The
Abstract
Aedes aegypti (Stegomyia) has been human vectors for many human diseases globally. In recent years, dengue virus has been diagnosed in different regions such as Asia and Latin America vectored by Aedes spp. mosquitoes. Dengue cases have been reported again in the several parts of African and other continental hospital. The different types of breeding sites have been found to be abundant in both urban and rural areas. The abundance of adult Ae. aegypti and habitat productivity in different settings escalates the risk of dengue transmission if viruses are found in asymptomatic population. The insecticide resistance has been found to occur in the wild population of Aedes aegypti to insecticides commonly used for indoor residual spray and long-lasting insecticidal net treatments. The control of human vector population is still a challenge as the vector has a diurnal feeding and outdoor resting behavior. Environmental management is still the best practice to be adopted in many countries for Aedes aegypti control. The currently discovered dengue vaccine might be an immediate arsenal for the community immunization.
Keywords
- Aedes aegypti
- ecology
- insecticide resistance
- control
- arboviruses
1. Introduction
Mosquitoes are small, midge-like flies that constitute the family Culicidae. Females of most species are ectoparasites feeding on vertebrates’ blood through piercing the hosts’ skin to suck the blood. To-date, approximately 3500 species of the Culicidae have been described. The family Culicidae is a large and abundant group which occurs throughout temperate and tropical regions of the world and well beyond the Arctic Circle [1]. There are two subfamilies of Culicidae, that is, the Anophelinae (3 genera) and the Culicinae (110 genera). The subfamily Culicidae,
The public health concern of
About 80% of the world’s population is at risk for at least of exposure to one vector-borne disease; these diseases account for about 17% of the estimated global burden of communicable diseases and cause over 700,000 deaths annually, affecting disproportionately poorer populations [6, 9]. They hamper economic development through direct medical costs and indirect costs such as the loss of productivity and tourism. The social, demographic, and environmental factors strongly influence transmission patterns of vector-borne pathogens. Vector control is an important component for decision science in the prevention and control of vector-borne disease approaches. Consequently, the global distribution and ecology of these vectors and the geographical determinants of their ranges are essential in order to be effective. Therefore, it is important to work out where these mosquito species are found around the globe to identify the areas at risk. It is also important to predict where these species could become established if they were introduced, in order to identify areas that could become at risk in the future.
1.1. Aedes distribution
The geographic distribution of
Country | Occurrences | Country | Occurrences | Country | Occurrences | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Americas | Brazil | 5044 | Europe/Africa | Senegal | 112 | Asia/Oceania | Taiwan | 9490 |
USA | 436 | Cameroon | 55 | Indonesia | 603 | |||
Mexico | 411 | Kenya | 52 | Thailand | 495 | |||
Cuba | 177 | United Republic of Tanzania | 44 | India | 423 | |||
Argentina | 170 | Côte d’Ivoire | 40 | Australia | 282 | |||
Trinidad and Tobago | 152 | Nigeria | 35 | Viet Nam | 223 | |||
Venezuela | 130 | Madagascar | 28 | Malaysia | 112 | |||
Colombia | 128 | Gabon | 27 | Singapore | 44 | |||
Puerto Rico | 120 | Mayotte | 20 | Philippines | 36 | |||
Peru | 89 | Sierra Leone | 20 | Cambodia | 29 | |||
Americas | Brazil | 3441 | Europe/Africa | Italy | 203 | Asia/Oceania | Taiwan | 15,339 |
