Materials’ properties and the compatibility with different V-PAMs manufacturing.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Leung",authors:[{id:"21408",title:"Dr.",name:"Kit-nam Francis",middleName:null,surname:"Leung",fullName:"Kit-nam Francis Leung",slug:"kit-nam-francis-leung"}]},{id:"15555",title:"Life Cycle Costing, a View of Potential Applications: from Cost Management Tool to Eco-Efficiency Measurement",slug:"life-cycle-costing-a-view-of-potential-applications-from-cost-management-tool-to-eco-efficiency-meas",signatures:"Francesco Testa, Fabio Iraldo, Marco Frey and Ryan O’Connor",authors:[{id:"9825",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Testa",fullName:"Francesco Testa",slug:"francesco-testa"},{id:"10764",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Iraldo",fullName:"Fabio Iraldo",slug:"fabio-iraldo"},{id:"22437",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Frey",fullName:"Marco Frey",slug:"marco-frey"},{id:"22438",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryan",middleName:null,surname:"O'Connor",fullName:"Ryan 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Li",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/106.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19636",title:"Prof.",name:"Pengzhong",surname:"Li",slug:"pengzhong-li",fullName:"Pengzhong Li"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"452",title:"Risk Management in Environment, Production and Economy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d0b84f810e63a853c8ff21d9f195ab6e",slug:"risk-management-in-environment-production-and-economy",bookSignature:"Matteo Savino",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/452.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61794",title:"Dr.",name:"Matteo",surname:"Savino",slug:"matteo-savino",fullName:"Matteo Savino"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"81562",title:"A Review on Vacuum-Powered Fluidic Actuators in Soft Robotics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104373",slug:"a-review-on-vacuum-powered-fluidic-actuators-in-soft-robotics",body:'In the recent past, Pneumatic Artificial Muscles (PAMs) have assumed a key role in the implementation of movement in soft robots. The strong research attention is due to their interesting mechanical characteristics for soft actuation (i.e., robustness, high pulling force, high-power to mass ratio, and high energy efficiency), compared to other mechanisms exploiting different actuation sources (i.e., electric motor or tendon driven [1, 2], piezoelectric actuators [3], dielectric elastomer actuators [4, 5], shape memory alloys [6, 7] or polymers [8], and ionic polymer-metal composite actuators [9], etc.). Many researchers and engineers have explored quite a few design principles for PAMs, and a wide range of robotic applications was introduced (i.e., industrial robots [10, 11], wearable [12, 13, 14], or medical devices [15, 16, 17], etc.) where some of the challenges that rigid-bodied robots cannot overcome were addressed [18, 19, 20, 21].
From the material point of view, PAMs are generally built from soft materials that can undergo large deformation under external forces. Softness may result from their intrinsic characteristics (i.e., chemistry) or because of a specific design of their structure [22], or both.
In the design phase, the mechanical performance of PAMs (i.e., deformation ratio and blocking force) can be tuned by optimizing some geometrical parameters to achieve specific morphologies. In particular, a tradeoff between deformability and stiffness should be met, depending on the desired mechanical performances. In the literature, different design principles have been used. As most of such designs show, radial strain is an important parameter given its main influence on the linear deformation ratio of the soft actuator.
Most soft pneumatic actuators operating with positive pressure (also called inflatable fluidic actuators) involve—(i) a section of the actuator that expands with pressure; or (ii) strain limiting components that guide the elastic expansion in the desired direction [23].
In the former case, topological and/or morphological approaches are undertaken to produce radial expansion/contraction by employing specific geometries, such as zigzag patterned pleats or convolutions. For instance, the Peano fluidic actuator consists of a set of tubes arranged side-by-side [24]. At null pressure (atmospheric pressure), the actuator remains completely flat. Once positive pressure is applied, each cylindrical tube is inflated, leading to a vertical contraction. Another example is to exploit a bellow that can reduce radial strain, and enlarge longitudinal strain. This design principle is quite useful since biaxial deformability (contraction and elongation) is enabled upon positive pressure and vacuum [25, 26]. In the latter case (ii) multi-material-based approaches were addressed, such as in McKibben actuators or pleated PAMs (PPAMs). A McKibben actuator generally consists of a cylindrical flexible rubber and/or silicone bladder, sheathed with an inextensible fiber network intersected at a certain angle [27, 28]. Different kinematic trajectories are enabled according to the intersection angle (e.g., extension at the intersection angle of more than 54.7 deg., otherwise contraction) [29, 30]. On the other hand, a PPAM generally consists of a membrane having many pleats, with high tensile stiffness (i.e., woven polyester cloth or Kevlar fabric) [31, 32]. This allows the actuators to contract with dramatic increases in diameter when positive pressure is applied. The pleats are arranged along the longitudinal direction, and as the skin begins to swell, the overall structure undergoes a radial shortening and expansion [33].
As mentioned above, desired mechanical performance for inflatable fluidic actuators can be achieved by adopting proper design principles. Nevertheless, the mechanisms exploiting volumetric expansion are commonly vulnerable, depending on material failures (i.e., delamination, fracture), resulting in degradation of the actuator, and poor reliability. Moreover, given the needed volumetric expansion and omnidirectional deformation, they are more likely to be applied where large spaces are available [23], Vacuum-powered pneumatic artificial muscles (or V-PAMs) represent a promising opportunity in soft actuation and solve some of the issues encountered by inflatable fluidic actuators. They rely on decreasing the volume with vacuum and, generally, they do not expand radially during movement. Rather, they can perform linear movements with a relatively low input vacuum pressure (within few hundred kPa) and avoid a stress concentration that could possibly incur along the overall structure at both local and global levels [34, 35]. These characteristics are pursued to achieve high reliability, and ensure a high bandwidth, allowing to saturate at the desired state with a fast response.
As with inflatable fluidic actuators, the constituting materials strongly influence performance, particularly the deformation ratio. Indeed, due to the incompressibility of the materials, the ratio of bulk modulus (K) to shear modulus (G) is extremely large or becomes almost infinite in case Poisson’s ratio is close to 0.5 [36]. Thus, only a slight shortening is achievable until internal walls contact, and collapse, and linear deformation hardly occurs, as shown in Figure 1. Moreover, the overall deformations generally include undesired kinematic trajectories (i.e., torsion or bending) due to structural instability (i.e., column squirm and/or buckling). For these reasons, V-PAMs need to be rigorously designed by taking into account geometry and/or morphology, structural stability for imposed deformation and/or load, etc.
