Evolution of the main land uses in the Centre region, between 1995 and 2018.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10188",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Prosthetics and Orthotics",title:"Prosthetics and Orthotics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book consists of two parts: Prosthetics and Orthotics. Over the years there has been rapid development in prostheses and orthoses. Advancement of technology, significant progress in computer components and robotics, and the development of new materials have enabled many people in need to return to useful and practical life. This book provides information for effective clinical decision-making for those working with people who need medical supportive devices. Over two parts, chapters in this volume examine construction methods, applications, and effects of prosthetic and orthotic devices.",isbn:"978-1-83962-901-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-900-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-905-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90812",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"prosthetics-and-orthotics",numberOfPages:144,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"77fd1757d9fb545ad40d0dfa6e865d0b",bookSignature:"Mokhtar Arazpour",publishedDate:"October 20th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10188.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2234,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 1st 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 5th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 4th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 22nd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 23rd 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"179731",title:"Dr.",name:"Mokhtar",middleName:null,surname:"Arazpour",slug:"mokhtar-arazpour",fullName:"Mokhtar Arazpour",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/179731/images/system/179731.jpg",biography:'Dr. Mokhtar Arazpour is an associate professor in the Department of Orthotics and Prosthetics, University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences (USWR), Tehran, Iran, where he also obtained his BS, MSc, and Ph.D. in Orthotics and Prosthetics. The title of his Ph.D. thesis is \\"Design, Construction, and Evaluation of the New Powered Gait Orthosis for Walking in Spinal Cord Injury Patients.\\" Dr. Arazpour’s research interests include lower-limb orthotics, osteoarthritis of knee and hand joints, design and construction of new lower limb orthosis, and walking analysis.',institutionString:"University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"168",title:"Biomedical Engineering",slug:"medicine-biomedical-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"76629",title:"Introductory Chapter: Technology and Orthotics and Prosthetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97696",slug:"introductory-chapter-technology-and-orthotics-and-prosthetics",totalDownloads:137,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Mokhtar Arazpour",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76629",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76629",authors:[{id:"179731",title:"Dr.",name:"Mokhtar",surname:"Arazpour",slug:"mokhtar-arazpour",fullName:"Mokhtar Arazpour"}],corrections:null},{id:"76822",title:"Prosthetics for Lower Limb Amputation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95593",slug:"prosthetics-for-lower-limb-amputation",totalDownloads:501,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Chapter will include a brief note on Amputation, Particularly Lower Limb Amputation (LLA), Levels and Causes of LLA. Importance of Prosthetics for LLA are explained in detail. The types of Prosthesis, Application (Donning & Doffing) of prosthesis are included in this chapter. Diagrammatic representation of the prosthesis are added too. Bio mechanical component is explained in detail within this chapter. The advantages and disadvantages of each and every Lower limb Prosthesis are clearly mentioned. Moreover, the Gait analysis & Training after the application of prosthesis are discussed. The reader will get a complete picture of Prosthetics for Lower limb Amputation by going through this chapter for lower limb prosthesis.",signatures:"P. Senthil Selvam, M. Sandhiya, K. Chandrasekaran, D. Hepzibah Rubella and S. Karthikeyan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76822",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76822",authors:[{id:"331985",title:"Prof.",name:"P. Senthil",surname:"Selvam",slug:"p.-senthil-selvam",fullName:"P. Senthil Selvam"},{id:"332605",title:"Dr.",name:"M.",surname:"Sandhiya",slug:"m.-sandhiya",fullName:"M. Sandhiya"},{id:"332606",title:"Dr.",name:"K.",surname:"Chandrasekaran",slug:"k.-chandrasekaran",fullName:"K. Chandrasekaran"},{id:"332607",title:"Dr.",name:"S.",surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"s.-karthikeyan",fullName:"S. Karthikeyan"},{id:"332609",title:"Dr.",name:"D.",surname:"Hepzibah Rubella",slug:"d.-hepzibah-rubella",fullName:"D. Hepzibah Rubella"}],corrections:null},{id:"74805",title:"Audio-Vestibular Neurosensory Prosthetics: Origins, Expanding Indications and Future Directions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95592",slug:"audio-vestibular-neurosensory-prosthetics-origins-expanding-indications-and-future-directions",totalDownloads:296,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Approximately one-third of persons over 65 years are affected by disabling hearing loss. It is estimated that the number of people with disabling hearing loss will grow to 630 million by 2030 and maybe over 900 million by 2050. Deafness has significant consequences on many aspects of an individual’s life, including their socioeconomic status, mental and physical well-being, educational and employment opportunities. When congenital or early in the developmental years, deafness results in a delay or loss of language acquisition. Deafness can result from damage or disease anywhere along the auditory pathway. Hearing prosthetic devices help restore hearing and the use of these devices depends on the degree and type of hearing loss. This chapter will give a brief account of the currently available prosthetic hearing solutions.",signatures:"Ashish Castellino and Mohan Kameswaran",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74805",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74805",authors:[{id:"276057",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohan",surname:"Kameswaran",slug:"mohan-kameswaran",fullName:"Mohan Kameswaran"},{id:"332158",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashish",surname:"Castellino",slug:"ashish-castellino",fullName:"Ashish Castellino"}],corrections:null},{id:"74125",title:"Design and Fabrication of Prosthetic and Orthotic Product by 3D Printing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94846",slug:"design-and-fabrication-of-prosthetic-and-orthotic-product-by-3d-printing",totalDownloads:401,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the clinical field, 3D Printing producing is a progressive innovation for various applications, specifically on account of its capacity to customize. From bioprinting to the making of clinical items, for example, inserts, prostheses, or orthoses, it is having a significant effect. Given that there are many energizing activities and organizations in every one of these territories today we will present to you a positioning of the best 3D printed orthoses. Dissimilar to prostheses that supplant a non-existent piece of the body, orthoses are clinical gadgets that are made to settle, soothe, immobilize, control, or right a piece of the body. Since every patient is unique, 3D printing is especially appropriate for these kinds of items and gadgets. Requiring an orthotic or prosthetic item likely methods a work concentrated, tedious, and chaotic procedure. For makers, creating great fitting orthotic and prosthetic gadgets is costly and requires profoundly gifted staff. Patients can anticipate that to a lesser degree a hold up should get their gadget, fewer fittings, and improved sturdiness. Developing a comfortable, properly fitting prosthesis is not just a science, it is also an art. 3D printing has the power to take today’s bespoke, artisanal manufacturing process and transform it into a highly repeatable and consistent process, which ultimately results in more effective clinics and better patient outcomes.",signatures:"Harish Kumar Banga, Parveen Kalra, Rajendra M. Belokar and Rajesh Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74125",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74125",authors:[{id:"266986",title:"Dr.",name:"Harish Kumar",surname:"Banga",slug:"harish-kumar-banga",fullName:"Harish Kumar Banga"},{id:"266990",title:"Prof.",name:"Parveen",surname:"Kalra",slug:"parveen-kalra",fullName:"Parveen Kalra"},{id:"266991",title:"Prof.",name:"Rajendra.M",surname:"Belokar",slug:"rajendra.m-belokar",fullName:"Rajendra.M Belokar"},{id:"266993",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",surname:"Kumar",slug:"rajesh-kumar",fullName:"Rajesh Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"73928",title:"Impact of Self-Selected Customized Orthotics on Lower Limbs