Applications of phage/phage components in detection of infectious pathogen and other deadly analytes related to food safety and environmental monitoring, where transduction platform used, target analyte/bacteria, sample processed, and limit of detection are briefed with reported literature.
Abstract
Environmental pollution and food safety are becoming serious concerns to human health in developing countries. To combat such issues, researchers have developed different approaches for on-spot detection and screening of infectious disease, caused by pathogens and toxins in food and water samples. One such approach is the development of phage- and phage-component-based sensors that are highly specific, sensitive, rapid, efficient, cheap, and portable analyte screening platforms. Such sensors overcome the limitations of conventional screening approaches. This chapter highlights different food and environmental contaminations and represents the potential of phage-based biosensor for bacterial detection. It summarizes different applications of phage-based sensors in the fields of food safety and environmental monitoring and highlights current challenges and perspective. In general, this chapter brings together the technologies related to phage-based sensors and food and environmental safety, by compiling the efforts of engineers and scientists from multidisciplinary areas.
Keywords
- bacteriophage
- biosensor
- infectious diseases
- food safety
- environmental monitoring
1. Introduction
Many pathogenic bacteria like
2. Phage-based biosensors for infectious pathogen detection
Bacteriophage as a bio-probe has been used in different transduction platforms for detection of pathogenic bacteria, which are briefed as follows:
2.1 Phage optical biosensors
Optical phage-based sensors owing from their reasonably rapid screening, sensitivity, and flexibility to a broad-ranging assay situations have been extensively explored for bacterial detection. Optical methods are classified into two core subclasses on the basis of their working principles, label-free and labeled. The best frequently used optical methods for bacterial screening are fluorescence spectrometry [8], surface plasmon resonance (SPR) [10], and bio- or chemiluminescence [13]. In the subsequent subsection, our focus is on phage bio-probe-based optical biosensors for detection of pathogens with special emphasis on food safety and environmental monitoring. Figure 1 represents a reporter phage-based optical sensing scheme.
2.1.1 Phage-SPR-based sensors
Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) works on the principle of oscillation phenomenon that happens between the interfaces of any two materials. The change in the refractive index close to the sensor surface caused by contact of target analyte in the medium with the bio-probe (phage) present on transducer surface is measured by SPR biosensors. Phages have been widely immobilized as bio-probes on the surfaces of SPR transducers to offer facility of specific recognition of bacterial detection. The immobilized phage on SPR transducer successfully detected
2.1.2 Phage-bioluminescence sensors
For bacterial quantitative detection in samples, bioluminescence analyses that are rapid, sensitive, and simple are used by assessing the emitted light from intracellular components. Bacterial lysis is the first step of this type assays, to discharge intracellular cell components followed by reaction with luciferase and are screened by bioluminescent. A lytic bacteriophage is involved as a bio-recognition probe for target bacterial detection following lysis. Infectious bacteria like
2.1.3 Phage-SERS-based sensors
