Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a debilitating condition, and its management in both children and adults can be challenging for clinicians and patients alike. About 20% of patients with AD manifest with moderate to severe forms of the disease, which are refractory to conventional treatment. The current treatment options approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have variable efficacies, and long-term adverse effects, which further complicate the plan of management [1].
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There has been considerable progress towards the use of targeted medicines like biologicals and small molecular agents to block specific cytokines, their receptors, or transcription factors. The indications for these agents are also rapidly expanding, from adults to the pediatric population. Their formulations range from injections to oral tablets, and topical creams and ointments [2].
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Advances in understanding the various immunopathological changes occurring in atopic dermatitis have allowed the identification of various therapeutic molecular targets and synthesis of various biological agents [1].
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2. Classification of biological agents (based on their mechanism of action)
JAK inhibitors-Tofacitinib, Abrocitinib, Delgocitinib, Upadacitinib, Ruxolitinib, Baricitinib
Miscellaneous agents
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2.1 IgE directed therapy-Omalizumab
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Omalizumab is a recombinant humanized monoclonal IgG1 antibody, which has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of moderate to severe persistent asthma and chronic spontaneous urticaria. It has also been shown to be beneficial in chronic inducible urticaria, allergic rhinitis, eosinophilic esophagitis, food allergy, anaphylaxis, as premedication in allergen specific immunotherapy, Churg-Strauss disease, eosinophilic otitis media, allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, chronic rhinosinusitis, bullous pemphigoid, contact dermatitis and atopic dermatitis [1].
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Mechanism of action
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It is composed of 5% murine and 95% human sequence. Omalizumab combines with the free, soluble IgE, blocking its binding to its receptors, and subsequently preventing allergen-induced mediator release.
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It dramatically reduces the serum levels of free IgE (by 99% in the first two hours after administration), which then downregulates the expression of IgE high-affinity receptors on immune cells. It also decreases the expression of several cytokines (such as IL-5, 8, 13) and inhibits the recruitment of immune cells (T-cells, eosinophils, and macrophages) to the affected sites. Therefore, it inhibits both the immediate and the late inflammatory phases. It is also involved in apoptosis of mast cells and eosinophils.
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Omalizumab in AD
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Anti-IgE therapy in AD has shown conflicting results. Although most data from small randomized trials, case series and case reports documented clinical benefit and resolution of eczema, a small number of studies showed no improvement of disease with Omalizumab. Filaggrin mutations and raised serum IgE levels were associated with a poorer response to Omalizumab [3]. All of the studies noted the safety profile in both adult and pediatric population treated with Omalizumab. However, the variable response to treatment and lack of standardized dosing protocols remain major drawbacks. Another notable conclusion of placebo-controlled studies showed no significant improvement with Omalizumab compared to the control groups [1].
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2.2 TH2 inhibitors
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2.2.1 Anti IL-4 (Dupilumab)
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Dupilumab was approved by the FDA in 2017 for the treatment of adults with moderate to severe refractory atopic dermatitis [1]. It was further approved in 2020 for children aged 6 to 11 years with moderate-to-severe atopic dermatitis [4]. Currently, it is the only biological approved for the treatment of AD.
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Dose—It is available as prefilled syringes containing 300 mg 0r 200 mg of the drug
Adults and children (6–11 years weighing >60 kgs): Loading dose of 600 mg subcutaneously followed by 300 mg every 2 weeks
Pediatric patients (weight > 30-<60 kgs)-400 mg s/c loading dose followed by 200 mg every 2 weeks
Pediatric patients (weight > 15-<30 kgs)-Loading dose of 600 mg subcutaneously followed by 300 mg every 4 weeks
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Mechanism of action
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Both IL-4 and IL-13 are key drivers of the Th2-mediated allergic inflammation. They synergistically act via a common receptor, IL-4Rα, to activate the signaling proteins [signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6) and Janus kinase-1 (JAK1)]. IL-4 induces the immunoglobulin isotype class switch to IgE, promotes the Th2 phenotype, prevents T-cell apoptosis, renders the T-cells refractory to corticosteroids, and induces the expression of VCAM-1 on endothelial cells, subsequently promoting the recruitment of T-cells, eosinophils, basophils and monocytes. Gene polymorphisms in IL-4, IL − 13 and IL-4Rα have been associated with AD in certain populations.1 In the presence of IL-4 and IL-13, keratinocytes exhibit significantly less FLG gene expression, leading to epidermal barrier dysfunction. Dupilumab is a fully humanized monoclonal antibody against interleukin-4 (IL-4) receptor-α (IL-4Rα) [5].
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Dupilumab in AD
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Dupilumab has been a major addition to the therapeutic armamentarium of moderate to severe refractory AD.
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Administration of dupilumab leads to the following molecular changes:
downregulation of markers of epidermal proliferation
downregulation of inflammatory mediators
upregulation of structural proteins
upregulation of lipid metabolism proteins
upregulation of epidermal barrier proteins resulting in normalization of skin.
Reduction in genes activating T cells
reduction in serum levels of CCL17 (or thymus and activation-regulated chemokine), a key regulator of Th2-mediated immunity and a specific biomarker of AD disease activity [6].
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Mono-therapy or combined therapy with Dupilumab has shown to be beneficial in the effective control of disease, improvement in skin lesions, significant reduction in pruritus and an improved quality of life of affected patients. Studies have shown that the transcriptome of skin lesions of AD resembled that of the non-lesional skin after only 4 weeks of treatment with Dupilumab. Many clinical trials investigating the efficacy and safety of Dupilumab in AD have shown a rapid and marked improvement of disease activity, and a safe profile of administration [1].
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A phase 3 trial [7] conducted in 251 adolescents showed statistically significant improvement in the signs, symptoms, and quality of life after 16 weeks of Dupilumab injection, with the 2-weekly regimen showing a better response.
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In pediatric patients, a multi-centre review [8] done on 111 children showed ≥2 point improvement in the Investigator Global Assessment (IGA) score in 64.3% patients after 9 weeks.
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The mean dosage used in children was 8.7 mg/kg loading dose followed by 5.1 mg/kg maintenance dose every other week.
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Adverse effects reported include worsening of alcohol flushing; new regional dermatitis in face, conjunctivitis and eosinophilia have been reported with Dupilumab [9, 10].
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2.2.2 Anti Il-4/Il-13 agents: Lebrikizumab and Tralokinumab
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IL-13 is overexpressed in the skin lesions of AD patients and appears to negatively regulate the expression of genes encoding crucial structural proteins (such as loricrin, involucrin), leading to be the impairment of the epidermal barrier. Lebrikizumab and Tralokinumab selectively target IL-13 and prevent the formation of the IL-13Rα1/IL-4Rα heterodimer receptor signaling complex [11]. Significant clinical improvement has been seen in moderate to severe AD in a small number of Phase 2 studies, with a good safety profile. However, concomitant topical corticosteroid therapy in enrolled patients limits data regarding their efficacy. Therefore, further studies are needed to confirm their beneficial effects in AD [1]. It is currently in Phase 3 trials. It is given subcutaneously every 4 weeks, but its effective dose is yet to be determined [12].
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2.2.3 IL-31 directed therapy: Nemolizumab
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It is a humanized monoclonal antibody against IL-31 receptor A. IL-31 is expressed predominantly by Th2 lymphocytes, functions to target keratinocytes, epithelial cells, eosinophils, basophils and monocytes. It is overexpressed in AD skin lesions [13]. A phase 3 randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial [14] noted a significant clinical improvement profile in adult patients with refractory moderate to severe AD, as compared to the placebo group. However, the duration of the study was only for 16 weeks. Further studies are needed to confirm long-term efficacy and safety profile. The maximum efficacy has been seen with 60 mg subcutaneous injections given every 4 weeks.