Biomechanics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94233",slug:"impact-of-self-selected-customized-orthotics-on-lower-limbs-biomechanics",totalDownloads:150,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Customized insoles are commonly prescribed to prevent or treat a variety of foot pathologies and to reduce foot and lower limb fatigue. Due to the patient-specific design and production of such orthotics, the concept of self-selected customized orthotics (SSCO) has recently been developed. The goal of this study was to assess the impact of SSCO technology on several physiological and biomechanical variables during uphill power walking. Thirty male participants underwent an uphill power walking intervention at constant speed in two insoles conditions (control and SSCO). The electromyographic (EMG) activity of their right gastrocnemii and vastii muscles was measured. Perceived fatigue was assessed every 5 minutes and the intervention stopped when the targeted fatigue level was reached. Baseline and post-intervention assessments were also performed. Sixty-three percent of the participants experienced an improvement in foot fatigue while wearing the SSCO. The foot arch seemed to collapse less when participants wore the SSCO, but statistical significance was not reached. The changes in mean EMG activity was not consistent between the 50% isometric contraction and the walking trial. In conclusion, while some interesting trends were observed when wearing SSCO, further investigations should be performed to try and reach statistical significance.",signatures:"Benjamin Dourthe, Judith Osterloh, Vinzenz Von Tscharner, Sandro Nigg and Benno M. Nigg",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73928",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73928",authors:[{id:"326765",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Benjamin",surname:"Dourthe",slug:"benjamin-dourthe",fullName:"Benjamin Dourthe"},{id:"338265",title:"Dr.",name:"Judith",surname:"Osterloh",slug:"judith-osterloh",fullName:"Judith Osterloh"},{id:"338266",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinzenz",surname:"Von Tscharner",slug:"vinzenz-von-tscharner",fullName:"Vinzenz Von Tscharner"},{id:"338267",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandro",surname:"Nigg",slug:"sandro-nigg",fullName:"Sandro Nigg"},{id:"338268",title:"Dr.",name:"Benno",surname:"M. Nigg",slug:"benno-m.-nigg",fullName:"Benno M. Nigg"}],corrections:null},{id:"74616",title:"Orthoses Development Using Modern Technologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95463",slug:"orthoses-development-using-modern-technologies",totalDownloads:317,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of this study was to design, manufacture and verify orthoses using innovative methods. 3D scanning, additive manufacturing and CAD/CAM software are applied during the development process. Target group of the study are subjects with insufficient gripping and manipulating functions of the arm and forearm. Positives are obtained using a hand-held 3D scanner Artec Eva. Specific 3D scanning methodology is applied during this process. Individual orthoses are designed in an open-source CAD software Meshmixer and manufactured by FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) additive technology from a biocompatible plastic material. All models are inspected and verified in an analysis software VGStudio MAX. Given methodology can be used not only for this specific purpose, but also for orthosis development in general.",signatures:"Branko Štefanovič, Mária Danko, Monika Michalíková, Lucia Bednarčíková, Viktória Rajťúková, Teodor Tóth, Marianna Trebuňová, Radovan Hudák and Jozef Živčák",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74616",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74616",authors:[{id:"13087",title:"Prof.",name:"Jozef",surname:"Zivcak",slug:"jozef-zivcak",fullName:"Jozef Zivcak"},{id:"145701",title:"Dr.",name:"Radovan",surname:"Hudak",slug:"radovan-hudak",fullName:"Radovan Hudak"},{id:"331536",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Branko",surname:"Štefanovič",slug:"branko-stefanovic",fullName:"Branko Štefanovič"},{id:"342908",title:"Mrs.",name:"Mária",surname:"Danko",slug:"maria-danko",fullName:"Mária Danko"},{id:"342909",title:"Ms.",name:"Monika",surname:"Michalíková",slug:"monika-michalikova",fullName:"Monika Michalíková"},{id:"342910",title:"Mrs.",name:"Lucia",surname:"Bednarčíková",slug:"lucia-bednarcikova",fullName:"Lucia Bednarčíková"},{id:"342911",title:"Ms.",name:"Viktória",surname:"Rajťúková",slug:"viktoria-rajtukova",fullName:"Viktória Rajťúková"},{id:"342912",title:"Mr.",name:"Teodor",surname:"Tóth",slug:"teodor-toth",fullName:"Teodor Tóth"},{id:"342913",title:"Mrs.",name:"Marianna",surname:"Trebuňová",slug:"marianna-trebunova",fullName:"Marianna Trebuňová"}],corrections:null},{id:"76777",title:"Orthoses in Conservative Management of Cerebral Palsy and Rehabilitation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97941",slug:"orthoses-in-conservative-management-of-cerebral-palsy-and-rehabilitation",totalDownloads:265,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cerebral palsy is the developmental and postural disorder that combines a group of conditions/disease (neuromuscular), occurs in the developing fetal or infant brain, affects movement and intelligence that are ascribed to non-progressive disturbances. Orthotics is the branch of modern health science and rehabilitation that deals with assessment, prescription, fabrication, fitment, and purposeful gait training to the individual who needs orthosis for optimal independence. Orthoses are external devices that applied to increase function, prevent contracture and deformity, maintain the limbs in a functional position, stabilize the segments of the body, support the weak muscle and its functions, increase motor control, reduce spasticity, protect the limbs, and body segments in the postoperative condition.",signatures:"Akshay Kumar and Vinita",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76777",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76777",authors:[{id:"338087",title:"Mr.",name:"Akshay",surname:"Kumar",slug:"akshay-kumar",fullName:"Akshay Kumar"},{id:"355693",title:"Ms.",name:"Vinita",surname:".",slug:"vinita-.",fullName:"Vinita ."}],corrections:null},{id:"76832",title:"Satisfaction with Orthopedic Treatments",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96090",slug:"satisfaction-with-orthopedic-treatments",totalDownloads:167,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To determine the effectiveness and satisfaction with orthopodologic treatments in users of the University Clinic of podiatry at the University of A Coruña, according to various parameters. After approval from the ethics committee of the University of A Coruña, an observational retrospective study (n = 125). We analyzed the effectiveness and satisfaction with the orthopodologic treatments depending on the reason for consultation, diagnosis, treatment and goals of treatment. We performed a descriptive analysis of all variables collected. The most frequent reason for consultation was for pain of the hindfoot (58.2%).The most frequent diagnosis was plantar fasciitis, followed by metatarsalgia (29.7% vs. 18.6%). The orthotic treatment corrective was the most used (68.5%) with pronation control (52.3%). The majority of patients reported improvement in pain, and a high degree of satisfaction with the treatment used. The profile of the patient who consults the Podiatry clinic for a orthopodologic treatment is that of a man over the age of 50, who consulted for pain of the hindfoot. The most frequent diagnosis is plantar fasciitis and the treatment carried out the corrective for pronation control. The majority of patients used the brace between 4 and 8 hours a day, with a high satisfaction with the treatment and improvement in the evolution of the pain. The degree of satisfaction was significantly associated with age, younger patients more satisfied. The improvement of pain was significantly associated with age, younger patients who show improvement.",signatures:"Cristina Gonzalez-Martin, Sonia Pertega-Diaz, Rocio Seijo-Bestilleiro and Maria Teresa Garcia-Rodriguez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76832",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76832",authors:[{id:"215383",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Gonzalez-Martin",slug:"cristina-gonzalez-martin",fullName:"Cristina Gonzalez-Martin"},{id:"251338",title:"Prof.",name:"Sonia",surname:"Pertega-Diaz",slug:"sonia-pertega-diaz",fullName:"Sonia Pertega-Diaz"},{id:"336771",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Teresa",surname:"Garcia-Rodriguez",slug:"maria-teresa-garcia-rodriguez",fullName:"Maria Teresa Garcia-Rodriguez"},{id:"343148",title:"Dr.",name:"Rocio",surname:"Seijo-Bestilleiro",slug:"rocio-seijo-bestilleiro",fullName:"Rocio Seijo-Bestilleiro"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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The first Portuguese Landscape Architect, Francisco Caldeira Cabral, reflected on how nature conservation should not be seen from a museology perspective, where Man is external to the object of protection. He defended that every person is an integral part of nature conservation by actively participating in protecting natural resources and constructing the landscape.