Left, basic operating principles of pneumatic artificial muscles (PAMs). Right, a classification of vacuum-powered PAMs (V-PAMs) based on the different design approaches: morphological design [
Various design principles can be found for V-PAMs in the literature, however (to the authors’ knowledge), there are still no comprehensive articles on such an emerging topic, including design, fabrication, and materials. In this work, an overview of the developments of vacuum-powered actuators is provided and they are classified as based on morphological design, origami architecture, and structural instability. The fabrication protocols and soft materials involved are addressed, and their advantages and limitations are discussed and compared.
Soft pneumatic actuators can benefit from designs having zigzag patterns since they enable shear deformation, by enlarging deformations while avoiding structural instability. Typical designs consist of multiple convolutions or corrugations in series along the vertical or horizontal direction of the actuator. In this section, an overview of different types of morphological designs, including actuators with convoluted (or corrugated) skin and pleated skin, is provided by highlighting their pros and cons.
Convolution and/or corrugation in skin design includes a crumpled thin membrane. A bellow represents a unique structure made of multiple convolutions periodically arranged along the vertical direction of the structure, as shown in Figure 2a. In principle, its mechanical performance can be determined by geometrical parameters (i.e., number of convolutions, mean diameter, total length, etc.). The deformation can be defined as either positive or negative when subjected to extension or compression. In accordance with EJMA1 standard, the axial stiffness per convolution can be written as [41, 42]:
V-PAMs with morphological design. (a–c) schematic diagrams that show design parameters for a bellow actuator skin. (d) the 3D-printed linear soft vacuum actuator (L-SOVA). Reproduced with permission [
where
Given Hooke’s law (
where
Moreover, from Eqs. (1)–(3), it is worth mentioning that the axial stiffness of the bellow is strongly influenced by the skin thickness (
Based on such theoretical background, several examples can be found in the literature. Digumarti et al. presented a Hyper-Elastic Bellow (HEB) actuator capable of a euglenoid motion, where both axial and radial strains are enlarged [26]. The bellow, having a half angle of 38.66° with a total length of 50 mm and an outer diameter of 45 mm, was fabricated by using a soft elastomer (Dragon Skin™ 10 SLOW, Smooth-On). The HEB was capable of 40% contraction upon a small vacuum pressure of 8 kPa. More recently, by exploiting additive manufacturing, Tawk et al. presented a 3D-printed Linear Soft Vacuum Actuator (L-SOVA), capable of 51% contraction with a payload of 27.66 N. Another example is to exploit the integration of rigid parts (rings), periodically spaced along the actuator length. This way, Felt et al. showed that a bellow type PAM, made of a tubular thin membrane, can lift a high payload of 21.35 N at −5.52 kPa [47]. Such investigation on V-PAMs has demonstrated that this kind of actuation can enable a high contraction ratio and blocking force, opening the way to new PAM concepts. In refs. [38, 48], our group exploited rigid rings to improve axial stiffness and combined them with open-cell foam modules to build an Ultralight Hybrid PAM (UH-PAM) made of open-cell foam and elastomeric bellow skin (see Figure 2e). In this study, we investigated an optimal geometry of the skin and emphasized that even with a light weight of 20 g promising mechanical characteristics can be achieved. Due to the open-cell foam and rigid rings interfaced at each convolution, the axial stiffness of UH-PAM was enhanced, resulting in a high payload of 3 kgf and a high contraction ratio of 52%.
Furthermore, a bellow textile muscle (similar to the Peano fluidic muscle), made of fabric and multiple round discs along its edges and center, was developed to enlarge the deformation ratio [49]. Due to such inflatable and flexible material, the bellow’s textile muscle can be displaced to extremely flat (i.e., high contraction ratio of 89%) with a high payload of 32 N at −5 kPa. Recently, Yang et al. extended this work and presented a high-displacement PAM, converting the horizontal motion of the bellow actuator to a vertical motion, based on the contraction when subjected to positive air pressure [45]. Given that the contraction ratio of the bellow is strongly influenced by its thickness, exploiting textile for the skin enables to deform it to a completely flat configuration, upon vacuum pressure. On the other hand, the thin-walled structure could suffer from a lack of axial stiffness. Thus, the bellow structure does not sustain its own weight, which implies that the actuator cannot be set along the horizontal direction (e.g., beam orientation), and it should be placed along the gravity direction. Hence, for vacuum-powered bellow actuators, both enhancing the axial stiffness, and reducing the total weight remain open challenges.
A typical pleated airtight membrane creates chambers enabling a linear motion upon vacuum pressure, due to a similar morphological feature of the Robotic Muscle ACtuator (also called ROMAC muscle) [40], as shown in Figure 2f and g. While to the authors’ knowledge no vacuum-powered PAMs exploiting this principle can be found in the literature up to date, presumably mechanical benefits would be significant rather than contractile actuators operated by only positive pressure. Indeed, the created folds distributed along the circumference of the structure allow biaxial deformations. They can be depressurized until the internal walls touch. In principle, the compressibility of the air chamber enables radial contraction, resulting in elongation of the structure upon the vacuum pressure. On the other hand, the air chambers enable the overall structure to exhibit extension upon positive pressure due to significant radial expansion. Such biaxial deformability, mainly due to the deformation in the radial direction, could play a key role in keeping the volume constant during inflation/deflation (i.e., the muscular hydrostat principle [50]), and in enlarging a linear displacement, rather than uniaxial deformation that many PAMs have accomplished so far. Moreover, the tension force that the pleated PAM can produce is adjustable. From a theoretical point of view, the tension force (
where
Origami is a unique technique inspired by Japanese paper folding, which can be created by folding thin sheets along the predefined creases [52, 53, 54]. There are three identical crease patterns in the origami, which are the Yoshimura pattern, Miura-ori pattern, and Kresling (diagonal) pattern [55]. Depending on delivering motion, active or passive origami can be defined – the active origami exhibits movements through the embedded mechanism and/or structure itself. However, passive origami exhibits the motions derived from other actuation sources. Moreover, either supporting motions (i.e., structural stiffness enhancement) or achieving programmable motions can be achieved [56].