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2.3 Anti IL-12/IL-23 agent: Ustekinumab
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Ustekinumab is a human immunoglobulin G1κ monoclonal antibody against the common p40-subunit shared by IL-12 and − 23. IL-23 is responsible for Th17 cell development, and is associated with tissue damage in several inflammatory conditions. IL-23 levels positively correlates with the severity of atopic dermatitis among children. Results regarding the utility of Ustekinumab in the treatment of AD brought inconclusive results. While several case reports have suggested the efficacy of Ustekinumab in severe AD, some others show a moderate effect or a lack of it. This may be due to the multifactorial aetiopathology of the disease. Recently, Noda et al. [1] showed a predominant Th17 immune pattern in Asian AD patients. Such data is valuable for identifying individuals who are most likely to benefit from therapy. Further studies are needed to determine its efficacy and safety and the treatment of AD.
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2.4 IL-22 blocker: Fezakinumab
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IL-22 promotes epidermal hyperplasia and skin barrier dysfunction in AD. Fezankinumab is an anti IL-22 antibody. Phase 2 placebo-controlled studies have shown progressive and sustained clinical improvement of moderate-to-severe AD after 12 weeks of treatment. It is given intravenously with a loading dose of 600 mg followed by 300 mg every 2 weeks [1, 15].
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2.5 Thymic stromal lymphopoietin directed therapy
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TSLP is a pivotal pro-inflammatory cytokine in both acute and chronic skin lesions of AD. Tezepelumab is a human monoclonal antibody that prevents the interaction of thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) with its receptor [1]. Phase 2a trials [16] using 280 mg subcutaneous injections every 2 weeks showed an insignificant improvement in the EASI and SCORAD values after 12 weeks of treatment. Therefore, it is unlikely to be a major treatment option in the near future.
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2.6 JAK inhibitors
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Targeting of the Janus kinase (JAK) and spleen tyrosine kinase (SYK) pathways attenuates signaling via multiple immune pathways (Th1, Th2, Th17 and Th22) and enhances keratinocyte differentiation [17]. Although these drugs have emerged as promising treatment options for AD, their long-term safety profiles are yet to be determined [4].
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Tofacitinib shows specificity for JAK3, baricitinib mainly inhibits JAK1 and JAK2, upadacitinib, ruxolitinib and abrocitinib are selective for JAK1. Delgocitinib inhibits JAK1, JAK2 and JAK3. At present, baricitinib and upadacitinib are also at the final stages of clinical development for atopic dermatitis [18].
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2.6.1 Tofacitinib
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The first JAK inhibitor to be studied in humans, has been developed in both topical and oral formulations, although only oral tofacitinib is commercially available [4]. A single phase 2a randomized, double-blind, vehicle-controlled study on 69 adults with mild-to-moderate AD showed significant improvement(−81.7% vs. −29.9%) in the EASI score after 4 weeks of applying 2% tofacitinb ointment [19, 20].
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2.6.2 Delgocitinib
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0.025% and 0.5% ointment has shown encouraging results in recent Phase 3 [21] studies in adult patients, and Phase 2a studies [22] in pediatric patients with moderate to severe AD up to 4 weeks and 28 weeks respectively, with no serious side effects
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2.6.3 Oral Abrocitinib
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Oral Abrocitinib was evaluated in a phase 3 double-blind placebo-controlled trial, [23] and was effective and well tolerated in adolescents and adults with moderate-to-severe atopic dermatitis. In this trial, 387 patients (aged ≥12 years; 43% women) with moderate-to-severe atopic dermatitis (60% with moderate disease; 40% with severe disease) were randomly assigned (2:2:1) to receive oral abrocitinib 100 mg, 200 mg, or placebo once a day. At week 12, 37 (24%) of 156 patients in the abrocitinib 100 mg group and 67 (44%) of 154 patients in the abrocitinib 200 mg group had achieved an Investigator Global Assessment response of clear or almost clear (score 0–1) compared with six (8%) of 77 patients in the placebo group, and 62 (40%) of 156 patients in the abrocitinib 100 mg group and 96 (62%) of 154 patients in the abrocitinib 200 mg group achieved a 75% improvement or more in Eczema Area and Severity Index (EASI) score from baseline, compared with nine (12%) of 77 patients in the placebo group. This seems to be a promising future option for AD.
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2.6.4 Baricitinib
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Phase 2 RCT [24] in 124 adults with 2 mg and 4 mg qd dose of Baricitinib showed significant reduction in pruritus and inflammation after 16 weeks. The common adverse effects noted were headache, increased creatine phosphokinase levels and nasopharyngitis.
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2.6.5 Ruxolitinib
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Phase 2 RCT was conducted in 252 adults with AD, to study the efficacy of 0.15% cream qd, 0.5% RUX cream qd, 1.5% RUX cream qd and 1.5% RUX cream bid. The study showed significant symptomatic improvement after 4 weeks of application, which was sustained for 12 weeks, with good tolerability and no major adverse effects [19, 25].
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2.7 Miscellaneous
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Studies with the following drugs have either failed to demonstrate a significant improvement or are currently under phase 2 trials:
Biologicals offer exciting prospects in the future management strategies for atopic dermatitis. However, the paucity of multicentric, large-scale, randomized trials, a high cost of treatment, along with a lack of comparative studies with the existing modalities of treatment are the major obstacles to their large scale use in clinical practice. Therefore, more studies with a larger sample size and longer follow up periods are needed to determine their efficacy and long-term safety profiles. Although Dupilumab is currently the only biological drug approved by the FDA for atopic dermatitis, other biologicals have also shown promising results and are expected to be a major part of the therapeutic armamentarium for atopic dermatitis in the near future.