Since our existence, humankind has established interactive and empirical relationships with the Landscape [2], searching for defensive systems at higher elevations and safeguarding the fertile valleys as food producers essential for survival. But the interaction between Man and the ecosystems is bidirectional, where an action of Man on a particular ecosystem will imply a reaction and an adaptation of the ecosystem [3].
Landscape and land-use planning are intended to plan human interventions that maintain or promote the landscape’s dynamic stability. The stability of the landscape is associated with slow landscape evolutions (pedogenesis), while instability is characterized by rapid changes (morphogenesis) [4]. The balance between morphogenetic and pedogenetic processes is a natural process of the landscape, which can be intensified towards instability by an incorrect action in the territory. The planning of human intervention in the territory in harmony with ecological systems has resulted in preserving natural resources and nature conservation.
The understanding of the functioning of natural systems, or ecosystems, as a support for decision making [5] emerged after the foundation of ecology as a science, in the mid-nineteenth century, by Ernest Haeckel. The evolution of knowledge about the ecological processes in a given territory allowed the development of ecology-based landscape planning methodologies.
Following the Convention on Biological Diversity [6], one of the decisions taken at the fifth Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity [7] was that biodiversity conservation objectives could only be achieved through an ecological-based approach:
Ecological-based methodologies start from the knowledge and spatialization of natural processes that occur in a given territory [8]. With this approach, the most significant areas for ecosystem functioning are identified in the landscape, with various potentialities, and actions are planned without compromising the stability and balance of the landscape. This approach is related to the concept of ecological suitability to the various human activities that do not compromise the proper functioning of ecological processes [9].
The concept of ecological suitability was used in the United States of America and the United Kingdom, using the manual overlay of transparent supports, whose methodologies were refined throughout the 1960s [10]. Other landscape architects followed, such as the work done by Philip Lewis, in 1964, to classify all the environmental resources of the State of Wisconsin, with the purpose of delimiting the areas where building should not be done [11]. The concept of ecological suitability was also considered in McHarg’s [12] and Steiner [13] methodologies with the study of environmental processes and cultural integration in the choice of the best use, according to the intrinsic characteristics of the systems. In Portugal, contemporary with McHarg’s methodology, the Algarve Plan was completed by landscape architects A. Barreto, A. Castelo-Branco and A. Dentinho, with methodologies based on ecological suitability of the Landscape [11].
The adequate planning of the landscape, according to the ecological processes that occur in it, impacts not only the ecological balance but also on the economic and social balance. This type of intervention has the ability, in a cost–benefit analysis, to be the best way to prevent future costs arising from natural disasters (flood prevention, fire risk reduction, mass movement), maintain water quality, ensure greater agricultural productivity, and contribute to the enhancement of urban areas [14]. Of this last point, the study done [15] in the case study of Cologne (Germany) concluded that increasing urban parks by 1%, about 500 meters from housing, leads to the growth of housing sales prices by 0.1%. With a priori protection of natural resources, engineering solutions are less, and the cost is lower [14].
The economic valuation of ecosystems was developed with the emergence of the ecosystem services concept [16] and spread at the beginning of the 21st century with the publications of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Different local scientific and political communities started raising awareness of the importance and benefits of ecosystem services. Several initiatives and methodologies have emerged to quantify these services in monetary value. However, there are sometimes limitations in quantifying an ecosystem service [17].
Ecological-based planning has the added advantage of helping to increase the number or quality of services provided by ecosystems. Inherent in the concept of ecological-based planning is the continuity and ecological network [18]. In fact, landscape connectivity is a component of landscape structure that facilitates or impedes the flows of natural cycles [19]. Those authors believe that it is more critical to establish connectivity than the proximity of areas studied in “island biogeography” [20].
Like nature conservation, the ecological continuity of ecosystems is a broad concept that involves the need to promote continuity between plant and animal species and that of all ecological cycles: water, nutrients, carbon, etc. For this, the planning of these continuities (ecological structures or networks) cannot be disconnected from the function and its “congruent form”, as defined by the landscape architect Francisco Caldeira Cabral [1]. The land-use planning approach advocated, plans the landscape from a biophysical and not only biological perspective [11, 21], where the continuous structures of the landscape are identified and planned according to their function and coherent form.
The importance of connecting nature protection areas, establishing a network or infrastructure has been reinforced [22]. According to this publication, this type of infrastructure, designated by green infrastructure, can mitigate fragmentation and promote the various benefits of maintaining and restoring ecosystems and their services, not only inside Natura 2000 areas.
However, as mentioned above, nature conservation should be understood as a comprehensive and integrative concept of Man and ecological processes, not limited to classified areas (RAMSAR Areas, Biogenetic Reserves, Natura 2000 Network, etc.). Nature conservation will emerge from the correct occupation and use of the Landscape by Man, both in terms of building, forest, woodland and/or agriculture. Therefore, the incorporation of ecological processes in the nature conservation strategy is necessary [23], not forgetting that: (1) ecosystems are spatially and temporally dynamic; (2) ecosystem components interact with each other contributing to biodiversity; (3) ecological processes act as species-selective forces; (4) in highly modified sites ecosystem restoration is a conservation priority.