As regards the active origami, the deformability is commonly given by a function of a geometrical length (
Origami-inspired design approaches. (a) 2D crease pattern of the 4 x 6 Yoshimura-Ori (DoFs = 26, m = 4, n = 6). (b) an equilateral triangular shaped Origami-based vacuum PAM (OV-PAM) capable of contraction ratio up to 90% and blocking force up to 400 N. Reproduced with permission [
where
In the following, an overview of origami-inspired pneumatic actuators made of different crease patterns is provided, and their design principles allowing for linear motions upon vacuum pressure are introduced.
The Yoshimura pattern, enabling foldable and deployable 3D structure, was introduced in 1955 by a Japanese scientist who first observed a buckling at thin-walled cylinders upon axial compression [53]. The Yoshimura pattern consists of identical isosceles triangles symmetrically connected in each row [56]. This way, it generates a purely translational motion element with high axial stiffness. Due to these characteristics, the Yoshimura pattern can be exploited as, both, a passive origami to reinforce movements [61], and an active origami capable of axial movement [62].
Based on the Yoshimura patterns, Martienz et al. presented novel design principles for actuators to respond to pressurization with a wide range of motions (i.e., bending, extension, contraction, twisting, etc.) [62]. A bellow morphology made of 10 creases enabled high deformability, up to 361% at 17 kPa, and the lifting of high payloads, that is, 1 kgf being 120 times its own weight (8.3 g). This method (i.e., casting of elastomer and paper coating) is versatile and it allowed fabricating an active 3D origami structure capable of movements in different directions. Moreover, to achieve both linear movements and high actuation force upon vacuum pressure, Zaghloul et al. presented Origami-inspired Semi-soft Pneumatic Actuators (OSPAs) based on the accordion and Yoshimura patterns [63]. For the OSPA with the accordion patterns, a high contraction ratio of 36% and blocking force of 124 N were achieved at a vacuum pressure of −80 kPa. Unlike the conventional Yoshimura pattern, a new design principle was introduced by modifying the Yoshimura pattern [43]. The cross section has a unique configuration as an equilateral triangle, as shown in Figure 3b. These morphological features allowed not only the thin film to be folded in an even and ordered manner, but also the actuator to produce a large contraction ratio of up to 99.7%, with a high blocking force of 40 kgf at a vacuum pressure of 60 kPa.
In summary, the Yoshimura patterns enable active 3D origami actuators capable of high deformability and blocking force. These mechanical features are certainly useful to achieve highly versatile and robust soft machines. Moreover, also sensory integration has been investigated. Indeed, Shen et al. embedded optical sensing solution into the origami-inspired PAM (so-called Soft Origami Optical-Sensing Actuators (SOSAs)) and presented a hybrid underwater 3-DoFs manipulator [59].
The Miura-Ori pattern, introduced by Japanese Kogyo Miura, represents a folding technique consisting of congruent parallelograms forming a zigzag configuration in two directions [64, 65] (Figure 3c). The Miura folding enables high stiffness, compressibility, and extensibility [66]. Its geometry plays a key role in the mechanical properties of the folded metamaterial, exhibiting a negative Poisson’s ratio between the two planar degrees of freedom [67]. Due to such extraordinary mechanical characteristics, this folding pattern was employed for the packaging and deployment of large membranes in space, such as foldable maps or solar panel deployment [68, 69]. From the architecture point of view, two different approaches are available to achieve desired linear deformations—1) a single planar Miura-Ori sheet mainly due to in-plane kinematics; or 2) a 3D folding structure (i.e., bellow) mainly due to out-of-plane kinematics.
As regards in-plane kinematics, Li et al. presented a surface (2D) skeleton made of a standard Miura-Ori pattern and demonstrated its high compressibility of up to 92% upon vacuum pressure [57], as shown in Figure 3d. Moreover, by exploiting asymmetrical out-of-plane motions, a 2D Miura-Ori skeleton was capable of complex motions combining both torsion and contraction. For the 3D folding structures, Reid et al. explored the bistability of the bellow pattern with the Miura-Ori folds and presented a promising technique, enabling arbitrarily complicated bellows with finely tuned fold parameters [70]. To achieve a compressible 3D structure, each bend should be paired, and thus the number of bends was even. Another example is the monothetic foldable part composed of two Miura-Ori units combined up and down. Yu et al. introduced pneumatic foldable actuators (PFAs) capable of biaxial movements upon vacuum and positive pressures [66]. This way, the compression of up to 43% was achieved at −10 kPa. However, the extensibility was limited down to 19% at 10 kPa. It is noted that the movements were mainly dependent on the length change by the folding of the actuator at low vacuum pressure, rather than the volumetric changes by positive pressure.
The Kresling pattern consists of a series of parallel diagonal creases defined by triangular facets [71, 72] (see Figure 3e). Such triangulated cylinder pattern enables bistable movements (i.e., contraction and elongation) facilitated by the buckling of the thin wall [73] while ensuring the fully foldable structure. However, this approach could suffer from mechanical failures (i.e., unbalanced deployment), resulting in coupled longitudinal and rotational motions. In principle, the work (
Due to bistability, the actuators are generally capable of axial deformations together with coupled rotational motions
In origami-skeleton structures, zigzag patterned structure is exploited, as a skeleton made of minimally extensible materials, such as air-tight fabrics and polyethylene [57, 77]. In principle, these compressible skeletons incorporate collapsible structures inspired by origami and/or mechanical springs. Hence, although the skin enveloping the skeletal structure has no morphological features (i.e., bellow or pleated skin), the linear movement is mainly due to the compressible skeletons. More in detail, the vacuum pressure enables the volume inside the film pouch to be evacuated, and it induces a controlled collapse in the direction guided by the skeletal structure [78]. With these findings in mind, Li et al. introduced design principles that enable linear movements and presented Fluid-driven Origami-inspired Artificial Muscles (FOAMs) by exploiting symmetrical zigzag geometry [57]. They investigated the mechanical performance of the FOAMs based on different design parameters and concluded that the maximum contraction ratio can be achieved by exploiting thin zigzag skeletons. Indeed, for the nylon fabric pouches with 0.34 mm thickness, the actuator has shown 50% linear contraction with a blocking force of 201 N. In the case of a thinner film made of polyester material (0.038 mm, with a skeleton thickness of 0.254 mm), an ultralight FOAM (2.6 g) was capable of a blocking force of up to 3 kgf, as shown in Figure 3g. Based on these design principles, Oguntosin et al. developed artificial muscles completely made of soft silicone rubber without any rigid parts [79]. A maximum contractile strain of 67% was achieved upon null load and a vacuum pressure of 34.5 kPa.