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\n\n',keywords:"atopic dermatitis, biologicals, Dupilumab, Th2 pathway, JAK/STAT pathway",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74394.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74394.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74394",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74394",totalDownloads:203,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:36,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 25th 2020",dateReviewed:"November 25th 2020",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"May 5th 2021",dateFinished:"December 11th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a debilitating condition, and its management in both children and adults can be challenging for clinicians and patients alike. The current treatment options approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have variable efficacies, and long-term adverse effects, which further complicate the plan of management. There has been considerable progress towards the use of targeted medicines like biologicals and small molecular agents for atopic dermatitis. Various molecules targeting the TH2 pathway, JAK/STAT pathway, cAMP, IL-22, Il-12/IL-23 and IgE, have been developed, and are being studied extensively in both adults and pediatric patients of atopic dermatitis. Currently, only Dupilumab is approved by the FDA for the treatment of moderate to severe refractory atopic dermatitis. The other biological agents are currently in phase 2 or phase 3 trials. There is a paucity of multicentric, large-scale studies on the above drugs, along with a lack of comparative studies with the existing modalities of treatment. Therefore, more studies with a larger sample size and longer follow up periods are needed to determine their efficacy and long-term safety profiles. Overall, these agents are likely to be a part of the therapeutic armamentarium for atopic dermatitis in the near future.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74394",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74394",book:{id:"10306",slug:"atopic-dermatitis-essential-issues"},signatures:"Suvarna Samudrala",authors:[{id:"325505",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvarna",middleName:null,surname:"Samudrala",fullName:"Suvarna Samudrala",slug:"suvarna-samudrala",email:"chuvvi89@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Classification of biological agents (based on their mechanism of action)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 IgE directed therapy-Omalizumab",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 TH2 inhibitors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1 Anti IL-4 (Dupilumab)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2 Anti Il-4/Il-13 agents: Lebrikizumab and Tralokinumab",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.3 IL-31 directed therapy: Nemolizumab",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.3 Anti IL-12/IL-23 agent: Ustekinumab",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.4 IL-22 blocker: Fezakinumab",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.5 Thymic stromal lymphopoietin directed therapy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.6 JAK inhibitors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.6.1 Tofacitinib",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.6.2 Delgocitinib",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.6.3 Oral Abrocitinib",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"2.6.4 Baricitinib",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"2.6.5 Ruxolitinib",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"2.7 Miscellaneous",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18",title:"3. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nDeleanu D, Nedelea I. Biological therapies for atopic dermatitis: An update (review). Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine. 2019;17:1061-1067\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nAhn K, Kim BE, Kim J, Leung DY. Recent advances in atopic dermatitis. Current Opinion in Immunology. 2020;66:14-21\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nDel Rosso JQ. More from the pipeline of clinical research on SELECTED SYSTEMIC THERAPIES FOR ATOPIC DERMATITIS. The Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology. 2019;12(5):49-53\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nBarrett, J. FDA Approves Dupilumab for Atopic Dermatitis in Children. Retrieved May 26, 2020, from https://www.drugtopics.com/autoimmune-diseases/fda-approves-dupilumab-atopic-dermatitis-children.\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nGooderham MJ, Hong HC, Eshtiaghi P, Papp KA. Dupilumab: A review of its use in the treatment of atopic dermatitis. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2018;78:S28-S36\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nWu J, Guttman-Yassky E. Efficacy of biologics in atopic dermatitis. Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy. 2020;20:525-538\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nSimpson EL, Paller AS, Siegfried EC, Boguniewicz M, Sher L, Gooderham MJ, et al. Efficacy and safety of Dupilumab in adolescents with uncontrolled moderate to severe atopic dermatitis: A phase 3 randomized clinical trial. JAMA Dermatology. 2020;156(1):44-56\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nIgelman S, Kurta AO, Sheikh U, McWilliams A, Armbrecht E, Jackson Cullison SR, et al. Off-label use of dupilumab for pediatric patients with atopic dermatitis: A multicenter retrospective review. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2020;82:407-411\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nGiavina-Bianchi M, Rizzo LV, Giavina-Bianchi P. Severe atopic dermatitis: Dupilumab is not just safer. but more efficient. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr). 2020;1118. Available from. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aller.2019.12.005\n\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nFaiz S, Giovanelli J, Podevin C, Jachiet M, Bouaziz JD, Reguiai Z, et al. Effectiveness and safety of dupilumab for the treatment of atopic dermatitis in a real-life French multicenter adult cohort. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2019;81:143-151\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nGuttman-Yassky E, Blauvelt A, Eichenfield LF, et al. Efficacy and safety of Lebrikizumab, a high-affinity interleukin 13 inhibitor, in adults with moderate to severe atopic dermatitis: A phase 2b randomized clinical trial. JAMA Dermatology. 2020;156(4):411-420\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nWollenberg A, Howell MD, Guttman-Yassky E, Silverberg JI, Kell C, Ranade K, et al. Treatment of atopic dermatitis with tralokinumab, an anti–IL-13 mAb. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2019;143:135-141\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nSilverberg JI, Pinter A, Pulka G, Poulin Y, Bouaziz JD, Reguiai Z, et al. Phase 2B randomized study of nemolizumab in adults with moderate-to-severe atopic dermatitis and severe pruritus. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2020;145:173-182\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nKabashima K, Matsumura T, Komazaki H, Kawashima M. Trial of Nemolizumab and topical agents for atopic dermatitis with pruritus. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2020;383:141-150\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nGuttman-Yassky E, Brunner PM, Neumann AU, Traidl-Hoffmann C, Krueger JG, Lebwohl MG. Efficacy and safety of Fezakinumab ( an IL-22 monoclonal antibody) in adults with moderate-to-severe atopic dermatitis inadequately controlled by conventional treatments: A randomized, double-blind. phase 2a trial. 2018;78:872-881\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nSimpson EL, Parnes JR, She D, Crouch S, Rees W, Mo M, et al. Tezepelumab, an anti-thymic stromal lymphopoietin monoclonal antibody, in the treatment of moderate to severe atopic dermatitis: A randomized phase 2a clinical trial. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2019;80:1013-1021\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nHe H, Guttman-Yassky EJAK. Inhibitors for atopic dermatitis: An. Update. 2019;20:181-192\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nWeidinger S. Schreiber S. Abrocitinib for atopic dermatitis: a step forward. 2020;396:215-217\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nDel Rosso JQ. An update on the latest developments in nonsteroidal topical therapy for atopic dermatitis. The Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology. 2020;13(5):44-48\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nBissonnette R, Papp KA, Poulin Y, Gooderham M, Raman M, et al. Topical tofacitinib for atopic dermatitis: A phase IIa randomized trial. The British Journal of Dermatology. 2016 Nov;175(5):902-911\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nNakagawa H, Nemoto O, Igarashi A, Saeki H, Kaino H, Nagata T. Delgocitinib ointment, a topical Janus kinase inhibitor, in adult patients with moderate to severe atopic dermatitis: A phase 3, randomized, double-blind, vehicle-controlled study and an open-label, long-term extension study. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2020;82:823-831\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nNakagawa H, Nemoto O, Igarashi A, Saeki H, Oda M, Kabashima K, et al. Phase 2 clinical study of delgocitinib ointment in pediatric patients with atopic dermatitis. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2019;144(6):1575-1583\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nSimpson EL, Sinclair R, Forman S, Wollenberg A, Achoff R, Cork M, et al. Efficacy and safety of abrocitinib in adults and adolescents with moderate-to-severe atopic dermatitis (JADE MONO-1): A multicentre, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2020;396:255-266\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nGuttman-Yassky E, Silverberg JI, Nemoto O, Forman SB, Wilke A, Prescilla R, et al. Baricitinib in adult patients with moderate-to-severe atopic dermatitis: A phase 2 parallel, double-blinded, randomized placebo-controlled multiple-dose study. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2019;80:913-921\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nKim BS, Howell MD, Sun K, Papp K, Nasir A, Kuligowski ME. Treatment of atopic dermatitis with ruxolitinib cream (JAK1/JAK2 inhibitor) or triamcinolone cream. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2020;145:572-582\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nWu J, Guttman-Yassky E. Efficacy of biologics in atopic dermatitis. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2020. Available from DOI: 10.1080/14712598.2020.1722998.\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Suvarna Samudrala",address:"chuvvi89@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Lady Hardinge Medical College, New Delhi, India
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1. Introduction
Electrospinning (ES), as a nanotechnology, exhibits strong evolution of materials used across a broad spectrum from bioactive (microorganisms-infused for biomedical applications) to manufacturing (adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation of the mimetic for mechanical, chemical and electrochemical applications) nanofibers [1]. The advent of bioeconomy and innovation technological development presented opportunities for remarkable progress in the expansion of methods and multiple applicability for the electrospun nanofibers. Waste biomass and other recyclable materials are also finding use in ES as an adaptable and sustainable innovative approach for making ultrathin fibers [2]. Valorization of biomass waste materials such as plant biomass, waste plastic, industrial effluent and other waste biomass streams have been processed through various technologies to produce a wide range of higher hierarchical recycled fibrous products. These including biodegradable bio plastic, filtration membranes, nanofibers as macro, micro and nanomaterials. Advancement in innovative ES techniques allows for intrinsic control of the physicochemical factors, including physical (morphology, diameter, orientation); surface (volumetric dispersion, porosity and thickness) and chemical (functional groups) characteristics of the final product [2].