The concept of structure in landscape architecture is necessarily related to spatialization. In this structure, relationships between ecosystems or elements are expressed [24]. The structure integrates the landscape system’s objective and subjective components, articulating significant features that relate to each other [11]. Infrastructure is a structure that serves as the base for something to be developed. Thus, when we refer to green infrastructure, we are talking about a planned network of structural spaces rather than a network of spaces disconnected from the biophysical structure of the territory. The concept of green infrastructure is broad and varied, but it is considered the one summarized by Naumann [25], whose definition is frequently used:
Green infrastructure planning involves an assessment of the types of natural and cultural resources available and a prioritization of the resources most important to present and future needs [14]. Therefore, a green infrastructure strategy includes the process of identifying, assessing, and prioritizing areas that are critical to preserving a healthy community. In addition to prioritizing areas, there is also a need to implement actions to ensure their conservation [14]. Mapping natural resources are thus the first step in building a green infrastructure map to inform which areas need conservation actions and which need restoration actions.
The European Biodiversity Strategy for 2020 [26] highlighted the importance of using green infrastructures in landscape planning since it can ensure the “best functional connectivity between ecosystems within and between Natura 2000 areas and in the wider countryside” ([27]: 6). The indication in a European document of the importance of ensuring functional connectivity between ecosystems, even outside protected areas, through landscape planning was a crucial step towards elevating nature conservation to a more comprehensive status than protecting particular species. Recently, the European Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 [28], as a core part of the European Green Deal, defines an action plan towards protecting nature and reversing the degradation of ecosystems.
Green infrastructure is also a tool to achieve economic and social benefits through natural solutions. This concept of natural solutions (or nature-based solutions) was further developed by the working groups of the European Commission [27] as a solution inspired, supported or copied from nature. The green infrastructure strategy itself states that “Green infrastructure can make a significant contribution to the effective implementation of all policies where some or all of the desired objectives can be achieved in whole or in part through nature-based solutions.” ([29]: 3).
The scientific community widely refers to ecosystem services as benefits that a population acquires, directly or indirectly, from ecosystem functions [16]. Ecosystem services result from flows of materials, energy, and information from natural capital stocks capable of producing human well-being [16]. Their monetary quantification [30], with specific units [31] or measured through indicators [32] as well as a qualitative assessment [33] has been addressed in the last decades.
These services were categorized into several typologies by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [34]: supporting (services required to produce all other ecosystem services); provisioning (products obtained from ecosystems); regulating (benefits obtained through the regulation of ecosystem processes); and cultural (non-material benefits obtained from ecosystems). The landscape is intended to be one where ecosystem services are provided in balance with the physical structure that supports them, so the various actors dealing with land-use planning must understand the support structure of the landscape.
To contribute to a consistent definition of ecosystem services, Fisher [35] introduces the importance of ecosystems’ structure and their processes and functions. In this approach, ecosystem services are characteristics of ecosystems used directly or indirectly by humans to produce well-being. Accordingly, ecosystem structure is itself a service because it provides a platform for ecosystem processes. Related to this idea, the same authors say that the configuration of ecosystem structure and processes is necessary for the healthy functioning of ecosystems and their services, relating them to the concept of (green) infrastructure. The spatial characteristics of ecosystems are also a way to classify their services, so it will be important in planning to know what services are available and how they flow through the landscape. In this way, it is important to understand the relationships between the production of the service and the place where the benefit occurs, recognizing the dynamic characteristics of ecosystems. In this regard, [35] propose a system for classifying ecosystem services into three categories: (1) in situ (services produced and benefits provided occur at the same location); (2) Omni-directional (where services are provided at a single location, but the benefit occurs in the landscape surrounding the service production with no defined direction); (3) directional - where service provision benefits from a specific location due to the direction of flow.
The Ecosystem services were also an integral part of the European Biodiversity Strategy for 2020 [26]. According to this strategy, ecosystems and their services would be maintained and enhanced by creating green infrastructure and restoring at least 15% of degraded ecosystems. Ecosystem services were then identified through indicators associated with each ecosystem, assessed according to the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services [36]. The European methodologies followed for mapping ecosystems [36] use the interpretation of different land use and land cover classes and relate them to the European Habitat Classification (EUNIS). As a result, the analysis of ecosystem services while assessing land-use mapped ecosystems tends to present itself transformed into an “in situ” category, in the sense of [36], where the production of the service and the benefit are located in the same place. Another consequence of a methodology based on current land use mapping is to assess the use and service regardless of whether it is in an area of greater ecological suitability. Such is the example of forests that are all converted into ecosystems capable of producing the same services regardless of the type of forest species. This is an incorrect approach since it is well known that different forest trees or stands provide different ecosystem services. In Portugal, this is very relevant since most of the forest stands are not native (maritime pine, eucalyptus) providing poorer ecosystem services when compared with native stands (oak).
It is essential to consider that the landscape has different capabilities to provide specific ecosystem services [33], being of a more profound complexity than just an assessment by current land use. The structure of the ecosystem assumes a vital role in supporting the very functioning of the ecosystem. Interestingly, authors such as Burkhard [33] consider that the typology of supporting ecosystem services (defined in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment), is understood as those that ensure ecological integrity. However, supporting services are considered difficult to map [37], and it is considered that the link between supporting services and human well-being occurs indirectly [34]. Therefore, supporting services have received much less attention among four types of ecosystem services. Despite European recommendations to map ecosystems and their services, recent publications have failed to include supporting services [38].
In this sense, it is considered that by mapping green infrastructure, the supportive services are provided in conjunction with other ecosystem services. Incorporating structural components of ecosystems also allows for a complete approach to mapping ecosystems and their services by encompassing the various relationships between the area of production of the service and the site of benefit from that service.
Including ecosystem services in landscape planning will need to go through defining the goal of achieving multiple ecosystem services [39]. However, the function of an ecosystem must be ensured in planning regardless of the benefit it may provide [40]. Maximizing one ecosystem service may jeopardize the balance of all other ecosystem services, as exemplified by Dosskey [39] in the US Green Belt region, where agricultural productivity was put as a priority at the expense of water quality and wildlife. It should be desirable for public policy to seek a degree of multifunctionality across cultural landscapes and to achieve the greatest degree of multifunctionality in green infrastructure [40]. The same author considers that monofunctional landscapes will require greater inputs to continue to provide values and functions and are likely to become unsustainable and require restoration.