USA | 1594 | Madagascar | 58 | Malaysia | 186 | |||
Mexico | 50 | Cameroon | 42 | Indonesia | 161 | |||
Cayman Islands | 15 | France | 37 | India | 150 | |||
Haiti | 13 | Gabon | 27 | Japan | 97 | |||
Guatemala | 12 | Albania | 22 | Thailand | 82 | |||
Venezuela | 7 | Mayotte | 21 | Singapore | 44 | |||
Colombia | 3 | Greece | 18 | Lao People’s Democratic Republic | 26 | |||
Cuba | 3 | Israel | 17 | Philippines | 22 | |||
Puerto Rico | 3 | Lebanon | 15 | Viet Nam | 18 |
1.2. Ecology of Aedes mosquitoes
1.2.1. Aedes aegypti
It is likely that
1.2.2. Aedes albopictus
1.2.3. Aedes mosquitoes life cycle
The
Interestingly,
Historically,
1.3. Insecticide resistance in Aedes spp.
The emergence of insecticide resistance to multiple classes of insecticides has been widely reported in
1.4. Mechanisms of insecticide resistance
There are three major categories of insecticide resistance that have been described, namely, physiological resistance (target-site resistance and metabolic resistance) and behavioral avoidance. First, physiological resistance may develop due to the target-site resistance. Target site mutations are known to cause amino acid substitutions, which could affect the influx of insecticides into the target site. This may compromise the action of the insecticide rendering the vector tolerant or fully resistant to the insecticide. Another form of physiological resistance is due to metabolic resistance due to detoxification of insecticides by cytochrome P450 monooxygenases which allow the resistant vector to metabolize insecticides [36]. Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) and carboxylesterases (ESTs) are also described in this process. Over expression of P450s was associated with insecticide resistance in diverse vector species including
1.4.1. Physiological resistance in Aedes spp.
In Tanzania, like many other African settings, there is limited information on the
The mechanism of action of the pyrethroid compounds is through their toxic effect and subsequent disruption of the VGS channels in the insect nervous system [32]. The evidence suggests that
In addition to the
1.4.2. Behavioral resistance in Aedes spp.
Thus is defined as the ability of a vector to detect and escape from an insecticide-treated area and avoid the toxin. This type of resistance has been shown in different classes of insecticides, including organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids [47]. It has been shown that vectors are capable of avoiding feeding if they come across certain insecticides or escape the area sprayed with the insecticides. There are currently limited studies exploring this mechanism of resistance in
2. Disease transmission by Aedes aegypti
Transmission of dengue fever (DF) occurs when a female
A mosquito with salivary gland infection may transmit infectious virions during salivation as it probes the tissues of another vertebrate host. Transovarial transmission of virions occurs from the female mosquito to her progeny, and females of the next generation can transmit the virus orally without having been infected through blood feeding. There is also a venereal transmission of some arboviruses from male to female mosquito as observed and reported by Amarasinghe and others [49] (Figure 2).
Transmission of dengue virus occurs in 3 cycle, namely, enzootic cycle, epizootic cycle, and epidemic cycle. The enzootic cycle involves monkey-Aedes-monkey cycle, and this cycle is primitive and has been reported in South Asia and Africa [50]. The second is epizootic cycle, which involves the transmission of dengue virus from nonhuman primates to the next human in epidemic cycles by Aedes mosquito. Lastly, the epidemic cycle where the transmission cycle is through human
In this life cycle (human-to-
Infected humans are the major carriers of the virus where mosquito can acquire the virus through biting. The incubation time varies from virus to virus, but generally, arboviruses exhibit between 2–15 days from inoculation to development of clinical symptoms. During this period,
The reemergence of dengue disease in other places may be associated with the transovarial (via the eggs) transmission of dengue virus by
3. Seasonality and intensity of transmission
Usually, dengue transmission occurs in rainy seasons with appropriate temperature and humidity for surviving of adult and larva mosquito. On the other hand, in arid areas, the rainfall is scant, and therefore, during the dry season, the man-made containers become the main breeding sites for the
In the ambient temperature, the life cycle of
Several entomological factors have been associated with the initiation and maintenance of the epidemic including behavior, density, and vectorial capacity of mosquito vector population and introduction of the virus into a community.
4. Control and surveillance
4.1. Community education
This can be done by professionals by giving the public awareness, which can help to empower people to take control of mosquito breedings around their surroundings and adult control. The public can be provided with the tools needed to reduce mosquito annoyance. This is when the community, families, and individuals involved in planning and implementation of local vector control activities in order to ensure that the program meets priorities and the needs of the people in the community.
4.2. Larval mosquito control
Frequent larval breeding sites should be searched and treated as frequent as possible by trained field technicians and trained community members. Mosquito elimination in larval stages before emerging to adults will reduce the adult mosquito population. Reduction of mosquito breeding sites such as jars, barrels, pots, vases, bottles, tins, water coolers, and tyres can be done by environmental management, removing of solid waste and managing artificial man-made habitats. All domestic water storage containers should be cleaned and covered daily.