Electrospinning method entails the utilization of voltage to create an electric field, polymer solution of specific concentration and electrospinning pump to introduce the spinneret onto collector plate. The resulting products are electrospun nanofibers characterized by their fibrous morphology, three-dimensional (3D) porous framework, nanoscale and chemical character that enable unique capabilities across multiple fields; which are difficult to create using conventional methods. Thermally induced phase separation nanofibers, and electrospun nanofiber scaffolds, for example, are being developed and are widely regarded as an emerging technology and a potential strategy for biosensing, drug delivery, soft tissue regeneration, hard tissue regeneration, and wound healing. The capacity to alter numerous control aspects of the functional scaffold, such as fiber geometrical features and alignment, architecture, and subsequent material performance, is the technique’s most prominent feature [1]. More importantly, electrospinning allows for the creation of a wide range of novel materials, including polymer alloys, nanoparticles, and active agents.
Nanofiber preparation employing the ES method has proved to be a future-proof materials technology, with numerous appealing characteristics such as outstanding mechanical properties and large specific surface areas. Due to the versatility, utility, and simplicity of the ES technology, the fibers produced are particularly appealing for numerous applications from a simple process capable of producing diverse morphologies [3]. The use of metal organic frameworks (MOFs) due to its flexible and functionalized molecular structures, nanofibers composites were fabricated as a novel molecular system with highly engineered structures for tailored applications. The usage of MOFs/carbon nanofibers (CNFs) as good electrode materials in energy transformation and storage technologies that include supercapacitors, sensors, and electrocatalysts is one of the most basic applications [4].
Electrospinning for materials technology of the future have seen a wide range of innovations of the technology including home-made re-designing of the technology to improve the ES apparatus reproducibility. Thus hybrid electrospun structures on different types of polymers have been developed and optimized to create products for various applications [5]. This chapter explores electrospinning innovation technology and the materials of the future, their properties and characteristics and applications. The focus materials of the future will be products fabricated from recyclable waste biomass materials as a way of valorization for higher hierarchical bioeconomic products.
2. Advances in electrospinning technology
The ability to tailor structural and morphological aspects of electrospun materials, such as the surface topography of nanofibers, and their porosity that allows enhanced mimicking of the manufactured material matrix, has sparked interest in the ES technology. This is accomplished by the ability to modify the electrospinning assembly in numerous ways in order to combine polymers with a wide range of materials (incorporate active materials such as drugs, inorganic catalysts, growth factors, functional groups and DNA/RNA as necessary in the various applications of the fabricated nanofibers [6]. Figure 1 is a schematic diagram showing a simple set up of the electrospinning system.
Figure 1.
Schematic illustration of vertical electrospinning setup [6].
Mokhtari et al. compared the technical assembly of the electrospraying and the electrospinning systems. This is because the two systems have different mechanisms of performing the fabrication of carbon materials they produce in unique distinct ways as shown in Figure 2. Electrospinning (Figure 2a) supports the formation of micro-scale and in some cases nano-scale fibers while the formation of thin films is facilitated by the electrospraying system (Figure 2b) aids in the formation of thin films [7]. As a result of insufficient polymer-chain entanglements in the polymer chains network, it was discovered that applying a high voltage below the minimum concentration causes electrospraying rather than electrospinning.
Figure 2.
(a) Schematic drawing of a typical electrospray setup. (b) Schematic drawing of a typical electrospinning setup.
It was observed that varying the ratio of the polymer solution and the electrospinning potential difference results in the formation of unique materials ranging from beaded carbon deposits, heterogeneous fibers, uniform fibers, and entangled fibers [7]. Advanced efforts to improve electrospinning performance and the quality of the nanofibers while increasing cost-effective productivity of electrospinning and other nanofiber assembly technologies include integration of key concepts of conventional fiber production methods with nanotechnology. Electro-blowing, gas-jet/gas-assisted electrospinning, and solution blowing, which advanced from melt blowing, combined with electro-centrifugal processing, centrifugal spinning, near field electrospinning with dip-pen nanolithography, and XanoShear, which combines shearing with wet spinning, are among the merged electrospinning conceptual technologies [8].
A look into a study of electrospinning as a versatile technique for fibrous material manufacturing in advanced fabrication of the electrospun biopolymer-based biomaterials compared the conventional needle-based and an innovative needless-based electrospinning processes. Figure 3 presents the unique feature of the needless-based ES process is that the polymer solution is positioned in a bath and a high voltage polarized spinning mandrill is immersed into the bath.
Figure 3.
Electrospinning setups needle-based (left) and needleless (right) [2].
When the rotating mandrill comes into contact with the grounded collection electrode, it collects a thin layer of polymer solution, which is subsequently subjected to an electric field. The electrostatic forces of the field at the needle’s tip, or the thin layer of polymer solution at the rotating mandrill, overcome the solution’s surface tension, pushing it to form several or a single Taylor cone, as illustrated in Figure 4. On its way to the collector, the charged polymer jet from the cones is ejected and extended. The solvent evaporates from the solution, weakening the continuous jet of pure polymer and depositing it in a fibrous form on the collector [2].
Figure 4.
Needleless roller for electrospinning of polymer solutions.
A needleless mechanism performs the electrospinning of the polymer solution from the surface of a revolving roller. The roller is partially immersed in a tank containing material to be electrospun, as shown in Figure 4. On the roller’s surface, a layer of consistently new material is generated by a rotating roller. When compared to needle electrospinning, the technique produces a large number of Taylor cones on the roller’s surface, resulting in the technology’s industrial applicability in mass manufacture of nanofibers materials [9].
Complex fibrous nanostructures have been prepared through manipulation of many experimental parameters of a multifluid electrospinning process. This is an innovative shift from the traditional single-fluid blending electrospinning process. However, there are difficulties in using multifluid processes, such as compatibility concerns of set up parameters including fluids, rate of stock feed and average proportions, interfacial tensions, and electrospinning sustainability [10]. Mass production of nanofibers using electrospinning was determined through the development of the macromolecular ES principle. The molecular flow in the spinning process, as well as the molecular direction in nanofibers, can be tailored to advance the electronic, and physico-chemical properties of nanofibrous materials, which influence their applications, molecular orientation in nanofibers, and structural hierarchical significance [11]. Several recent methods were developed to manufacture nanofibers using macromolecular ES processes. For example, industrial yarn production processes were only applicable for solution electrospinning via the innovative conceptualized gas-assisted melt ES. (GAME) as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5.
Macromolecular electrospinning equipment showing a possible laminar flow in the suction tube [12].
The unique characteristic of the innovative technique is the observed occurrence that turbulent air applies a pulling force, subsequently leading to an increase in output and a 10% reduction in melt jet width, with an additional 20-fold thinning when the air jet temperature is increased [12].