Ecosystems are naturally multifunctional, making available services determined by landscape structure [39]. Modifying landscape structure can rebalance the services available. Thus, the landscape planning process will need to include an understanding of the current functioning of the landscape and an assessment of whether changing the landscape structure can affect the ecological functions and services provided [39]. Ecologically based planning aims to define the best use which implicitly includes the best use of natural resources without compromising their existence and their stability in the system [41]. This applies both to landscapes dominated by native vegetation, forming a dense woodland, and to agricultural or production forest areas properly integrated into the landscape and its structure with good management practices and appropriate design.
Ecosystem restoration is often focused on the recovery of a particular plant or animal community, often appearing related to landscape fragmentation [42]. The restoration of an ecosystem, which is itself a complex system, will involve the recovery of the ecological functions of the system. The functions that are easily altered by the degradation of an ecosystem are soil structure, nutrient flow, and water cycling [43]. The restoration of an ecosystem will mainly involve the recovery of the lost functions, because this loss has also contributed to its own degradation:
The ecosystem restoration will involve the recovery of its ecological integrity. The integrity of an ecosystem includes the integrity of the system’s structure and function, the maintenance of its components and its dynamic interactions [44]. From this perspective, any loss of system components leads to a loss of system integrity. According to Forman [45] and Thorn [46] a system with ecological integrity exhibits natural conditions of productivity, biodiversity, soil and water conservation, which are the goal of any sustainable environment [47]. The integrity of an ecosystem includes an adequacy of uses to the ecological characteristics of the system, meeting the dynamic stability of the landscape, making it resilient.
Ecosystem restoration is defined by the Society for Ecological Restoration as the process of supporting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed [48]. These last three states can be equated to various states of morphogenesis, where an imbalance of landscape stability occurs. A morphogenesis ecosystem can be at different levels of imbalance from degradation to complete destruction. When ecosystems are being overexploited or degraded the health of the ecosystem goes into decline as well as its integrity and resilience [49]. This state of decline can be reversed with recovery actions, which in turn lead to ecosystem rebalance in Tricart’s [3] interpretation of dynamic equilibrium. An ecosystem in equilibrium provides a greater number or a higher quality of services.
A Landscape-scale ecosystem restoration involves restoring a set of ecosystems to recover natural and cultural values and ecosystem service flows [49]. Hobbs [50] argues that the recovery of ecosystems should not focus on replicating the conditions prior to disturbance, but should be managed in a future perspective, not forgetting that the landscape is temporally and spatially dynamic. Besides, there are two types of recovery [51]: one in which the goal is the recovery of biotic continuity, and another, corresponding to more severe situations of degradation, will involve the physical recovery of the ecosystem. An example of the latter is the case of the obstruction of a river, where the goal will be to recreate the continuity of water flow. According to those authors, there are thus two thresholds that, if crossed, imply different interventions, the biotic threshold, and the abiotic threshold. The least severe situation of degradation of an ecosystem will thus imply changes in land use.
The ecosystem restoration can integrate cultural values, for example, an agricultural area located on productive soils and with good management practices (including compartmentalization hedges, contour farming) contributes to increased productivity, biodiversity, and soil and water conservation. Designing green infrastructure with planned land uses, consistent with its different ecological characteristics, guarantee the ecosystem’s integrity and allow it to assess restoration needs.
The absence of an ecological-based landscape and land-use plan can have severe consequences in the increase of soil degradation and floods, decrease of biodiversity, and increased fire risk. This landscape degradation is present in several areas of Portugal. Also, a consequence of the set of policies followed since the beginning of the 20th century. In the 1930s, Portugal went through a wheat campaign that destroyed the fertility of the soil. Later, the monoculture campaigns of maritime pine and eucalyptus continue the degradation of the soil and the destruction of the landscape, which we still see happening, especially in the north of the Tagus river, in the Centre and North regions.
The Centre Region (Figure 1) corresponds to a Statistical Territorial Unit (NUT) and comprises about 2,819,936 hectares. This region includes different landscape typologies, such as the southwest western zone with fruit productivity, the coastal zone with low and high coastlines, and an inland zone dominated by maritime pine and eucalyptus in formations of schist and granite. This area is characterized by a rugged relief in the most central location, such as Serra da Estrela, where Rio Mondego begins, the Serra da Lousã and the Serra do Açor. The Natura 2000 network includes 21 Special Areas of Conservation.
Location of the Centre region in Portugal.
In an evaluation of land use from the 1990s to the present, it was possible to understand the evolution of the different land uses (Figure 2 and Table 1). This analysis was done with the interpretation and reclassification of the Land-Use and Land Cover maps produced by DGT (1995, 2007, 2010, 2018) [52]. In this period of 24 years, there is an oscillation of maritime pine, which tends to stabilize at 22%. The percentage of eucalyptus in the central zone has increased since 1995, from 9.7% of the total area, to 17% in 2018, i.e., it has practically doubled. On the other hand, the area occupied by agriculture has decreased since 1995. Native species include cork oak, holm oak, other oaks and also chestnut stands (archaeophyte), and oscillate between the years analyzed, with occupations between 6 and 9%.
Evolution of the main land use classes in the Centre region, between 1995 and 2018 (data base: DGT, land use and land cover map).
Main Land Uses in Centre Region | % in 1995 | Variation | % in 2007 | Variation | % in 2010 | Variation | % in 2018 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Maritime pine | 26,7% | ↘ | 20,0% | ↗ | 22,5% | ↘↔ | 22,3% |
Eucalyptus | 9,7% | ↗ | 10,9% | ↗ | 13,5% | ↗ | 17,2% |
Schrubland | 11,7% | ↗ | 16,4% | ↘ | 12,3% | ↗ | 13,3% |
Agriculture | 31,3% | ↘ | 25,5% | ↘ | 26,2% | ↘ | 23,3% |
Native | 7,6% | ↘ | 5,8% | ↘ | 6,4% | ↗ | 9,3% |
Evolution of the main land uses in the Centre region, between 1995 and 2018.
There is in fact a very serious problem of inappropriate land uses that lead to the destruction of landscapes with negative consequences for those who live there, but also for those who live further away, for example, the impacts derived from water quality. Since the end of the 19th century, the oaks and chestnut trees and the traditional pastures, were replaced, first by maritime pine, which were planted on the community lands (“Baldios”), and then by eucalyptus. Land property fragmentation and, consequently, the landowners’ increase also aggravated the land management problem.
A balanced landscape constituted by agriculture on the best soils, mixed woodland complementing agriculture and all its by-products, pastoralism in articulation with woodland and agriculture, villages, towns, and cities strategically located in situations of greater comfort and proximity to the food and materials produced was replaced by a landscape ecologically degraded, humanely depopulated and which burns extensively and repeatedly.
The policies disconnected from the ecological capacity of the land, led to the current situation of mega-fires, with loss of life and property and land abandonment. Analyzing the centre region in terms of burnet areas, 40% of the region was burned between 1995 and 2017. About 25% of the Centre Region burned once (Table 2), but 11% burned twice (Figure 3). In the megafires from 2017, the Centre Region was the most affected, representing 15% of total region area (416 thousand hectares). It is very urgent to develop adequate land-use plans for the rural areas.