4.3. Adult control of Aedes aegypti
This should aim to control
4.4. Use of repellents
Application of repellents such as DEET, DIMP, and of like is of paramount importance in reducing or controlling human to vector contact. The application should be done during active hours of the day.
4.5. Surveillance
Surveillance is important detect mosquito species in a certain area and changes in populations. By having valuable data, we are capable of more successfully time larvicide applications and more correctly target the adulticide activities. The WHO recommends of regular household surveys of
5. Discussion
Studies on the ecology of
There is widespread resistance to the commonly widely used insecticide, pyrethroids and organophosphates in
6. Conclusion
References
- 1.
Harbach R. Mosquito Taxonomic Inventory. 2013. p. 2015 - 2.
Wilkerson RC, Linton Y-M, Fonseca DM, Schultz TR, Price DC, Strickman DA. Making mosquito taxonomy useful: A stable classification of tribe Aedini that balances utility with current knowledge of evolutionary relationships. PLoS One. 2015; 10 :e0133602 - 3.
Kraemer MU, Sinka ME, Duda KA, Mylne AQ, Shearer FM, Barker CM, et al. The global distribution of the arbovirus vectors Aedes aegypti andAe. albopictus . eLife. 2015;4 :e08347 - 4.
WHO. Global Strategy for Dengue Prevention and Control 2012-2020. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2012. p. 43, 43 - 5.
Fredericks AC, Fernandez-Sesma A. The burden of dengue and chikungunya worldwide: Implications for the southern United States and California. Annals of Global Health. 2014; 80 :466-475 - 6.
WHO, UNICEF. Global vector control response 2017-2030. Geneva: WHO and UNICEF; 2017 - 7.
Schaffner F, Mathis A. Dengue and dengue vectors in the WHO European region: Past, present, and scenarios for the future. The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 2014; 14 :1271-1280 - 8.
Sang RC. Dengue in Africa. In: Report of the Scientific Working Group Meeting on Dengue. Geneva: WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases. 2007. pp. 50-52 - 9.
Mboera LEG, Mweya CN, Rumisha SF, Tungu PK, Stanley G, Makange MR, et al. The risk of dengue virus transmission in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania during an epidemic period of 2014. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2016; 10 :e0004313 - 10.
Capinha C, Rocha J, Sousa CA. Macroclimate determines the global range limit of Aedes aegypti . EcoHealth. 2014;11 :420-428 - 11.
Brady OJ, Golding N, Pigott DM, Kraemer MUG, Messina JP, Reiner RC Jr, et al. Global temperature constraints on Aedes aegypti andAe. albopictus persistence and competence for dengue virus transmission. Parasites & Vectors. 2014;7 :338 - 12.
Weetman D, Kamgang B, Badolo A, Moyes CL, Shearer FM, Coulibaly M, et al. Aedes mosquitoes and aedes-borne arboviruses in Africa: Current and future threats. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15 :220 - 13.
Ponlawat A, Harrington LC. Blood feeding patterns of Aedes aegypti andAedes albopictus in Thailand. Journal of Medical Entomology. 2005;42 :844-849 - 14.
Zahouli JB, Utzinger J, Adja MA, Müller P, Malone D, Tano Y, et al. Oviposition ecology and species composition of Aedes spp. and Aedes aegypti dynamics in variously urbanized settings in arbovirus foci in southeastern Côte d’Ivoire. Parasites & Vectors. 2016;9 :523 - 15.
Scholte E-J, Schaffner F. Waiting for the tiger: Establishment and spread of the Aedes albopictus mosquito in Europe. In: Takken W, Knols BG, editors. Emerging Pests and Vector-Borne Diseases in Europe. Vol. 1. Wageningen: Wageningen Academic Publisher; 2007. p. 241 - 16.
Juliano SA, Philip Lounibos L. Ecology of invasive mosquitoes: Effects on resident species and on human health. Ecology Letters. 2005; 8 :558-574 - 17.