Multi-temperature control electrospinning (MTCES) is a practical way to spin molten polymers on a submicron level fiber than the conventional molten/solution ES. The molten precursor polymer was treated to quad-heating regions in the proposed MTCES design: needle, nozzle, rotating area, and collector to augment and regulate fiber size and morphology. The nozzle, spinning thermal parameters and dimensions, electric field, and flow rate of the MTCES are all adjusted to change the fiber diameter [13]. The MTCES setup is depicted in Figure 6. The technical mechanism demonstrates that the jet propagation begins to bend significantly near the collector at 25°C, and at 80°C, a strong melt jet propagation increases the dwelling time of the jet in the rotary region, demonstrating a distinct multi-control ES scheme, which was characterized by extensive preliminary work and models that used the same or similar setup schemes.
Figure 6.
The multi-temperature control electrospinning setup showing the multi-heating zone melt electrospinning [13].
Energy materials have been fabricated by ES techniques as an alternative to fossil fuels and environmental mitigation initiatives. The nanofibrous materials produced by ES are extensively used in electrochemical energy storage devices. This is because the materials have inherent excellent properties, including an increased surface area, high dimensional ratio, good flexibility, high permeability, with several functionalities. A shift from the conventional ES methods saw the development of innovative enhanced ES techniques that produce nanofibers with novel special hierarchical nanostructures [14].
Figure 7.
Scheme for coaxial electrospinning [15].
The core-shell structure was chosen because of its distinctive features, which can help to improve the preferred properties. Co-electrospinning creates core-shell fibers by filling two distinct precursor solutions into the double nozzles, as shown in Figure 7 [14].
The simplicity of setup and low cost, together with the ability to fabricate nanofibers with a wide range of compositions and morphologies, has aided ES technology’s innovative advancement. Electrospinning-created nanofibrous structures provide appealing extracellular matrix conditions for the fixing, migration, and variation of materials matrix, including those giving rise to hard structure regeneration. The creation of structural materials regenerating nanofibers has been utilized by ES technology developments, which include material simulating composite/hybrid configurations and surface functionalization such as mineralization [16].
A special trifluid electrospinning technology was also developed as an innovation to the co-electrospinning process. This advancement provided for complex multi-chamber nanostructures for designing novel functional nanomaterials. The complex structure consisted of a collective shell and two independent openings of a multi-chamber nanostructure, with each having its own unique complex property, and these compartments form a total composite assembly within a region limited by nanofiber diameter. The sheath-separate-core fused nanostructure synchronized the functionalities of the three ES monolithic nanocomposites to afford a smart regulated release profile of a multi-chamber nanostructure, with each chamber characterized by distinct intrinsic complex property, and the structural compartments constituting a whole fused structure inside a section restricted by the diameter of nanofiber as shown in Figure 8 [17].
Figure 8.
Designs of the complex spinneret for implementing trifluid electrospinning: (a) a digital image showing a full view of the spinneret; (b) front view; (c) side view; and (d) a diagram about the organization of a structural outlet from three inlets [17].
Precision electrospinning, enabled by recent improvements in ES technology, is being envisioned as a viable option for fabricating 3D nanofibrous materials with a desired microstructure. Internal access to setup parameters such as solvent and fiber collecting method has increased intrinsic control of final nanofibrous architecture creation mechanism, as shown in Figure 9 [18].
Figure 9.
Setup used to form 3D nanofibrous scaffold using a negatively charged electrode or negative ion generator [18].
Plastic and other waste materials from industrial, domestic and agricultural activities, are the modern scourge on the face of the planet. The global call for re-use and recycle is gaining tremendous recognition with scientist scrambling for innovative ways of using waste materials in the circular economy. Waste biomass has been explored as an alternative source of polymers that may be used in wide range of ES processes targeting specific valorized products. As new materials use emerge and novel materials are electrospun into nanofibers, it is becoming increasingly critical to grasp current breakthroughs in biomass conversion into polymer sources for nanofibrous structures in order to fully exploit their potential. Advancements in waste biomass conversion technologies such as bio digestion, pyrolysis of plastic, and waste agricultural plant biomass wastes into bio oils and other polymers have preceded this.
3. Waste biomass feedstock for electrospinning nanofibers
Biomass is organic substances that is renewable and comprises plants and animals matter and may be combusted for heat or treated into renewable polymeric materials or fuels using a range of technologies. Most of the biomass end up as environmental waste materials that contaminate the land, rivers and oceans. Waste biomass include waste plant materials from crops, animal waste (dung and sewage), industrial waste in the form of effluent coming from industries such as petrochemical, food processing, textile dye effluent, pharmaceutical, and solid waste biomass including plastics, plant residues, (bagasse and other dregs), timber offcuts and sawdust, pulp and paper processing waste etc. These various biomass waste streams may be used as an alternative source of polymeric materials that may be used in electrospinning to produce materials for the future. Three classes of the waste biomass will be discussed namely synthetic waste biomass, natural flora waste biomass and natural fauna-based waste biomass.
3.1 Synthetic waste biomass
Plastic is the largest solid waste biomass on the face of the earth’s surface while textile and pharmaceutical effluent are major synthetic liquid waste biomass. Unless great strides are made to valorize these waste streams and find hierarchical bioeconomic applications of these materials, they will persist in the environment as contaminants. Due to its tunable features, including wettability, surface charge, transparency, elasticity, porosity, and surface to volume proportion, various polymeric fibrous nano materials have been developed as simulated extracellular matrix. Using ES nanofibers of natural polymers (NPs) and synthetic polymers (SPs) as simulated extracellular matrix for tissue regeneration, a comprehensive investigation identified five basic kinds of nanofibrous polymers. NP–NP composites, NP–SP composites, SP–SP composites, cross-linked, and modified polymers with mineral materials are some of the polymers available [19]. Polycaprolactone (PCL), polylactic acid (PLA), poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) are some of prevalent well-known synthetic polymers [20, 21].
In recent years, a variety of processing technologies have been utilized in the manufacture of polymeric fibrous nano materials, including drawing, 3D printing, template synthesis, phase separation, self-assembly, ES, and so on. Synthetic ES nanofibrous materials processing allows for internal control of the electrospinning mechanism and foster chemical crosslinking to generate covalent connections between polymeric fibers. In either in situ electrospinning or post-spinning crosslinking, this manipulation is done to target qualities of the material of application in which the fibers will be used. Highly porous electrospun nanofibrous membranes, for example, have sparked a lot of interest in water filtering applications. Figure 10 presents some of the common synthetic biomass materials used in ES of nanofibers. The creation of a reduced pore size and its distribution is highly favored by a thicker membrane with a lower mean fiber diameter, albeit the influence of membrane thickness is rather restricted. A high flux microfiltration (MF) sheath was fabricated based on efficient control of the total composite structure containing the electrospun layer thickness of 200 ± 10 m and a mean fiber diameter of 100 ± 20 nm [22].
Figure 10.
Synthetic polymers used in electrospinning of nanofibrous materials.
A previous study looked at the spinnibility of various polymers, such as aqueous poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) dispersed in alcohol-to-water mixtures. Fiber production was found to be possible with viscosities ranging from 1 to 20 poises and superficial tensions of 35−55 dynes/cm. Electrospinning, however, was not feasible at viscosities more than 20 poises due to flow instability produced by the solution’s high cohesiveness [23].