Fire frequency between 1990 and 2017.
The creation of a healthier landscape implies the conservation of natural resources, the creation of a balanced, multifunctional system with landscape recovery using native species. This will lead to creation of different economies, where ecosystem services payment can also take place.
Fire frequency (number of times between 1990 and 2017) | Area (ha) | % |
---|---|---|
1 time burnt area between 1990 and 2017 | 698 775 | 24.8 |
2 times burnt area between 1990 and 2017 | 321 099 | 11.4 |
3 times burnt area between 1990 and 2017 | 93 965 | 3.3 |
4 times burnt area between 1990 and 2017 | 16 105 | 0.6 |
5 times burnt area between 1990 and 2017 | 2 882 | 0.1 |
6 times burnt area between 1990 and 2017 | 327 | 0.012 |
7 times burnt area between 1990 and 2017 | 224 | 0.008 |
No burned area between 1990 and 2017 | 1 686 559 | 59.8 |
Fire frequency between 1990 and 2017, area and percentage of case study.
The solutions developed to attain a healthier landscape involve the creation of a multifunctional landscape, with native or archaeophytes species, agriculture, and pastureland. The planned landscape will allow to create businesses, generate employment (landscape recovery companies, native species nurseries, forest management companies, reactivation of native wood business), and unique products (non-wood products, such as flour from oak acorns, chestnut, walnut, honey and mushroom production) capable of attracting nature tourism as well.
This landscape will then provide better ecosystem services, such as water quality, soil conservation, and biodiversity improvement, among others. Together, it will develop a fire resilient landscape, which is the landscape’s capacity to absorb the disturbance caused by rural fires without losing its function, structure, and identity and ultimately weakening fire frequency and intensity or magnitude [53].
The vision for a healthier landscape of the Centre Region was developed by the application of FIRELAN [53], which is an ecologically based model that integrates different principles related to landscape fire resilience and ecological sustainability into a land-use plan, using the river basin as a landscape unit. The FIRELAN pretends to provide a multifunctional landscape (Figure 4) with benefits to the environment, but also developing economies and rural communities.
Ecological and cultural system and land use potential from FIRELAN model.
The different components of the FIRELAN network for the Centre Region are mapped in Figure 5. The FIRELAN network is the main landscape structure with physical, biological, and cultural elements (Table 3). For each component there is a set of adequate land uses that should be promoted. Those land uses are identified in Figure 6 and in Table 4. In the interstices of the FIRELAN network, also called Complementary Areas, the land use possibilities are wider.
FIRELAN network components in the Centre region of Portugal.
Firelan network component | Data Source | ||
---|---|---|---|
Physical System | Areas | Soils with high and very high ecological value | [54, 55, 56] |
Steep slopes (>25%) | [56, 57] | ||
Coastal area | [56, 58] | ||
Wetlands | [53] | ||
Water bodies | [53] | ||
Linear | Ridge line | [56, 57] | |
Hilltops | [56, 57] | ||
Headwater systems | [56, 59] | ||
Streams and Valley bottoms | [56, 57] | ||
Biological System | Areas | Existent vegetation with conservation interest | [52, 56, 60] |
Cultural System | Areas | Settlements | [52] |
Existent agriculture | [52] | ||
Linear | Settlement protection buffer | — | |
Roads | OpenStreetMap© | ||
Roads protection buffer | — | ||
Power infrastructures buffer | [61] |
Components of FIRELAN and sources for the Centre region of Portugal.
Potential land uses in the Centre region of Portugal.
Firelan network components | Potential land uses | Area (ha) | % |
---|---|---|---|
High ecological value soils | Agriculture | 131627 | 4.67 |
High ecological value soils in headwater systems | Agriculture (edges of mixed woods - native/archaeophytes and cupressus trees) | 52733 | 1.87 |
Power infrastructures protection buffer | Agriculture (small fruit forest), meadow or small native shrubs | 5545 | 0.20 |
High ecological value soils in steep slopes | Agriculture or permanent meadow arranged in terraces | 14408 | 0.51 |
Valley bottoms | Agriculture or riparian species | 24395 | 0.87 |
Coastal areas (cliffs, dunes and sand beach) | Coastal native species | 35653 | 1.26 |
Coastal areas (inter-dune depression) | Inter-dune depression native species | 14178 | 0.50 |
Coastal areas (coastal sand plains) | Coastal native species or agriculture | 5147 | 0.18 |
Settlements protection buffer | Meadow, Agriculture, Native species/archaeophytes broadleaved trees | 105883 | 3.76 |
Roads protection buffer | Meadow, Native/archaeophytes broadleaved trees | 27454 | 0.97 |
Headwater systems | Mixed woods (native/archaeophytes and cupressus trees) | 314469 | 11.15 |
Hilltops | Mixed woods (native/archaeophytes and cupressus trees) or permanent meadow | 42221 | 1.50 |
Ridgelines | Native/archaeophytes broadleaved trees or permanent meadow | 86392 | 3.06 |
Steep slopes | Native/archaeophytes broadleaved trees or shrubs | 248223 | 8.80 |
Existent agriculture | Existent agriculture | 646346 | 22.92 |
Existent vegetation with conservation interest | Existent vegetation with conservation interest | 381180 | 13.52 |
Streams and riparian area | Streams and riparian area | 22309 | 0.79 |
Water bodies | Water bodies | 26709 | 0.95 |
Rocks | Rocks | 3310 | 0.12 |
Road infrastructure | Road infrastructure | 50764 | 1.80 |
Settlements | Settlements | 132965 | 4.72 |
Areas with moderate to low ecological value | Areas with moderate to low ecological value | 447731 | 15.88 |
Potential land uses for the Centre region of Portugal, area and percentage.
The potential land uses plan (Figure 6, Table 4) highlights that:
Native and archaeophytes species (including agroforestry systems), which represent 11% of the study area, can expand into further 31%.
The agriculture can be increased in about 12% of the case study area, in addition to existing agriculture (23%).
Existent vegetation with conservation interest is present in 14% of the Centre region.
Complementary areas (areas with moderate to low ecological value) represent 16% of the study area.
Comparing potential land use and current land use map allows defining a Landscape Transformation Plan with conservation and restoration actions. According to the developed plan (Figure 7, Table 5): 35% of the Centre region should have restoration actions, and 57% should be maintained and conserved. Also, according to the results:
The eucalyptus can be kept in 5% of the case study area, only in complementary areas, and with environmental measures.
The maritime pine can be kept in 6% of the case study area, only in complementary areas, and with environmental measures.
About 0,8% of the case study area should have recovery of the riparian vegetation.