An innovative Raman method, i.e., surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), is enhancing the intensity by vibrational absorbance of definite elements when they are near the surface of nano-organized noble metals by the influence of numerous orders of magnitude. The improved intensity of SERS method is dependent on the molecules’ capability to release a Raman signal and the contained fields of plasmon in their neighborhood [21]. For instance, a report stated a phage-SERS biosensor for
Transducer | Phage-based bio-probe | Target bacteria/analyte | Sample | Detection limit | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SPR | T4 phage | PBS | 7 × 102 CFU/mL | [15] | |
T4 phage | PBS | 103 CFU/mL | [17] | ||
BP14 phage | MRSA | PBS | 103 CFU/mL | [17] | |
scFv phages | — | 2.106 CFU/mL | [53] | ||
12,600 phage | — | 104 CFU/mL | [16] | ||
Luminescence | Water | 10 CFU/mL | [7] | ||
SJ2 phage | — | 103 CFU/mL | [20] | ||
Pap1 phage | Milk, urine | 56 CFU/mL | [3] | ||
Lytic phage | — | >104 CFU/mL | [54] | ||
Shfl25875 | Stool | 103 CFU/g | [55] | ||
LFA | B4 phage | Buffer | 1 × 104 CFU/mL | [11] | |
— | 2.5 × 104 CFU/mL | [56] | |||
T7 phage | Broth | 103 CFU/mL | [47] | ||
Fluorescent | P22 phage | Milk | 1 CFU/24 mL | [57] | |
P- | PBS | 2.47 × 103 CFU/L | [58] | ||
Wβ phage | Soil | 104 CFU/g | [50] | ||
O157-IOV 4 | Milk | 4.9 × 104 CFU/mL | [59] | ||
PP01 phage | Apple juice | 1 CFU/mL | [60] | ||
PDPs | TNT | — | 10 μg/mL | [61] | |
T7 phage | LB broth | 10 CFU/mL | [62] | ||
QCM | Filamentous phage | — | 102 CFU/mL | [35] | |
Wild-type | — | 103 CFU/mL | [6] | ||
T4 phage | Milk | Few CFU/mL | [9] | ||
SERS | T4 phage | Buffer | 150 CFU/mL | [22] | |
Phage 12,600 | MRSA | — | — | [63] | |
P9b phage | Clinical samples | 103 CFU/mL | [64] | ||
A511 phage | — | 6.1 × 107pfu/mL | [65] | ||
Magnetoelastic | E2 phage | — | 5 × 102 CFU/mL | [66] | |
JRB7 phage | — | Spores | [67] | ||
E2 phage | Romaine lettuce | 5 × 102 CFU/mL | [68] | ||
Phage | — | 1.5 × 103 CFU/mm2 | [69] | ||
Amperometric | B1-7064 phage | — | 10 CFU/mL | [70] | |
M13 phage | — | 1 CFU/mL | [71] | ||
Impedimetric | T4 phage | — | 104 CFU/mL | [72] | |
T2 phage | Broth | 103 CFU/mL | [73] | ||
Lytic phage | — | 103 CFU/mL | [74] | ||
Water | 103 CFU/mL | [75] | |||
T4 phage | Water, milk | 800 CFU/mL 100 CFU/mL | [76] | ||
Endolysin Ply500 | Milk | 105 CFU/mL | [77] |
2.1.4 Phage-fluorescent sensor
In fluorescent-phage-based sensor techniques, fluorescently stained phages are utilized as marking agents for the detection of bacterial cells. Fluorescently labeled phages are identified followed by binding to specific host bacterial cell. The composite of bacteriophage-bacteria is then sensed by means of flow cytometry or epi-fluorescent filter approach. A combination of immunomagnetic separation with fluorescent method is detected between 10 and 102 CFU/mL of pathogenic bacteria
2.1.5 Phage-colorimetric sensors
Sensing based on changes in color allows the use of simple diagnostic systems like spectrophotometers, or even involving smartphones, and both of them are comparatively common and feasible. Designed colorimetric phage-based biosensors are mostly based and integrated on the utilization of reporter bacteriophages that carry genes coding for reporter enzymes. The foremost colorimetric sensor based on phage was to detect
2.2 Phage-based micromechanical sensors
Representative micromechanical biosensor (magnetoelastic) is expressed in Figure 3, involving E2 phage for detection of
2.2.1 Phage-QCM-based sensors
Quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) sensors are mass-based sensors that are highly sensitive with the ability of detecting nanogram variations in mass. QCM biosensors are functionalized by a very thin piezoelectric film having both sides coated with two conductive electrodes. Mechanical resonance is stimulated by electrical field application through the quartz crystal.