3.1.1 Natural flora waste biomass for electrospinning: material technology of the future
Spongy pomelo peels, rice husk, rice straw, sugar cane bagasse, coffee beans, coconut shells, and peanut shells have all been investigated as alternative sources of carbonaceous materials from biomass. In comparison to other carbonaceous precursors, these and other natural plant/floral biomass resources have grown increasingly appealing due to their availability, low cost, easy accessibility, and environmental friendliness. As a result, floral biomass has gotten a lot of attention in the electrospinning, biomedical, and energy storage fields [24]. Okara, soy pulp, or tofu dregs, for example, is a pulp made up of insoluble components of the soybean that remain after pureed soybeans are filtered for soy milk and tofu manufacture. Recent reviews have reported on the feasibility of ES fibrous nano materials made from a variety of decomposable and biocompatible matter, including natural proteins like floral and faunal collagen, gelatin, silk, chitosan, and alginate [25].
The preparation of the waste floral/plant biomass for ES of nanofibrous materials involves a number of steps that extract plant proteins in the insoluble parts of the waste biomass. Silk fibroin (SF), for example, is made by degumming raw silk fibers twice with a 0.5% (W/W) NaHCO3 base medium at 100°C, over half an hour period followed by rinsing with warm dH2O. At 70°C for 6 h, degummed silk (SF) is dispersed in a ternary aqueous medium of calcium chloride-ethanol-water (1:2:8 in molar ratio). The SF was filtered and lyophilized after 3 days of dialysis using cellulose hollow sheath (250-7u; Sigma) in dH2O to get the regenerated SF sponges. Dispersing the SF sponges in 98% methanoic acid (Aldrich) for 3 h makes SF solutions. The molar quantities of SF solutions for electrospinning range from 3% to 15% by weight [26].
Extracted silk fibroin was used to prepare silk electrospinning as presented in Figure 11. Electrospun SF nanofibers with varied silicon fibroin concentrations of 3%, 6%, 9%, and 12% are shown in SEM micrographs. The most prevalent natural polymers used as ES nanofiber materials include chitosan, collagen, gelatin and silk [20, 21]. Natural polymer nanofibers present distinguished features like biodegradability and biocompatibility, a phenomenon that makes them suitable materials in biological environments. Figure 12 presents some of the abundant natural polymers adapted for ES nanofibers production. Chitin and its over 50% deacetylated derivative, chitosan, for example, are commonly used natural polysaccharides as scaffolds. Blending with other materials are thus required to tailor-make materials with a set of acceptable features and attributes in order to achieve a stronger composite. Chitin/silk fibroin (chitin/SF) nanofibers, for example, were used to make novel ECM scaffolds [27].
Figure 11.
SEM micrographs of electrospun SF nanofibers with concentration of (a) 3%, (b) 6%, (c) 9%, and (d) 12% [26].
Figure 12.
Natural polymers used in electrospinning of nanofibrous materials.
Biocompatibility and biological activity are two characteristics of natural polymers. However, these polymers have some drawbacks, such as engineering and processing difficulties due to poor mechanical strength, restricted processing and manufacturing capacities, batch-to-batch variability, and the possibility of pathogen transmission [20]. Collagen and proteoglycans, for example, make up the majority of the body’s natural extracellular matrices (ECMs), which vary in composition depending on tissue type. Nanofibrous scaffolds made of collagen fused with glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), the major constituent of proteoglycans like condroitin sulfates and hyaluronic acid, are suitable for creating a perfect scaffold that mimics the natural ECM. Collagen and GAGs’ utility, on the other hand, has been limited because of their exorbitant price and poor mechanical qualities. In biomedical applications, this phenomenon can be addressed by fusing natural polymers such as proteins polymeric strands and polysaccharides fibrous materials, which can improve biotic transformation of cells and accelerate tissue development [27].
Most of the insoluble floral biomass is in the form of lignocellulosic and chitin material. The success of tapping into the floral biomass as a resource for ES of nanofibrous material depends on the ability to depolymerize the lignin and chitin long polymer chains. It is these polymers that will be used for ES processes to produce electrospun nanofibers. Recently, there has been renewed interest in producing carbon fibers from sustainable cellulosic precursors [28]. The abundance and cost effectiveness of cellulose as a material generator, as well as the relatively ecologically friendly fiber production methods used preceded this interest. Recent research on regenerated cellulose fibers from a fluid crystalline fabrication route as a carbon fiber precursor generated strands with a modulus of 140 GPa for the shell area and 40 GPa for the core area, indicating that CNFs resulting from nano-sized cellulosic precursors are even more competent as physical reinforcement than micron-sized fibers; because of their reduced diameters, providing a greater surface area for bonding and stress transfer [29].
3.1.2 Natural fauna waste biomass for electrospinning: material technology of the future
Animal manure, agricultural residues, organic portion of municipal solid garbage, industrial waste biomass, and natural vegetation cycle waste are all examples of enormous amounts of organic waste produced by many sectors. Similarly, fauna waste biomass, primarily in the form of keratin, a durable, fibrous protein found in advanced vertebrates (mammals, birds, and reptiles) and human epithelial cells, has been widely employed in ES for the creation of nanofibrous materials. Millions of tons of keratin-containing biomass are produced by the food business, particularly the meat market, slaughterhouses, and wool manufacturers. These sectors are rapidly expanding, with the United States, Brazil, and China accounting for more than 40 million tons of fauna-based biomass annually [30]. Inadequate management of these organic wastes can harm the environment by polluting water and air, lowering people’s quality of life [31].
If controlled with scientific interventions, organic waste no longer persists as garbage, but instead becomes a rich source of substrate, polymers, and molecules for the production of a variety of value ES nanofibrous products [32]. Detailed studies explored potential applications of the fauna generated organic waste in the production of biogas for energy production. Human waste is disposed of as sewage in the form of biological wastewater. Technological advances unravelled biological wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) as an approach to converting biomass into rich materials for precursor molecules for polymerization in ES nanofibrous material fabrication or for energy production [33]. Fauna waste biomass in the form of dung (Figure 13), piggery or fowl wastewater treatment with purple phototrophic bacteria was explored as a promising platform for electrospinning biomass resource recovery process under optimized operational conditions [34].
Figure 13.
Fauna biomass: cow dung is co-digested with sewage for production of gas in an anaerobic bio digester.
It is important to note that fauna waste biomass is a natural phenomenal bio digestive process of converting lignocellulosic and chitin organic biomass and transform it into shorter chains of polysaccharides and other polymeric substrates for ES nanofibrous materials production. Anaerobic bio digestion followed by catalytic polymerization of biogas molecules such as methane, ethane and propane, will produce tailor-made polymeric materials that may be used in electrospinning production of carbon nanofibrous materials. Figure 14 is an advanced industrial scale bio digestion plant for production of biogas.
Figure 14.
Sewage treatment plant for gas production.
Bio digestion of fauna waste biomass is a significant alternative supply of materials for electrospinning of nanofibrous materials when modern methods are used. Previous research on bio digestion of fauna waste biomass for methane production found that the influence of pre-treatment results in a substantial increase in gas production of up to 67%, with a 52% methane content in the biogas. As a result, it was determined that pretreatment of both feed and biomass improves biogas output but not methane content [35]. According to recent studies, the valorization of bio or organic waste is being prioritized in order to tackle the rapid accumulation of waste generated from food production activities, as well as to create sustainable feedstock for industrial materials and chemicals in place of fossils and synthetic materials (see Section 3.1). Biogas, compost, and small platform molecules are currently produced from biowaste via anaerobic bio digestion, fermentation, and thermo-chemical methods as shown in Figure 15. There are currently no commercial low-temperature chemical methods for valorizing organic lignin fractions as feedstock for modified compounds. Thus, research has been conducted to fill this technological gap, demonstrating that moderate thermal hydrolysis of municipal bio-waste manure reserve is a safe, environmentally sustainable, and affordable process for transforming lignin-like material from compost into value-added specialty chemicals for the production of ES nanofibrous materials (Figure 15) [37].