Eritja R, Escosa R, Lucientes J, Marques E, Roiz D, Ruiz S. Worldwide invasion of vector mosquitoes: Present European distribution and challenges for Spain. Biological Invasions. 2005; 7 :87 - 18.
Cancrini G, Romi R, Gabrielli S, Toma L, Di Paolo M, Scaramozzino P. First finding of Dirofilaria repens in a natural population of Aedes albopictus . Medical and Veterinary Entomology. 2003;17 :448-451 - 19.
Delatte H, Gimonneau G, Triboire A, Fontenille D. Influence of temperature on immature development, survival, longevity, fecundity, and gonotrophic cycles of Aedes albopictus , vector of chikungunya and dengue in the Indian Ocean. Journal of Medical Entomology. 2009;46 :33-41 - 20.
Powell JR, Tabachnick WJ. History of domestication and spread of Aedes aegypti -a review. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 2013;108 :11-17 - 21.
Diniz DFA, Albuquerque CMR, Oliva LO, Melo-Santos MAV, Ayres CFJ. Diapause and quiescence: Dormancy mechanisms that contribute to the geographical expansion of mosquitoes and their evolutionary success. Parasites & Vectors. 2017; 10 :310 - 22.
Whitehead SS, Blaney JE, Durbin AP, Murphy BR. Prospects for a dengue virus vaccine. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2007; 5 :518 - 23.
McBride CS, Baier F, Omondi AB, Spitzer SA, Lutomiah J, Sang R, et al. Evolution of mosquito preference for humans linked to an odorant receptor. Nature. 2014; 515 :222 - 24.
Mathias L, Baraka V, Philbert A, Innocent E, Francis F, Nkwengulila G, et al. Habitat productivity and pyrethroid susceptibility status of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Infectious Diseases of Poverty. 2017;6 :102 - 25.
Ahmad R, Chu W-L, Lee H-L, Phang S-M. Effect of four chlorophytes on larval survival, development and adult body size of the mosquito Aedes aegypti . Journal of Applied Phycology. 2001;13 :369-374 - 26.
Barrera R, Amador M, Clark GG. Ecological factors influencing Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) productivity in artificial containers in Salinas, Puerto Rico. Journal of Medical Entomology. 2006;43 :484-492 - 27.
Tun-Lin W, Burkot T, Kay B. Effects of temperature and larval diet on development rates and survival of the dengue vector Aedes aegypti in North Queensland, Australia. Medical and Veterinary Entomology. 2000;14 :31-37 - 28.
Levi T, Ben-Dov E, Shahi P, Borovsky D, Zaritsky A. Growth and development of Aedes aegypti larvae at limiting food concentrations. Acta Tropica. 2014;133 :42-44 - 29.
Brito LP, Linss JG, Lima-Camara TN, Belinato TA, Peixoto AA, Lima JBP, et al. Assessing the effects of Aedes aegypti kdr mutations on pyrethroid resistance and its fitness cost. PLoS One. 2013;8 :e60878 - 30.
Couret J, Dotson E, Benedict MQ. Temperature, larval diet, and density effects on development rate and survival of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). PLoS One. 2014;9 :e87468 - 31.
Zahouli JB, Koudou BG, Müller P, Malone D, Tano Y, Utzinger J. Urbanization is a main driver for the larval ecology of Aedes mosquitoes in arbovirus-endemic settings in South-Eastern Côte d'Ivoire. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2017; 11 :e0005751 - 32.
Haddi K, Tomé HV, Du Y, Valbon WR, Nomura Y, Martins GF, et al. Detection of a new pyrethroid resistance mutation (V410L) in the sodium channel of Aedes aegypti : A potential challenge for mosquito control. Scientific Reports. 2017;7 :46549 - 33.
Harris AF, Rajatileka S, Ranson H. Pyrethroid resistance in Aedes aegypti from grand Cayman. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2010;83 :277-284 - 34.
Brengues C, Hawkes NJ, Chandre F, McCarroll L, Duchon S, Guillet P, et al. Pyrethroid and DDT cross-resistance in Aedes aegypti is correlated with novel mutations in the voltage-gated sodium channel gene. Medical and Veterinary Entomology. 2003;17 :87-94 - 35.