Consequently, QCM-based biosensors could be established to quantify the mass of many target analytes by immobilization of individual bio-probes on the surface of sensor. Phages as bio-probes can be conjugated with QCM biosensors for selective screening of bacterial cells. For instance, physically adsorbed bacteriophages around 3 × 1010 PFU/cm−2 on the surface of piezoelectric transducer provided a very rapid and sensitive platform for
2.2.2 Phage magnetoelastic sensors
Magnetoelastic sensors are prepared from materials having magnetoelastic property, i.e., magnetism and elasticity, and they contract/extend on excitation by alternative-current-magnetic field. The resonance frequency depends on the viscosity/mass adjacent to the surface of the resonating material. Magnetoelastic devices are used for detection of biological and chemical analytes by integration of bio-probes like phages on the biosensor surface and might be functional in gaseous, static, liquid, or flowing condition [21]. Likewise, E2 bacteriophage was genetically modified for specific detection of
2.3 Phage-based electrochemical biosensors
A schematic representation of electrochemical biosensor of nanoflowers—AuNPs and Thi-phage composite—for
2.3.1 Phage-amperometric biosensors
Among the electrochemical detection methods, amperometry has been most commonly used for detection of pathogenic bacteria and offered an improved sensitivity platform related to other electrochemical approaches. Electrochemical amperometric biosensor involves a working electrode (having bio-probe) and a reference electrode. For current production in the analyte sample, a bias potential is passed on these electrodes. The produced current is directly dependent on the degree of electron transfer that fluctuates with changes in analyte’s ionic concentration. Simply, amperometric sensors detect ionic changes in the solution by determining the variations in electric current. Several approaches have been established for detection of foodborne pathogenic bacteria based on phage-amperometric biosensors. Amperometric method integrated with bacteriophage typing was reported to specifically detect bacteria like
2.3.2 Phage impedimetric sensors
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)-based sensors determine the fluctuations in impedance as a result of interactions between bio-probe and the analyte. EIS-based sensors have been utilized for bacterial detection by observing the variations on interface of solution-electrode because of the microbial capture on the biosensor surface. The target analyte binding on the sensor surface typically raises the impedance because of the insulating behavior. Phages have been utilized as a sandwiched cross-linker between bacterial cell and the electrode surface. An effective phage-EIS-based platform was reported for recognition of
3. Phage-based biosensors in food safety and environmental monitoring
Bacteriophage-based biosensors have been established for broad range of applications in food and environmental contaminant detection, for example, pathogens, toxins, and other environmental pollutants. Pathogens causing food contaminations are the supreme common objects of bacteriophage-based biosensors. One more field wherever bacteriophages are utilized as bio-recognition probes is clinical diagnostics of infectious diseases as explained in Section 2. Table 1 sums up various whole phage/phage component-based biosensor applications in food safety, environmental monitoring, and infectious disease diagnosis. As this chapter does not cover all the reported methodical explanations and applications, therefore interested bibliophiles are referred to the latest literature. For potential future on-site applications, few of the most recent phage-based biosensors for pathogen detection in food and water are briefed as follow.
3.1 Food safety
Magnetoelastic (ME) phage-based biosensor was compared with TaqMan-based qPCR for
3.2 Environmental monitoring
For
Similarly, on the basis of phage fluorescent-based detection assays,
4. Other representative applications
Despite the abovementioned applications of phage-based biosensors, Table 1 highlights some other representative applications of phage-based biosensors in detection of pathogenic bacteria, food safety, and environmental monitoring.
5. Conclusions and prospects
Without any doubt, environmental monitoring and food safety are the main universal worries that we humans have to oppose and are constantly struggling to take them over. In this chapter, we evidently demonstrated the applications of reported promising platforms of phage-based sensors in the screening of food- and environment-related contaminants. We reviewed demonstrative phage/phage components applied in sensors’ development for diagnosis of food pollutants specifically comprising pathogens and toxins. By collaboration with engineers and scientists from multidisciplinary area to design a field applicable sensor and make advancements in phage-based sensors for food safety and environmental monitoring, we expect that this chapter might bring together the technologies related to application of phage-based sensors, in food and environmental safety, and infectious disease diagnostics. In short, applications of phage-based biosensors in the fields of food safety, environmental monitoring, and infectious disease diagnostics are vital.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China under Grant 2017YFC1104402 and China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2016M602291), the initial research fund from CSC, and 3551 Project, Optics Valley of China.
Acronyms and abbreviations
antibodies colony-forming units electrochemical impedance spectroscopy enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay horseradish peroxidase isothermal nucleic acid amplification International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Luria-Bertani broth lateral flow assay limit of detection ochratoxin A phosphate-buffered saline polymerase chain reaction plaque-forming unit prostate-specific antigen quartz crystal microbalance quantum dots quantitative polymerase chain reaction receptor-binding proteins single-chain variable fragment staphylococcal enterotoxin B surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy surface plasmon resonance trinitrobenzene trinitrotoluene tetragonal zirconia polycrystal biotin carboxyl carrier protein cellulose-binding module small outer capsid protein magnetoelastic
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