Figure 15.
Auger/screw pyrolysis reactor concept using heat carrier [36].
Biomass is a readily available and long-lasting ES material that may be turned into carbon based smart energy storage device and other uses. For carbon nanofiber manufacture, many strategies were used to meet various goals, including an increased productivity, easy dimensional parameters manipulation, energy efficient, and a high turnover. Nonetheless, several critical features of biomass-based fibrous carbon nano materials are yet to be extensively studied, thus information gaps still exist for each process to be supplied. As a result, more research is needed to expand our knowledge of the essential characteristics of various processes in order to generate highly desirable precursor materials for ES fibrous carbon nano materials manufacture from organic matter for sustainable materials manufacturing and energy smart storage applications [38].
An example of fauna waste biomass material rich in extractable materials for ES nanofibers materials is feathers from the poultry industry. Chicken feathers, comprises 90% raw keratin protein and 70% amino acids, can be employed as one of the primary sources for extracting keratin. Keratin is used in a variety of industries, including biotechnology, waste management, cosmetics, and medicine [39]. Waste feathers can be converted into keratin in a cost-effective and environmentally beneficial manner. Keratin is an insoluble protein of the cytoskeletal element with a size of 8–10 nm that belongs to a group known as intermediate filaments (IFs). Keratin is a fibrous protein with a helical structure, as seen in Figure 16, and is the ecosystem’s third most prevalent natural biomass polymer after chitin and cellulose [41].
Figure 16.
An α-helix and β-pleated sheet keratin and the molecular structure [40].
Electrospun fibers fabricated from waste biomass sources has resulted in manufacturability of bioactive electrospun nanofibers and has been reported as potential drug delivery agents [42], wound dressing with antibacterial activity, filtration, cosmetics, protective clothing, electrical applications [43] catalysis [44], food industry [44], facial mask [45], and smart energy storage devices, such as supercapacitors as illustrated in Figure 17.
Figure 17.
Applications of nanofibers in different fields for day to day activities.
Natural biopolymer electrospun products are made up of ultrafine fibers that are reusable, nontoxic, biocompatible, biodegradable and antibacterial properties. The fibers have been reported to possess excellent physical and chemical characteristics such as high degrees of crystallinity, aspect ratio, large specific surface area, number of surface hydroxyl groups, thermal resistance and excellent mechanical properties [45, 46]. However, the substantial chemical and energy consumption associated with the isolation of macro-sized fibers to nano-sized fibers creates manufacturing hurdles for waste bioactive electrospun nanofibers [46]. As a result, findings on waste bioactive electrospun nanofibers are still in their infancy in the literature [46].
4.1 Biomedical product
In the biomedical field, literature reports on manufactured products made from biomass electrospun fibers range from medication delivery agents to biomaterials [42], wound dressing with antibacterial activity, facial mask [45], and tissue regenerative biomedical applications as presented in Figure 18.
Figure 18.
Illustration of various applications of bioactive electrospun fibers in the biomedical field [43].
The ultrafine fibers have been previously reported to result in high-performance filters and applicability in facial masks [45, 47]. Various ultrafine fiber filters have been created that can filter particles larger than 10 nm with excellent efficiency. Spider-web network filters are described in the literature as having a combination of extremely efficient, long-range electrostatic property, low air resistance, and great transparency [45, 47]. Viruses can be blocked by ultrafine fiber filters [47]. Irrespective of the challenges associated with the fabrication of bioactive electrospun fibers products. The choice of polymer used aid in fabricating fibers with antimicrobial activities [45].
Figure 19a presents a typical electrospinning technology. Choice of polymer, concentration, flow rate, needle, and tip-to-collector distance all affect fiber quality. Figure 19b shows various types of electrospun fibers. The structure of a hybrid filter that works as both a filter and a hydrophobic layer is shown in Figure 19c and d.
Figure 19.
(a) Scheme of electrospinning technology. (b) Various SEM images of electrospun nanofibers. (c) Scheme of generally utilized masks. (d) The proposed structure of electrospun ultrafine fibrous masks.
Facial masks constructed from electrospun biomass possess key characteristic performance features that has the potential to outcompete with the masks in the market. Advantages of biomass electrospun masks vary from the transparent, reusability, antiviral, degradable smart masks that possess filtration, thermal stability, and water resistance [45]. The facial mask technique has a wide range of possible uses, including filtration systems in water treatment, protective garments, and cosmetics [45].
As a result of the structure and bioactivity of loaded pharmaceuticals remaining unaltered during the spinning process, electrospun drug-delivery agents drew interest. They also reduced in vitro drug burst release and can contain a range of biomolecules [48]. Drug delivery agents fabricated from all forms of cellulose polymer results in drug delivery systems that are hydrophilic, eco-friendly, bio-degradable, and biocompatible [42].
4.2 Renewable energy products
Incorporation of NPs, natural biomass onto the polymer through the electrostatic interaction between their functional groups has a stabilizing effect on NPs [44, 49]. These electrospun catalyst found application in catalysis, supercapacitors, corrosion inhibition, and within the food industry natural polymers [44, 49].
Carbon-based supercapacitors with a large interactive surface and high permeability have sparked interest in natural floral and faunal waste materials, owing to the growing ecological consciousness. Electrospun cellulose-based supercapacitors are still in the laboratory stage, despite their rich carbon abundance of roughly 44%, great stability, and exceptional permeability linked with its hierarchical conformation and exceedingly efficient rigid lateral chains in cellulose [49]. The energy density of cellulose-based supercapacitors is low [49]. Hence the poor electrical performance and cell voltage. Another limitation is time consumption associated with economic factor in the optimization stage of cellulose electrospun mats.
As an alternate technique for increasing the electrochemical properties of lignin/cellulose nanofiber electrodes, creating compound electrode materials with a lignin/cellulose backbone can be used to address these constraints [49, 50]. Literature presented flexibility, wide surface area, outstanding mechanical flexibility, and particularly good electrical conductivity, composite nanofibers and ES activated carbon fiber network (ACFN) as attributes to improved performance. When employed as supercapacitor electrodes, they have a high electrical performance, a phenomenon attributed to their pseudo-capacitance [51, 52]. As a result, ACFNs lignin/cellulose nanofiber composites could be an attractive electrode material for biomass-based flexible supercapacitors [49]. Furthermore, when the electrolyte penetrates the micropores of the electrospun mats, as shown in Figure 20, the characteristics of the electrospun biomass composites can be adjusted, allowing for the wettability feasible with the preferred electrolyte [53].
Figure 20.
Supercapacitive cell with thin film-coated carbon powder-based electrodes and free-standing and flexible flexible carbon nanofiber electrodes in conjunction with a polymer electrolyte [50].
In aqueous electrolytes, heteroatoms have been reported to enhance wettability of carbonaceous surfaces [54]. Lignin has a lot of oxygen functional groups and a lot of active hydrophilic surface. However, biomass-derived ECNF p-doped performed worse relative to the commercial CF. The lower performance could be attributable to the starting material’s higher number of oxygen functional groups. P-doping has been reported to block micro/mesopores, reduce conductivity and electron transport [50]. Jet viscosity of the polymer was not measured, as such further research still has to be done.
As a result, environmentally friendly biomass electrospun fibers with improved performance in working electrochemical devices have demonstrated that the fabrication of future smart energy storage materials will be ecologically viable, providing a completely green alternative to the powering of transportation and conventional storage [50].