Another approach consists in exploiting a mechanical compression spring. Kulasekera et al. presented a Low-Profile Vacuum Actuator (LPVAc) by low-profile spring encased within a polyethylene film pouch that contracts longitudinally when vacuum pressure is applied [80]. This study highlighted that actuation was strongly dependent on the mechanical characteristics of the low-profile spring, and a high force-to-weight ratio was achieved. Indeed, the LPVAc was only 14 g, yet a high contractile strain of 65% and blocking force of 2.2 kgf (that corresponds to 160 times its own weight) were achieved. The same research group extended further this work. An airtight pouch made of a TPU (thermoplastic polyurethane) coated fabric was interfaced with a helical spring skeleton. Hence, the overall weight was reduced down to 2 g, and a high-force-weight ratio (230) was obtained [81]. More recently, they proposed a Thin-walled Vacuum Actuator (ThinVAc) and developed a multi-filament actuator, allowing simple scaling of actuation force while retaining the ability to actuator during deformation [78]. Finally, the weight of the ThinVac was only 1 g and capable of 60% linear contraction and blocking force of 5.2 N upon null load. Thus, an extremely high force-to-weight ratio of 477 was achieved.
The research on these skin-skeleton designs, demonstrating that low weight and large force-to-weight ratio are achievable, led several researchers to develop them further for wearable applications. In particular, in the rehabilitation field of infants (of six months or younger), Mendoza et al. optimized the zigzag patterned skeleton. They presented a Low-Profile Vacuum-Powered Artificial Muscle (LP-VPAM) capable of a 61% linear contraction ratio, with a lifting force of 26.4 N at a low vacuum pressure of 40 kPa [77]. Similarly, the LPVAc has shown strong potential for exploiting them in Sit-To-Stand (STS) motion assistance [80, 82].
Mechanical instabilities in soft PAMs and V-PAMs induce a column squirm (also called buckling), which are considered as mechanical failures in rigid body structures, and result in sudden and significant geometric changes [48, 83, 84, 85]. However, in soft robotics structural instabilities can be fruitfully exploited, and this approach shows promising results enabling new functionalities [84, 86]. Indeed, it has been reported that a reversible buckling in assemblies of elastomeric beams or films can be exploited at a variety of soft robots’ applications, for example, stretchable soft electronics [87, 88], tunable metamaterials [89, 90, 91], or actuators [92]. More importantly, it is remarkable that a structure buckling allows instantaneously trigger large changes in internal pressure, deformation, shape, and exerted force [93].
In this view, it has been shown how a vacuum-driven actuator exploiting a structural instability can achieve an axial deformation due to reversible and cooperative buckling of the beams, enabling an anisotropic change in the shape of the structure [92]. More in detail, such Vacuum-Actuated Muscle-inspired Pneumatic structure (VAMP) was capable of a large longitudinal contraction (up to 40%) with a smaller horizontal deformation (5%), as shown in Figure 4a. Yang et al. expanded this work to develop a Shear Vacuum Actuated Machine (Shear-VAM) capable of a linear motion that works by converting the vacuum pressure, applied perpendicularly to its inextensible lateral surfaces, to a force parallel to them
(a) and (b) working principles of vacuum-powered Pneumatic Artificial Muscle (VAMP) exploiting a structural instability [
Another example is to exploit the characteristics of foams and elastomers. Roberston et al. presented a Vacuum-powered Soft Pneumatic Actuator (V-SPA) and developed 3-DoFs robotic platform [94]. A particular geometry (see Figure 4c) that allows inward compression and buckling of the side walls were employed to avoid possible interferences that could limit the actuator’s strokes. For a single module, the V-SPA was capable of generating a blocking force of 0.92 N upon vacuum pressure of 35 kPa [34].
The manufacturing process is an essential, yet delicate, step in the implementation of soft pneumatic actuators. However, from the manufacturing point of view, there are no significant differences among vacuum-powered or inflatable fluidic actuators.
Depending on the design principles, there are several approaches to fabricate V-PAMs, and an adequate fabrication protocol should ensure high reproducibility and repeatability. Due to the rapid development in additive manufacturing, modern techniques (e.g., stereolithography or multi-material 3D printing, etc.) are currently available, which enable the direct fabrication of the actuators with a good trade-off between material consumption and cost-effectiveness. Moreover, such additive manufacturing techniques are also widely used to fabricate molds and active elements typical of the hybrid manufacturing approach.
In this section, the fabrication approaches that are commonly used for implementing V-PAMs are overviewed (with mention to the employed materials), including molding manufacturing, additive manufacturing, and hybrid techniques. Their advantages and limitations are discussed and compared.
Molding manufacturing is defined as the process of shaping a liquid or a raw material using a rigid container called mold or matrix, which has a negative geometry of the desired shape. Due to the advent of 3D printing, laser cutting, and CNC milling, fabricating the mold has become affordable and relatively fast. Here, depending on the complexity of the object, different molding approaches need to be considered (i.e., casting, blow molding, injection molding, etc.), while only a few of them have been widely addressed to produce soft actuators. In literature, it is frequent to find examples of inflatable fluidic actuators [95, 96, 97, 98] and vacuum-powered actuators [44, 92, 99] mainly built
A correct design and construction of the mold is the first step to succeed in this process. A good practice is to design the mold to be reusable while simplifying the demolding phase and avoiding material waste due to sacrificial molds. This way the risk of damaging the samples during extraction is minimized. To this aim, materials used for the mold should be investigated, taking into account their compatibility with casting materials, and curing parameters. Given that soft actuators are generally built from silicon-rubber or urethane-based silicon, then Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), PolyTetraFluoroEthylene (PTFE), PolyAmide (PA), and Chlorinated PolyEthylene (CPE) are good candidates for the molds. Alternatively, PolyLActide (PLA) could be used, while curing elastomers can be completed only at room temperature due to its thermomechanical characteristics (e.g., glass transition temperature Tg).