Landscape transformation plan for the Centre region of Portugal.
Landscape Transformation Actions | Area (ha) | % | Area (ha) | % | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Restoration | Areas to be converted into agriculture | 157670 | 5.59 | 980608 | 34.78 |
Areas to be converted into Agriculture (small fruit forest), meadow or small native shrubs under power infrastructures | 4332 | 0.15 | |||
Areas to be converted into agriculture or permanent meadow arranged in terraces | 13938 | 0.49 | |||
Areas to be converted into agriculture or riparian species | 18149 | 0.64 | |||
Areas to be converted into coastal native species | 7840 | 0.28 | |||
Areas to be converted into coastal native species or agriculture | 2786 | 0.10 | |||
Areas to be converted into inter-dune depression native species | 14125 | 0.50 | |||
Areas to be converted into meadow, agriculture, native species/archaeophytes broadleaved trees (settlements) | 96844 | 3.43 | |||
Areas to be converted into meadow, native species/archaeophytes broadleaved trees (roads buffer) | 24944 | 0.88 | |||
Areas to be converted into mixed woods | 314469 | 11.15 | |||
Areas to be converted into mixed woods or permanent meadow | 35461 | 1.26 | |||
Areas to be converted into native/archaeophytes broadleaved trees or permanent meadow | 80508 | 2.86 | |||
Areas to be converted into native/archaeophytes broadleaved trees or shrubs | 185648 | 6.58 | |||
Areas to be converted into riparian vegetation | 22309 | 0.79 | |||
Areas with invasive species that most be converted into other land uses | 1584 | 0.06 | |||
Conservation | Areas to be maintained and conserved | 1212952 | 43.02 | 1625284 | 57.64 |
Areas with eucalyptus that can be kept with environmental measures | 142909 | 5.07 | |||
Areas with maritime pine that can be kept with environmental measures | 161113 | 5.71 | |||
Areas with other coniferous that can be kept with environmental measures | 3283 | 0.12 | |||
Areas with stone pine that can be kept with environmental measures | 2951 | 0.10 | |||
Maintain or convert depending on the present shrub vegetation | 102077 | 3.62 | |||
— | Road infrastructure | 50764 | 1.80 | — | — |
— | Rocks | 3310 | 0.12 | — | — |
— | Settlements | 132965 | 4.72 | — | — |
— | Water bodies | 26709 | 0.95 | — | — |
Transformation action, area and percentage of Centre region case study.
The United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the Ecosystem Restoration decade between 2021 to 2030, aiming to halt the degradation of ecosystems and restore them to achieve healthier landscapes. Landscape Architecture is an interdisciplinary discipline helpful in attaining those goals through planning and design restoration in different contexts and scales, from rural to urban, from inland to coastal. The ecological-based planning methodologies contribute to better landscapes by starting from the knowledge and spatialization of natural processes. As part of an ecological-based planning methodology, working with green infrastructure allows the ecological integrity of the landscape, increasing the number or quality of services provided by the ecosystems and defining restoration actions and locations.
The Centre Region of Portugal has a severe problem of inappropriate land use. Since the end of the 19th century, the oaks and chestnut trees were replaced by maritime pine and eucalyptus. The number of fires and their severity increased, the land is continually degrading, and biodiversity loss increases. Applying an ecologically based landscape plan to prioritize restoration actions at the landscape scale is necessary to reverse this situation. The FIRELAN model was applied to the Centre Region to establish a vision for a healthier landscape. According to the results, 35% of the Centre Region should have restoration actions.
Subsequently, the eucalyptus area must drop from 17% of the Centre Region area to 5%, and the maritime pine from 22–6%. The results also show that agriculture could increase from 23–35% of the Centre Region. In the restoration actions, the native species should be used in more than 24% of the case study, especially in the headwaters systems and streams where mixed woods and riparian galleries should be developed.
The landscape transformation plan contributes to the definition of adequate policies to tackle ecosystem restoration through landscape and land use planning.
This work was supported and financed by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) under the project SCAPEFIRE PCIF/MOS/0046/2017. This work was also under the research unit Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food Research Centre (LEAF) UID/AGR/04129/2020.
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This is described by the well-known “Seebeck effect”. TE materials can convert also electricity into cooling through the “Peltier effect”. As such, TE materials and thermoelectric generator (TEG) devices can be utilized for potential applications including (i) thermal energy harvesting, (ii) local cooling and (iii) temperature sensing. The direct conversion of heat into electricity has been one of the most attractive solutions to the severe environmental and energy issues the humanity is coming across. This chapter covers the fundamental working principle of TE materials, the synthetic protocols for inorganic and organic thermoelectric materials, techniques and technologies for the fabrication of thermoelectric generators (otherwise defined as thermoelectric module devices) and a number of applications. Finally, future aspects and outlooks for further advancements at the “material” or “device” level for efficient power generation are remarked.",book:{id:"7626",slug:"advanced-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting-applications",title:"Advanced Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting Applications",fullTitle:"Advanced Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting Applications"},signatures:"Lazaros Tzounis",authors:[{id:"288931",title:"Dr.",name:"Lazaros",middleName:null,surname:"Tzounis",slug:"lazaros-tzounis",fullName:"Lazaros Tzounis"}]},{id:"11874",doi:"10.5772/10128",title:"Some Chaotic Points in Cuprate Superconductors",slug:"some-chaotic-points-in-cuprate-superconductors",totalDownloads:2113,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"3573",slug:"superconductor",title:"Superconductor",fullTitle:"Superconductor"},signatures:"Özden Aslan Cataltepe",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"67825",title:"Organic Thermoelectrics and Thermoelectric Generators (TEGs)",slug:"organic-thermoelectrics-and-thermoelectric-generators-tegs-",totalDownloads:1222,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Inorganic and organic thermoelectric (TE) materials have received an extensive scientific interest during the last decades, due to their ability to directly convert the thermal energy to electricity. This is described by the well-known “Seebeck effect”. TE materials can convert also electricity into cooling through the “Peltier effect”. As such, TE materials and thermoelectric generator (TEG) devices can be utilized for potential applications including (i) thermal energy harvesting, (ii) local cooling and (iii) temperature sensing. The direct conversion of heat into electricity has been one of the most attractive solutions to the severe environmental and energy issues the humanity is coming across. This chapter covers the fundamental working principle of TE materials, the synthetic protocols for inorganic and organic thermoelectric materials, techniques and technologies for the fabrication of thermoelectric generators (otherwise defined as thermoelectric module devices) and a number of applications. Finally, future aspects and outlooks for further advancements at the “material” or “device” level for