layers: their effective index is greater than the core, substrate, and superstrate. Hence, these modes are confined to the metallic layer. These solutions correspond to propagative SPP modes and they are referred as confined modes.
In literature, different representations of the dispersion curves can be found, like propagation constant vs. frequency (usually normalized to a reference value), wavelength vs. incidence angle (used in attenuated total internal reflection measurements), among others. The representation that we use in Figure 5 allows us to understand the dispersion curves in terms of two quantities that can be easily identified: wavelength and effective index.
2.6 Mode hybridization
To further understand the origin of the modes appearing in the hybrid photonic-plasmonic structure, let us analyze the multilayered system by parts: first we will compute the dispersion curves of the photonic waveguide (Figure 6a), then the modes of the plasmonic waveguide (Figure 6b), and finally compare them with the full hybrid photonic-plasmonic structure (Figure 6c). The numerical results for the dispersion relation of each one of these cases are presented in Figure 6d. The dimensions of the structures are the same than those used for Figure 5.
The blue dots and circles in guided region, correspond to the fundamental
When computing the modes of a thin gold layer of thickness
We can observe that both,
When the modes of the complete integrated structure (Figure 6c) are computed, two branches are observed. The first one, represented by red triangles, is a mode confined to the metallic layer, and the second one, relies in the guided region (green diamonds). These modes arise from the coupling of the
It is important to say that both symmetric and antisymmetric modes are not independent, they are hybrid modes. Like in two coupled harmonic oscillators, this hybridization means that there is an energy exchange between photonic and plasmonic waveguides. For the symmetric mode, the amplitude of light in both, photonic and plasmonic waveguides, are in phase, while for the antisymmetric are out-of-phase [24, 25].
Finally, in Figure 7 are plotted the normalized intensity profiles of the symmetric (red curve) and antisymmetric (green curve) modes at a wavelength of
3. Mode propagation in a periodic array of metallic nanowires
In general, plasmonic resonances in metallics nanostructures are divided in two kinds, namely SPP and LSP. SPP modes are propagative waves confined at the dielectric/metal interface, while LSP are standing waves or cavity modes oscillating in a nanoparticle.
As it is well known, LSP resonances depend not only on the material of the nanoparticles, but also on their shape and polarization of the incident wave: the orientation of the electric field defines the direction of the oscillation of the charges in the metallic nanoparticle; these charges will distribute depending on the geometry of the particle, giving rise to different modes. For small nanoparticles, usually are only excited dipolar LSP resonances, but quadrupoles, octupoles and higher order modes can also be excited.
When metallic nanoparticles are closely placed and excited at their LSP resonance, it is possible to couple them via near field interaction, leading to higher order LSP modes. To understand this coupling mechanism, let us take a look to Figure 8, where a dimmer of spherical metallic nanoparticles oriented along the
When the electric field is oriented along the
If the electric field oscillates along the
In the same way, a periodic array of metallic nanoparticles can be coupled, allowing light propagation. Thus, when properly excited, a periodic array of metallic nanoparticles can be regarded as a plasmonic waveguide. These resonances are named plasmonic chain modes, and their waveguiding properties will depend on the shape and period of the nanoparticles, as well as the orientation of the incident electromagnetic field. Besides energy transportation capabilities, these modes have been widely studied because they allow a strong enhancement of the electromagnetic field in a localized nanometric region.
If we consider that the nanoparticles in Figure 8 are invariant in the out-of-plane
3.1 Plasmonic chain modes in MNW with rectangular cross section
Let us consider an infinite periodic array of gold nanowires of width
To perform a modal analysis, it is required to compute the dispersion curves of these system. Different numerical methods can be employed, like effective index method [29, 30, 31], source model technique [32], rigorous coupled wave analysis (RCWA) [33, 34, 35], or Fourier modal method (FMM) [36, 37, 38, 39], among others.
In our case, we will make use of the FMM to compute the dispersion curves of the periodic structure. This rigorous method computes the Maxwell equations in the frequency domain. To solve them, a unit cell of the periodic structure, as well as the dielectric function and electromagnetic field are expanded in Fourier series. This formulation leads to an eigenvalue matrix formulation that can be used to obtain the modes of the nanowires in a multilayered media. Also, by adding perfectly matched layers (PML), it is possible to compute the beam propagation in a finite periodic structure. It is not our intention to show how to implement this numerical method, but to analyze plasmonic chain modes in periodic MNW. For a better comprehension about this method, we invite the reader to look at references [37, 38].