The second step is to pour the elastomers into the mold and to determine an adequate curing process with specific temperatures and timing. As shown in Figure 5a, based on the mold filling methodology, either casting (where the liquid material is driven by gravity in the mold cavities), or injection molding (where the material is forced into the mold by pressurization) can be used. Once the mold is filled, it must be placed in a vacuum chamber to remove air bubbles that would instead remain trapped in the cured material affecting the final mechanical characteristics of the same.
Different fabrication techniques. (a) shows different filling methodologies - Injection and casting molding, respectively. The hybrid fabrication processes combining two or more techniques - (b) encasing the foam core with the elastomer and smoothly merging each module by interfacing paper dividers. Reproduced with permission [
The last step is to extract the cured parts without any damage. Where proper mold design is insufficient to ensure a correct extraction, synthetic lubricants (e.g., Teflon coating) can help to avoid failures (e.g., delamination at boned layers). Finally, once all components are ready, the actuators are assembled in the desired configuration by using uncured materials or silicone adhesives.
With the aforementioned procedures in molding fabrication, Balak et al. developed a vacuum-powered omnidirectional soft robotic actuator (OSRA) [99]. A two-step molding process was employed. The core structure and cavities of the OSRA were first obtained by using three mold parts. Once the first part was cured, the actuator was completed by putting the cured part into a second mold to make the base seal. Similarly, in ref. [44], the authors employed the molding fabrication technique and could obtain a vacuum soft pneumatic twisting actuator (V-SPTA). First, the body and bottom parts of the V-SPTA were made by casting and, in a second step, attached through a silicone adhesive layer. The same two-step procedure was applied to fabricate the buckling actuators shown in refs. [44, 58, 79, 92, 99]. However, the silicone curing was performed in a controlled environment at 60°C for 10 minutes, reducing the fabrication time. Finally, Oguntosin and Akindele [79] show a remarkable example of a soft vacuum actuator fabricated entirely from silicon rubber. The approach followed the molding method, but unlike the previous examples [44, 79, 99], two different elastomeric materials were smoothly interfaced in one final structure.
Additive manufacturing (AM), also known as three-dimensional (3D) printing, encompasses several emerging techniques based on the same principle: starting from a 3D model, replicate the structure by sequentially adding layers of material until model completeness. In literature, different fabrication protocols have been investigated to obtain soft actuators operated by either positive [100, 101, 102, 103, 104] or negative pressure [37, 105, 106].
Table A2 (in the Appendix) summarizes different AM processes defined by ISO/ASTM 52900:2021. Of these, only Vat PhotoPolymerization (VPP), Material EXtrusion (MEX), and Material Jetting (MJT) have been widely used in the production of soft actuators [107]. In particular, Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) is the most widely used MEX technology in soft robotics. In this process, a continuous filament of thermoplastic material is melted and extruded through a nozzle to form the horizontal
layers of the 3D structure [108, 109]. Using the same principle, in Direct Ink Writing (DIW), a liquid-phase ink is arranged along the horizontal path, defining the 3D structures layer by layer [110].
On the VPP side, Digital Light Processing (DLP) and Stereolithography (SLA) are commonly subjected. Both use photopolymer resin, differing curing methods [109, 111]. The DLP printer uses a digital light projector screen that flashes an image of the layer that defines the surface to be cured. In contrast, the SLA employs a laser to draw and cure the layer following the surface pattern. Unlike FFF, parts obtained with DLP and SLA need adequate post-processing to achieve optimal material properties. First, all components should be gently removed. Then, the excess resin is removed by using ethanol (bio) or isopropyl alcohol, preferably with ultrasound or under agitation. Once the supports are removed, the last step requires a post-curing step under high-power UV for a few minutes at about 65°C.
Finally, among MJT processes, PolyJet is the typical approach used. PolyJet relies on a sequential deposition of material droplets like an inkjet printer. First, photopolymer droplets are accumulated to form the layer, then instantaneous exposure to UV light cures the layer before a new one is deposited [112]. Stano et al. recently classified the AD approaches employed to fabricate soft robots in rapid mold manufacturing, hybrid, and total additive manufacturing [107].
In rapid mold manufacturing, the AM limits the production of the mold. The material used in this process does not define the properties of the actuator, which instead are linked to the casted material in a second phase, usually silicone or elastomer. The FFF is the standard technique used in this approach, and ABS and PLA filaments are the typical materials used. The resolution of the 3D printer plays an essential role in the presence of small details. Hence, even though there can be inherent shortcomings (e.g., the high cost of the printing system, the post-processing steps), professional 3D printers are preferred due to the higher resolution along the z-axis. Indeed, DLP or SLA techniques have been used, to implement complex structures that need to be fabricated with high precision.
Furthermore, the hybrid approach combines AM technologies with traditional manufacturing approaches. Unlike in molding, the elements printed with this approach are embedded in the final object and influence the kinematics of the actuators.
Total Additive Manufacturing (TAM) has attracted much interest in fabricating soft actuators. In this approach, only AD techniques are exploited. Depending on the actuator’s complexity, the TAM could follow either a modular or monolithic approach. For the former, all “modules” are printed separately and assembled into the final configuration only in a second step, whereas the latter involves TAM to obtain the actuator by a single printing cycle. Combined with multi-material 3D printing, monolithic TAM allows printing actuators made of two or more materials in a single cycle. The same approach permits embedding sensing elements in actuators, enhancing the mechanical synergy between sensing and movements. In parallel to selecting adequate printing methods among MEX, VPP, and MJT, the material properties need to be considered to accomplish desired mechanical performance. Otherwise, custom-made printers could be developed. Indeed, Byrne et al. proposed a custom setup to exploit the advantages of multi-material 3D printing [113]. Combining fused deposition modeling and a paste extrusion printer, they fabricated soft actuators capable of contracting, bending, or twisting in a single printing run. Similarly, by exploiting a commercial multi-material 3D printer (Ultimaker S3), Stano et al. presented a monolithic bending PneuNets made of TPU 80A and TPU 95A [114].