WHO. Test Procedures for Insecticide Resistance Monitoring in Malaria Vector Mosquitoes. Geneva, Swirtzeland: WHO; 2016 - 36.
Feyereisen R. Insect CYP genes and P450 enzymes. In: Insect Molecular Biology and Biochemistry. London: Elsevier, Academic Press; 2012. pp. 236-316 - 37.
Stevenson BJ, Pignatelli P, Nikou D, Paine MJ. Pinpointing P450s associated with pyrethroid metabolism in the dengue vector, Aedes aegypti : Developing new tools to combat insecticide resistance. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2012;6 :e1595 - 38.
de Lourdes Macoris M, Martins AJ, Andrighetti MTM, Lima JBP, Valle D. Pyrethroid resistance persists after ten years without usage against Aedes aegypti in governmental campaigns: Lessons from São Paulo state, Brazil. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2018;12 :e0006390 - 39.
Smith LB, Kasai S, Scott JG. Pyrethroid resistance in Aedes aegypti andAedes albopictus : Important mosquito vectors of human diseases. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology. 2016;133 :1-12 - 40.
Kasai S, Ng LC, Lam-Phua SG, Tang CS, Itokawa K, Komagata O, et al. First detection of a putative knockdown resistance gene in major mosquito vector, Aedes albopictus . Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2011;64 :217-221 - 41.
Saavedra-Rodriguez K, Urdaneta-Marquez L, Rajatileka S, Moulton M, Flores A, Fernandez-Salas I, et al. A mutation in the voltage-gated sodium channel gene associated with pyrethroid resistance in Latin American Aedes aegypti . Insect Molecular Biology. 2007;16 :785-798 - 42.
Kawada H, Higa Y, Komagata O, Kasai S, Tomita T, Yen NT, et al. Widespread distribution of a newly found point mutation in voltage-gated sodium channel in pyrethroid-resistant Aedes aegypti populations in Vietnam. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2009;3 :e527 - 43.
David J-P, Ismail HM, Chandor-Proust A, Paine MJI. Role of cytochrome P450s in insecticide resistance: Impact on the control of mosquito-borne diseases and use of insecticides on earth. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences. 2013; 368 - 44.
Faucon F, Gaude T, Dusfour I, Navratil V, Corbel V, Juntarajumnong W, et al. In the hunt for genomic markers of metabolic resistance to pyrethroids in the mosquito Aedes aegypti : An integrated next-generation sequencing approach. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 2017;11 :e0005526 - 45.
Hemingway J, Hawkes NJ, McCarroll L, Ranson H. The molecular basis of insecticide resistance in mosquitoes. Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 2004; 34 :653-665 - 46.
Lumjuan N, Rajatileka S, Changsom D, Wicheer J, Leelapat P, Prapanthadara L-A, et al. The role of the Aedes aegypti Epsilon glutathione transferases in conferring resistance to DDT and pyrethroid insecticides. Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 2011;41 :203-209 - 47.
Hemingway J, Ranson H. Insecticide resistance in insect vectors of human disease. Annual Review of Entomology. 2000; 45 :371-391 - 48.
Malik A, Earhart K, Mohareb E, Saad M, Saeed M, Ageep A, et al. Dengue hemorrhagic fever outbreak in children in Port Sudan. Journal of Infection and Public Health. 2011; 4 :1-6 - 49.
Amarasinghe A, Kuritsky JN, Letson GW, Margolis HS. Dengue virus infection in Africa. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2011; 17 :1349 - 50.
Gubler DJ. Dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 1998; 11 :480-496 - 51.
Gubler DJ, Clark GG. Community-based integrated control of Aedes aegypti : A brief overview of current programs. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 1994;50 :50-60 - 52.
Thongcharoen P, Jatanasen S. Epidemiology of dengue and dengue haemorrhagic fever. Monograph on Dengue/Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever. 1999:1-8 - 53.
Kroeger ALA, Ochoa M, Villegas E, Levy M, Alexander N. Effective control of dengue vectors with curtains and water container covers treated with insecticide in Mexico and Venezuela: Cluster randomised trials. BMJ. 2006; 332 :1247