efficient power generation are remarked.",book:{id:"7626",slug:"advanced-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting-applications",title:"Advanced Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting Applications",fullTitle:"Advanced Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting Applications"},signatures:"Lazaros Tzounis",authors:[{id:"288931",title:"Dr.",name:"Lazaros",middleName:null,surname:"Tzounis",slug:"lazaros-tzounis",fullName:"Lazaros Tzounis"}]},{id:"11871",title:"X-ray Micro-Tomography as a New and Powerful Tool for Characterization of MgB2 Superconductor",slug:"x-ray-micro-tomography-as-a-tool-for-quantitative-characterization-of-mgb2-superconducting-materials",totalDownloads:2785,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"3573",slug:"superconductor",title:"Superconductor",fullTitle:"Superconductor"},signatures:"Gheorghe Aldica, Ion Tiseanu, Petre Badica, Teddy Craciunescu and Mattew Rindfleisch",authors:null},{id:"66134",title:"Heat Recovery and Power Generation Using Thermoelectric Generator",slug:"heat-recovery-and-power-generation-using-thermoelectric-generator",totalDownloads:1249,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In this chapter, experimental analysis of the direct conversion of thermal energy into electric energy was carried out, in order to encourage the conscious use of energy and to reduce waste. The conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy occurs in a thermoelectric generator through the Seebeck effect. This effect is associated with the appearance of an electric potential difference between two different materials, placed in contact at different temperatures. This relation between temperature and electrical properties of the material is known as thermoelectricity. This experimental study has as objective the obtaining of operating characteristic curves of the thermoelectric generator TEG1-12611-6.0, for different temperature gradients and under constant pressure between the heater plate and the heat sink. Resistors were used to heat the thermoelectric generator, which simulates the residual heat, and insulation material to minimize the dissipation of heat to the environment. For cooling, a heat exchanger was used in order to maximize the temperature difference between the sides of the thermoelectric generator. In this way, it was possible to perform an experimental analysis of the obtained electric power for different temperature ranges between the faces of the generator and, with this, verify the applicability in real systems.",book:{id:"7626",slug:"advanced-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting-applications",title:"Advanced Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting Applications",fullTitle:"Advanced Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting Applications"},signatures:"Luis Vitorio Gulineli Fachini, Pedro Leineker Ochoski Machado, Larissa Krambeck, Romeu Miqueias Szmoski and Thiago Antonini Alves",authors:[{id:"227996",title:"Prof.",name:"Thiago",middleName:null,surname:"Antonini Alves",slug:"thiago-antonini-alves",fullName:"Thiago Antonini Alves"},{id:"229395",title:"MSc.",name:"Larissa",middleName:null,surname:"Krambeck",slug:"larissa-krambeck",fullName:"Larissa Krambeck"},{id:"286032",title:"Mr.",name:"Luis Vitorio",middleName:null,surname:"Gulineli Fachini",slug:"luis-vitorio-gulineli-fachini",fullName:"Luis Vitorio Gulineli Fachini"},{id:"293535",title:"Mr.",name:"Pedro Leineker",middleName:null,surname:"Ochoski Machado",slug:"pedro-leineker-ochoski-machado",fullName:"Pedro Leineker Ochoski Machado"},{id:"293537",title:"Prof.",name:"Romeu",middleName:null,surname:"Miqueias Szmoski",slug:"romeu-miqueias-szmoski",fullName:"Romeu Miqueias Szmoski"}]},{id:"66622",title:"Thermoelectric Generator Using Passive Cooling",slug:"thermoelectric-generator-using-passive-cooling",totalDownloads:888,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter presents an analysis of a point-of-use thermoelectric generator that is patented by one of the authors. The design, implementation and performance of the generator for powering electronic monitoring devices and charging batteries is discussed. This passive generator has no moving parts and relies on ambient air cooling. In one iteration it produces 6.9 W of steady state power using six Laird thermoelectric modules (Laird PB23 Series, HT8, 12) when placed on a 160°C steam pipe with a 30°C ambient environment (\n\nΔ\nT\n\n of 130°C). The generator produced 31.2 volts (V) open circuit and 0.89 amperes (A) short circuit. It successfully powered two microcontroller-based security cameras, one with a wireless Local Area Network (LAN) and another with cellular connectivity. In another scenario, the generator produced approximately 6 W with a steam pipe temperature of 140°C and an ambient of 25°C (\n\nΔ\nT\n\n of 115°C). This second system powered LED lights, a cellular-interfaced video surveillance system, and monitoring robots, while simultaneously trickle charging batteries. A third installation totally powered a stand-alone 3G web security camera system.",book:{id:"7626",slug:"advanced-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting-applications",title:"Advanced Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting Applications",fullTitle:"Advanced Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting Applications"},signatures:"Robert Dell, Michael Thomas Petralia, Ashish Pokharel and Runar Unnthorsson",authors:[{id:"86966",title:"Dr.",name:"Runar",middleName:null,surname:"Unnthorsson",slug:"runar-unnthorsson",fullName:"Runar Unnthorsson"},{id:"285210",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Dell",slug:"robert-dell",fullName:"Robert Dell"},{id:"294487",title:"MSc.",name:"Michael Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Petralia",slug:"michael-thomas-petralia",fullName:"Michael Thomas Petralia"},{id:"294497",title:"BSc.",name:"Ashish",middleName:null,surname:"Pokharel",slug:"ashish-pokharel",fullName:"Ashish Pokharel"}]},{id:"67254",title:"Quantum Theory of the Seebeck Coefficient in YBCO",slug:"quantum-theory-of-the-seebeck-coefficient-in-ybco",totalDownloads:723,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The measured in-plane thermoelectric power (Seebeck coefficient) \n\n\nS\nab\n\n\n in YBCO below the superconducting temperature \n\n\nT\nc\n\n\n (\n\n∼\n\n94 K) \n\n\nS\nab\n\n\n is negative and \n\nT\n\n-independent. This is shown to arise from the fact that the “electrons” (minority carriers) having heavier mass contribute more to the thermoelectric power. The measured out-of-plane thermoelectric power \n\n\nS\nc\n\n\n rises linearly with the temperature \n\nT\n\n. This arises from moving bosonic pairons (Cooper pairs), the Bose-Einstein condensation (BEC) of which generates a supercurrent below \n\n\nT\nc\n\n\n. The center of mass of pairons moves as bosons. The resistivity \n\n\nρ\nab\n\n\n above \n\n\nT\nc\n\n\n has \n\nT\n\n-linear and \n\nT\n\n-quadratic components, the latter arising from the Cooper pairs being scattered by phonons.",book:{id:"7626",slug:"advanced-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting-applications",title:"Advanced Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting Applications",fullTitle:"Advanced Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting Applications"},signatures:"Shigeji Fujita and Akira Suzuki",authors:[{id:"82812",title:"Prof.",name:"Shigeji",middleName:null,surname:"Fujita",slug:"shigeji-fujita",fullName:"Shigeji Fujita"},{id:"87760",title:"Prof.",name:"Akira",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"akira-suzuki",fullName:"Akira Suzuki"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"736",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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