More recently, the TAM approach has been successfully applied to fabricate vacuum-driven actuators by using fused filament fabrication. In ref. [106], Tawk et al. proposed a bioinspired 3D printable Soft Vacuum Actuators (SOVAs). They showed the versatility functionalities of the AM fabrication by demonstrating various robotic applications (i.e., locomotion robots, grippers, and artificial muscles), by applying both monolithic and modular approaches. Similarly, they presented a Linear Soft Vacuum Actuator (LSOVA) fabricated in a single step using an open-source 3D printer and a commercial TPU filament NinjaFlex (NinjaTek, USA) [37], as shown in Figure 2d. While SOVA and L-SOVA are bellow-like and linear vacuum actuators, respectively, the solution proposed by Zhang et al. in [58] is a fully 3-D printed origami-inspired VPAM. Same as molding manufacturing, this demonstrates the versatility of the AM approach, which makes it suitable for different designs.
In summary, the success rate in fabrications exploiting AM is mainly dependent on determining adequate printing parameters. Indeed, an error that could occur at the beginning phase of printing significantly affects the entire process, resulting in printing failures. In particular, for FFF, the bed temperature should be identified to ensure proper layer adhesion without overheating the first layer. At the same time, the size of the first layer should be chosen to accomplish the best quality and airtightness. Avoiding high or low retraction values may help prevent under-extrusion or printed residue. Extrusion temperature, printing speed, and cooling speed deeply affect layer bonding, thus the quality and integrity of the printed part. Finally, an infill density related to the overall structure stiffness enables determining the strength of actuators.
Hybrid manufacturing combines two or more fabrication techniques. Typically, a tradeoff between 3D printing and other fabrication processes, such as molding manufacturing, is addressed. Qi et al. encapsulated 3D-printed elements made of custom material into a silicone structure obtained through mold fabrication [115]. Similarly, in ref. [116], a soft actuator with stiffness and shape modulation was obtained by embedding a 3D-printed Conductive PolyLactic Acid (CPLA) layer in a soft pneumatic actuator made of silicone. Robertson et al. in refs. [94, 117] fabricated a V-PAMs without employing molding and additive manufacturing, as shown in Figure 5b. First, by using a laser cutting machine, the foam chambers and rigid layers were cut. Then, by gluing them, the core structure of the actuator was assembled, manually coated, and sealed by using Elastosil M4601. Figure 5c shows the hybrid fabrication process proposed by the authors in order to develop the UH-PAM [48] (described in Section 2.1.1). Unlike previous examples, after patterning by laser cutting, the open-cell foams (Polyurethane) were integrated with Plexiglass©rigid rings, and with a silicone (Dragon Skin™ 30) skin having a bellow structure, previously molded by casting. Another example belongs to a completely hybrid concept compromising rigid and soft materials [78, 81]. In the V-PAM fabrication, a helical spring core was combined with a pouch, manually assembled from polyethylene (PE) film or TPU fabric. These studies show that hybrid manufacturing has a strong potential, to break down the barrier between rigid and soft materials and to allow them interfacing.
Despite the promising mechanical performance that the hybrid approach delivers to the soft actuators, it suffers from a decreased process controllability since a higher number of separate, and usually manual, fabrication steps are needed, resulting in reduced repeatability and reproducibility. For example, in refs. [78, 81], the repeatability, thus the homogeneity of two different actuators, cannot be ensured since both depend on the manual skills of the operator. Similarly, in ref. [94, 117] using a manual deposition of the core, the homogeneity of the silicone layer could be unevenly distributed.
In addition to exploring fabrication protocols, selecting adequate soft materials is a key enabler for soft robot bodies. Although the meaning of the term “soft” has been contentious, in literature soft robots are defined as systems composed of materials with Young’s modulus ranging from 10 kPa to 1 GPa, similar to soft biological materials (i.e., skin or muscle tissue) [118]. In this view, V-PAMs can consist of a wide range of materials (i.e., polymer, rubber-like silicone) that exhibit hyperelastic behavior with a large deformation ratio, or inextensible thin layered materials (i.e., paper, fabric) that could belong to both soft and rigid materials. In this section, some highlights to address an adequate selection of the materials are provided, referring to the main material candidates that are interesting for the fabrication of V-PAMs.
Given that soft materials strongly influence the actuator mechanical properties as well as its kinematic behavior, selecting adequate materials is mainly driven by the predicted deformations (and stresses) that are required along the overall structure. To this aim, for the linear motion, implicit (i.e., Finite element method (FEM)) or explicit numerical approaches (e.g., Euler beam theorem based) were employed to predict desired kinematic trajectories versus input vacuum pressure [119, 120, 121, 122]. Moreover, for a V-PAM to achieve high compliance, in addition to the skin material intrinsic compliance, air impermeability is necessary. From the material point of view, elastomeric polymers or silicones can withstand large deformations, in some cases like EcoFlex™ 00-30 up to 900%, without undergoing permanent plastic deformation. Moreover, both air impermeability and compliance can be obtained by exploiting compositions and depositions [123, 124].
As representative solutions, silicones and urethane-based rubbers can be used to realize V-PAMs where molding fabrication is employed. For those hyperelastic constitutive materials, two components (i.e., elastomers, catalyst, or hardener) are mixed at precise mixing ratios (typically 1:1) before degassing and curing. From the mechanical point of view, different elongation at break and Young’s modulus can be achievable, depending on materials. For example, platinum-catalyzed silicones (EcoFlex™, DragonSkin™, etc.) are commercially available and exhibit elongation at break ranging from 800% to 1,000% and Young’s modulus ranging from few hundreds kPa to 50 MPa; whereas the mechanical characteristics of Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS, Sylgard184) can be tuned by using different elastomer/cross-linking agent ratio (e.g., 10:1, 20:1, 30:1).
As regards additive manufacturing, filaments of TPU, such as NinjaFlex® TPU or Ultimaker TPU, are the most used to fabricate soft actuators (including both inflatable fluidic actuators and V-PAMs) by the TAM approach. In general, TPU filaments are characterized by hardness in the 75–90 Shore A range, with an elongation at the break that could reach almost 700%. Alternatively, the Thermoplastic Polyether-Polyurethane elastomer, such as the Recreus FilaFlex, shows a similar characteristic, offering elongation at break up to 950% and hardness in the range 60–95 shore A.