4.3 Electrical products
The versatility of waste biomass electrospun fibers, as well as their controllable physical and chemical properties, make them a model technique for electrode fabricating and flow media for a variable of smart energy devices, with the ability to reduce mass transport and activate overpotentials, thereby increasing competence [50]. Natural biomass is being used as a polymer of choice because of its capacity to infuse sustainable principles in electrochemical device materials. This also contributes to their capacity to increase the use of renewable electricity through their application [50]. Lignin is a waste by-product derived from natural flora that has been documented to exist in three different types: Different molecular weights and mechanical and thermal stabilities of kraft (KL), ethanol organosolvents (EOL), and phosphoric acid lignin (PL) [50]. For vanadium redox couples, electrospun carbon nanofibers produced from PL and KL at 9 kV demonstrated excellent cyclic voltammetry electrochemical performance. Figure 20 clearly illustrates potential electrical products that can be fabricated from waste biomass electrospun fibers. Redox flow batteries (RFBs), fuel cells, and metal air batteries are some of the potential products shown in Figure 20 [50]. The use of electrospun material in RFBs is still in its infancy and requires further development. Nonetheless, the improved redox couple’s catalytic activity of waste biomass electrospun fibers provides an alternate solution to commercial electrodes’ high overpotential when discharge current density is large [50].
Electrospun fibers made from waste biomass have the potential to be used in redox flow batteries because they form microstructures with large surface areas and mass transport qualities in the electrodes. Similarly, improved biomass electrospun fiber applicability in fuel cells and metal air batteries offers a conductive-advanced structure for the gas diffusion layers that can dope and/or support catalytic nanoparticles, as well as electrochemically active fibers [50].
5. Conclusion and future works
The advancement of electrospinning (ES) technologies and the industrial production of ES fibrous carbon nano materials to suit or facilitate different bioeconomic uses was aided by technical innovation. It may be inferred that the capacity to change the electrospinning assembly in various ways, in order to combine different materials with a wide variety of properties as well as incorporate active elements, will have a substantial impact on the production of materials in the future. By combining essential concepts from traditional fiber manufacturing techniques with nanotechnology, the performance of electrospinning technology and the quality of nanofibers can be increased. In comparison to other carbonaceous precursors, natural flora and fauna waste biomass for future electrospinning material technology has become increasingly appealing due to its abundance, low cost, easy accessibility, and environmental friendliness. Most of the insoluble floral biomass is in the form of lignocellulosic and chitin material while the soluble biomass is in the form of proteins and polysaccharides. Fauna waste biomass is mainly in the form of keratin. Millions of tons of keratin biomass are produced by industry, particularly the meat market, slaughterhouses, and wool manufacturers. The determination of marketable low thermal chemical procedures to valorize bio and organic waste lignin fractions as feedstock for commercial chemicals will be the focus of future work aimed at advancing electrospinning materials.
\n',keywords:"electrospinning, biomass, nanofibrous, material mimicking, electrospraying, scaffold, nanostructures",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81611.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81611.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81611",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81611",totalDownloads:27,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 30th 2021",dateReviewed:"February 7th 2022",datePrePublished:"May 2nd 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 2nd 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The development and advancement of electrospinning (ES) presents a unique material technology of the future achieved by fabricating novel nanofibrous materials with multifunctional physical (three-dimensional [3D] structure, nanoscalable sizes) and chemical characteristics (functional groups). Advancing the possibility of preparing various classes of novel organic and inorganic electrospun fiber composites with unique features such as polymer alloys, nanoparticles (NPs), active agents, and devices. This feature gives provision for internal access of the setup parameters such as polymer precursor material, polymer concentration, solvent, and the method of fiber collection that consequentially improves the intrinsic control of the construction mechanism of the final nanofibrous architecture. In synthetic electrospinning, the nanofibrous material processing allows for internal control of the electrospinning mechanism and foster chemical crosslinking to generate covalent connections between polymeric fibers. Comparing technologies according to materials of the future revealed that electrospinning supports the formation of micro-scale and in some cases nano-scale fibers while the formation of thin films is facilitated by the electrospraying system. Recent innovations point to various biomass waste streams that may be used as an alternative source of polymeric materials for application in electrospinning to produce materials for the future.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81611",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81611",signatures:"Farai Dziike, Phylis Makurunje and Refilwe Matshitse",book:{id:"11127",type:"book",title:"Electrospinning - Material Technology of the Future",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Electrospinning - Material Technology of the Future",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Tomasz Arkadiusz Tański",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11127.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-343-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-342-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-344-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"15700",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz Arkadiusz",middleName:null,surname:"Tański",slug:"tomasz-arkadiusz-tanski",fullName:"Tomasz Arkadiusz Tański"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Advances in electrospinning technology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Waste biomass feedstock for electrospinning nanofibers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Synthetic waste biomass",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1 Natural flora waste biomass for electrospinning: material technology of the future",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2 Natural fauna waste biomass for electrospinning: material technology of the future",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Innovative waste biomass-sourced electrospun products",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1 Biomedical product",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2 Renewable energy products",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.3 Electrical products",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Conclusion and future works",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Kchaou M, Alquraish M, Abuhasel K, Abdullah A, Ali AA. 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Technology Transfer and Innovation Directorate, Durban University of Technology, South Africa
Department of Chemistry, Rhodes University, South Africa
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Meanwhile, decision-making periods of location choice and determining areal densities are conducted without quantitative spatial/technical analyses. Those urban matters bring along new planning paradigms like smart growth (SG) and new urbanism. SG is a land use planning paradigm which indicates that traffic problems should be minimized by transit alternatives, effective demand management and providing a balance between land use and transportation planning. This study aims to apply SG strategies to the land use planning process and evaluate the accuracy of land use planning decisions in the perspective of sustainable transportation. In order to reveal the effects of land use planning decisions on the available transportation infrastructure, two scenarios are investigated for 2030. In the first scenario “do nothing” option is considered, while the residential area densities and trip generation rates are regulated based on SG strategies in the second scenario. 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He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11570",title:"Influenza - New Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11570.jpg",hash:"157b379b9d7a4bf5e2cc7a742f155a44",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 10th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"139889",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Shamsadin",surname:"Athari",slug:"seyyed-shamsadin-athari",fullName:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11569",title:"Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Infections - New Findings, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11569.jpg",hash:"069d6142ecb0d46d14920102d48c0e9d",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 31st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"189561",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela Laura",surname:"Vica",slug:"mihaela-laura-vica",fullName:"Mihaela Laura Vica"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11568",title:"Staphylococcal Infections - Recent Advances and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11568.jpg",hash:"92c881664d1921c7f2d0fee34b78cd08",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 8th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"59719",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Bustos-Martínez",slug:"jaime-bustos-martinez",fullName:"Jaime Bustos-Martínez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"435274",title:null,name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid Khan",slug:"muhammad-shahid-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Shahid Khan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Islamia University of Bahawalpur",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"11",type:"subseries",title:"Cell Physiology",keywords:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease, Free Radicals, Tumor Metastasis, Antioxidants, Essential Fatty Acids, Melatonin, Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology",scope:"
\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
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He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79615/images/system/79615.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"84459",title:"Prof.",name:"Valerie",middleName:null,surname:"Chappe",slug:"valerie-chappe",fullName:"Valerie Chappe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/84459/images/system/84459.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalhousie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{},publishedBooks:{},testimonialsList:[{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/74394",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"74394"},fullPath:"/chapters/74394",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()