The plot in Figure 9b corresponds to the dispersion curves of the system under study. As we are dealing with a periodic structure, it is useful to represent this plot in terms of the propagation constant (along the periodicity direction), normalized to the Bragg condition (
In Figure 9c are shown the energy density map and electric field lines distribution of the plasmonic mode at
As defined for a SPP, the propagation length of this plasmonic chain mode can be computed through the relationship
where
3.2 Hybrid plasmonic chain modes in MNW integrated to a dielectric waveguide
Now, let us study a hybrid photonic-plasmonic system consisting of a dielectric waveguide of thickness
The dispersion curves in the first Brillouin zone, obtained with the FMM, are shown in Figure 10b. The green and magenta curves represent the glass and waveguide light lines, respectively, while the black vertical line represents the Bragg condition. The blue triangles curve corresponds to the fundamental
To corroborate the symmetry of these modes, in Figure 11 we plot the energy density maps and electric field lines distribution for both modes at the Bragg condition. Figure 11a corresponds to the energy density map computed for the upper branch at
Finally, by making use of the aperiodic Fourier modal method [27, 39], and considering a finite number of 27 MNW, we computed the transmission (red curve), reflection (blue dashed curve), and absorption (black dotted curve) spectra of light propagating through the integrated system, normalized to the incident beam (Figure 12a). The reflection spectrum (blue dashed curve) exhibits a maximum peak around
where
The second depth on the transmission spectrum corresponds to the excitation of the dipolar longitudinal plasmonic chain mode. In the dispersion curves, this wavelength value corresponds to the anti-crossing point between symmetric and antisymmetric modes, around
3.3 Hybrid plasmonic chain modes in MNW of triangular cross section integrated to a dielectric waveguide
Among the large variety of shapes in nanowires, sharp geometries such as nanotips stimulate a great interest in applications where a strong localization of the electromagnetic field is required. These triangular geometries present an extraordinary enhancement of light in the vicinity of their apex resulting from the excitation of LSP resonances polarized along their tip axis. In this section, we will study the excitation of plasmonic chain modes in periodic arrays of gold nanowires with triangular cross section through the photonic mode of a dielectric waveguide.
Firstly, we will study the plasmonic chain modes of the MNW placed on top of a glass substrate and the photonic modes of the dielectric waveguide that will be used to excite them. The MNW consist of an infinite periodic array of gold nanowires with triangular cross section of height
The dispersion curves in the first Brillouin zone are plotted in Figure 13c, where can be observed the light lines of air superstrate (white curve), glass substrate (black curve) and core of the waveguide (green curve). The colored regions correspond to the normalized absorption spectra obtained when illuminating the structure from the substrate with a plane wave and mapped into
When integrating the MNW on top of the dielectric waveguide (Figure 14a), the dispersion curves shows three modes in the guided region (Figure 14b), one corresponding to the DLM (magenta circles) and two other branches corresponding to the anti-symmetric (blue circles) and symmetric (red dots) dipolar transverse chain modes. The mode splitting between these two last resonances arises from strong coupling between dipolar transverse and
To corroborate the coupling between the photonic and plasmonic chain modes, we simulated the beam propagation along the integrated structure. For this simulation, we used a finite number of 5 MNW and excited the waveguide with its fundamental
The transmission shows a first minimum value around
4. Conclusions
As we have studied in this chapter, mode hybridization between plasmonic and photonic guided modes offers the possibility to design integrated devices for light confinement in nanometric volumes. Also, as light propagates in dielectric structures, these integrated devices reduce intrinsic propagation losses in conventional plasmonic waveguides.
When properly excited, we have studied how localized surface plasmons can couple in periodic arrays of metallic nanowires, leading to light propagation. In other words, periodic arrays of MNW can behave as plasmonic waveguides. Depending on the geometry of their cross section (shape and aspect ratio), the electromagnetic field can be strongly confined and localized, desired property for number of applications, like excitation of quantum dots or single photon emitters, surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy, and biosensing.
The examples and explanations brought in this chapter can also be expanded to other geometries and material combinations. The reader should always remind that mode hybridization is the core of the physics behind the design of integrated photonic-plasmonic devices for light guiding applications.
These hybrid photonic-plasmonic systems offers the capability of matching diffraction limited guided optics, with nanometric materials, opening new perspectives for the development of a new generation of integrated optical devices.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank National Council of Science and Technology, CONACYT, for partial financial support (Basic Scientific Research, Grant No. A1-S-21527).
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