Table 1 provides a brief overview of some of the most common materials used in the fabrication of V-PAMs. In terms of elongation at break, both silicone and filaments offer good performance, showing values that can range from 100% up to a maximum of 1000%. On the contrary, from the point of view of Young’s modulus, the V-PAM obtained with silicone shows values 10 times lower than the counterpart obtained with the TAM approach. This means that for the same structure, actuators obtained by casting are always softer than those obtained by 3D printing, which resulting more rigid require, an higher actuation power to achieve the same behavior. On the other hand, higher stiffness can lead to solutions that can support a higher payload. For this reason, the choice of material is a compromise between performance, feasibility of the concept and operating conditions. The latter point in particular makes it difficult to define a priori which material is best based on the design used alone, making careful analysis necessary in the design phase.
Young’s module [MPa] | Shore hardness [A] | Elongation at break [%] | Manufacturing | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Molding | Additive | Hybrid | ||||
Silicones | ||||||
Ecoflex ™ 00-10 | 0.55 | 10 | 800 | • | • | |
Ecoflex ™ 00-20 | 0.55 | 20 | 845 | • | • | |
Ecoflex ™ 00-30 | 0.69 | 30 | 900 | • | • | |
DragonSkin™ 10, | 0.151 | 10 | 1,000 | • | • | |
DragonSkin™ 20, | 0.338 | 20 | 620 | • | • | |
DragonSkin™ 30, | 0.593 | 30 | 364 | • | • | |
Sylgard 184 (10:1) | 1.32 | 43 | 100 | • | • | |
Elastosil® M4601 | 0.262 | 28 | 700 | • | • | |
Filament (TAM) | ||||||
Ultimaker TPU | 26 | 95 | 580 | • | • | |
NinjaFlex© TPU | 12 | 85 | 660 | • | • | |
Chinchilla™ TPE | 34 | 75 | 600 | • | • | |
FilaFlex 60A (TPU) | 26 | 63 | 950 | • | • | |
FilaFlex 82A (TPU) | 22 | 82 | 650 | • | • | |
FilaFlex 70A (TPU) | 32 | 70 | 900 | • | • | |
Filament (molds) | ||||||
Ultimaker ABS | 1.618 | 76 | 90–105 | • | • | |
Ultimaker CPE+ | 1.128 | 75 | 90–110 | • | • | |
Ultimaker PLA | 2.346 | 83 | 55–65 | • | • | |
PolyLite™ ABS | 2.174 | — | 101 | • | • | |
PolyLite™ PLA | 2.636 | — | 63 | • | • |
Materials’ properties and the compatibility with different V-PAMs manufacturing.
This review introduces the promising potential of V-PAMs for implementing complex soft machines achieving robustness and fail-safe operation. In contrast to the inflatable fluidic actuators, given that vacuum pressure induces a volumetric contraction, the linear deformation is strongly influenced by the contraction in the radial direction. Thus, their structures and geometries can avoid stiffening and/or an increase in stress during movement, at the same time ensuring a good level of compactness and robustness. In particular, due to their reliability [37, 92, 106], the V-PAMs proposed to show a lifespan that varies from a minimum of 21,500 cycles of LSOVAs up to more than 1,000,000 cycles of VAMPs. Furthermore, being based on volumetric contraction, V-PAMs results suitable for operating in both large and limited spaces, oppositely to PAMs, which exploiting a volumetric expansion cannot properly work in confined environments.
Nevertheless, there are still several open challenges to be addressed. Indeed, new trade-offs among design principles and desired mechanical performance need to be found to enable energy efficiency in actuators with high power-to-weight ratio. Also, scalability remains barely impossible, mainly due to the square-cube law.
Given that upon vacuum pressure, the overall structure stiffness is mainly dependent on its bulk state, determining adequate materials is a key aspect to achieve the desired actuation force. Thus, exploiting different materials (multi-material) approaches that allow for enhancing the axial stiffness at a global level have been widely addressed [125, 126, 127, 128] by smoothly interfacing them with the structure. However, this approach could lead to an increase in the overall structure weight, as well as material failures (i.e., delamination). Thereby, there is the quest for new materials and/or investigation of novel design principles.
An interesting approach is to employ foam (like in the UH-PAM [38]) as a constituent material, or porous structures where the air-cells dimensions can be decided upon the desired stiffness. Notably, given the recent advances in foam-like sensing, (e.g., capacitive [129], inductive sensing [130], resistive sensing [131, 132], etc.), it can be construed that, in a near future, new designs should consider such transduction mechanisms embedded in V-PAMs. This approach seems promising to develop soft machines with embodied intelligence
Indeed, due to the rapid development in additive manufacturing, designing and fabricating 3D architectures made of metamaterials has been demonstrated [134, 135, 136, 137]. Hence, it can be expected for them to play a key role in the future development of soft actuation, allowing the soft machines to exhibit desired kinematic performance while reducing overall weight due to the tessellated topology and morphology. For this to happen, the quest is for materials that possess high extensibility (>500%), Young’s modulus in the range of tens of MPa, and high reliability and low hysteresis.
In conclusion, in any case, it will be important to address designs that exploit both positive and negative pressures, rather than choosing one of them. This way motions in different directions could be achieved with the same actuator, for example, elongation, contraction, bending, twisting, also inspiring from natural models. For example, this is the case of developing innovative continuum manipulators inspired from elephant trunks, like in the EU project PROBOSCIS [138], which aim is to develop “soft” yet “strong” perceptive soft machines.
This work has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No. 863212 (PROBOSCIS project).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Nomenclatures | Descriptions | Nomenclatures | Descriptions |
---|---|---|---|
D | Outer diameter | TPU | Thermoplastic polyurethane |
d | Inner diameter of the bellow | PDMS | Polydimethylsiloxane |
Dm | Mean diameter of the bellow | PE | Polyethene |
w | Convolution depth | AM | Additive Manufacturing |
Eb | Young’s modulus of the material used for the bellow | VPP | Vat Polymerization |
tp | Thickness of skin | MEX | Material Extrusion |
μ | Poisson’s ratio | MJT | Material Jetting |
n | Number of bellow plies (in case of multiple plies) | DLP | Digital Light Processing |
N | Number of convolutions | SLA | Stereolithography |
ABS | Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene | FFF | Fused Filament Fabrication |
PTFE | Polytetrafluoroethylene | DIW | Direct Ink Writing |
PA | Polyamide | TAM | Total additive manufacturing |
CPE | Chlorinated polyethylene | Tg | Glass transition temperature |
PLA | Polylactide |
Nomenclatures.
Process name | Operative principle |
---|---|
Binder Jetting (BJT) | A liquid bonding agent is selectively deposited to join powder materials |
Direct Energy Deposition (DED) | Focused thermal energy is used to fuse materials by melting as they are being deposited |
Material Extrusion (MEX) | Material is selectively dispensed through a nozzle or orifice |
Material Jetting (MJT) | Droplets of feedstock material are selectively deposited |
Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) | Thermal energy selectively fuses regions of a powder bed |
Sheet Lamination (SHL) | Sheets of material are bonded to form a part |
Vat Photopolymerization (VPP) | Liquid photopolymer in a vat is selectively cured by light-activated polymerization |
Binder Jetting (BJT) | A liquid bonding agent is selectively deposited to join powder materials |
Direct Energy Deposition (DED) | Focused thermal energy is used to fuse materials by melting as they are being deposited |
Material Extrusion (MEX) | Material is selectively dispensed through a nozzle or orifice |
Material Jetting (MJT) | Droplets of feedstock material are selectively deposited |
Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) | Thermal energy selectively fuses regions of a powder bed |
Sheet Lamination (SHL) | Sheets of material are bonded to form a part |
Vat Photopolymerization (VPP) | Liquid photopolymer in a vat is selectively cured by light-activated polymerization |
Different printing processes and their operation principles.
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\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\\n\\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\\n\\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\\n\\n\\n\\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\n\\n\\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\\n\\n\\n\\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\\n\\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\\n\\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\\n\\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\\n\\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\\n\\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\\n\\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\\n\\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\\n\\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
\n\n\n\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\n\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\n\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\n\n\n\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\n\n\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\n\n\n\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\n\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\n\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\n\n\n\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\n\n\n\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\n\n\n\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\n\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\n\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\n\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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education articles published in between 2016 and 2017 years. The literature source was Web of Science and SSCI, SCI-EXPANDED, A&HCI, CPCI-S, CPCI-SSH, and ESCI indexes. Fifty-two articles were reviewed; however, 14 of them were not been included in the study. As a result, 38 articles were examined. Level of education, field of education, and material types of AR used in education and reported educational advantages of AR have been investigated. All articles are categorized according to target groups, which are early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, high school education, graduate education, and others. AR technology has been mostly carried out in primary and graduate education. “Science education” is the most explored field of education. Mobile applications and marker-based materials on paper have been mostly preferred. The major advantages indicated in the articles are “Learning/Academic Achievement,” “Motivation,” and “Attitude”.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Rabia M. Yilmaz",authors:[{id:"225838",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabia",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"rabia-yilmaz",fullName:"Rabia Yilmaz"}]},{id:"63639",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81086",title:"Cooperative Learning: The Foundation for Active Learning",slug:"cooperative-learning-the-foundation-for-active-learning",totalDownloads:3417,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"The role of instructors is evolving from the presenter of information to the designer of active learning processes, environments, and experiences that maximize student engagement. The more active a lesson, the more students tend to engage intellectually and emotionally in the learning activities. Cooperative learning is the foundation on which many of the active learning procedures are based. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. Most of the active learning procedures, such as problem-based learning, team-learning, collaborative learning, and PALS, require that students work cooperatively in small groups to achieve joint learning goals. Cooperative learning is based on two theories: Structure-Process-Outcome theory and Social Interdependence theory. Four types of cooperative learning have been derived: formal cooperative learning, informal cooperative learning, cooperative base groups, and constructive controversy. There is considerable research confirming the effectiveness of cooperative learning. To be cooperative, however, five basic elements must be structured into the situation: positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive interaction, social skills, and group processing.",book:{id:"6929",slug:"active-learning-beyond-the-future",title:"Active Learning",fullTitle:"Active Learning - Beyond the Future"},signatures:"David W. Johnson and Roger T. 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The importance of VR/AR for the mental health field comes from three main concepts: (1) VR/AR as an imaginal technology, people can feel “as if they are” in a reality that does not exist in external world; (2) VR/AR as an embodied technology, the experience to feel user’s body inside the virtual environment; and (3) VR/AR as connectivity technology, the “end of geography’. In this chapter, we explore the opportunities provided by VR/AR as technologies to improve people’s quality of life and to discuss new frontiers for their application in mental health and psychological well-being promotion.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Sara Ventura, Rosa M. Baños and Cristina Botella",authors:[{id:"106036",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Baños",slug:"rosa-maria-banos",fullName:"Rosa Maria Baños"},{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura"},{id:"229056",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Botella",slug:"cristina-botella",fullName:"Cristina Botella"}]},{id:"58060",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72341",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8743,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"64583",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81714",title:"Evaluating a Course for Teaching Advanced Programming Concepts with Scratch to Preservice Kindergarten Teachers: A Case Study in Greece",slug:"evaluating-a-course-for-teaching-advanced-programming-concepts-with-scratch-to-preservice-kindergart",totalDownloads:1408,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Coding is a new literacy for the twenty-first century, and as a literacy, coding enables new ways of thinking and new ways of communicating and expressing ideas, as well as new ways of civic participation. A growing number of countries, in Europe and beyond, have established clear policies and frameworks for introducing computational thinking (CT) and computer programming to young children. In this chapter, we discuss a game-based approach to coding education for preservice kindergarten teachers using Scratch. The aim of using Scratch was to excite students’ interest and familiarize them with the basics of programming in an open-ended, project-based, and personally meaningful environment for a semester course in the Department of Preschool Education in the University of Crete. For 13 weeks, students were introduced to the main Scratch concepts and, afterward, were asked to prepare their projects. For the projects, they were required to design their own interactive stories to teach certain concepts about mathematics or physical science to preschool-age students. The results we obtained were more satisfactory than expected and, in some regards, encouraging if one considers the fact that the research participants had no prior experiences with computational thinking.",book:{id:"6936",slug:"early-childhood-education",title:"Early Childhood Education",fullTitle:"Early Childhood Education"},signatures:"Stamatios Papadakis and Michail Kalogiannakis",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58060",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8743,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"61746",title:"Facilitation of Teachers’ Professional Development through Principals’ Instructional Supervision and Teachers’ Knowledge- Management Behaviors",slug:"facilitation-of-teachers-professional-development-through-principals-instructional-supervision-and-t",totalDownloads:3349,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"With the rise of global competition and the focus on teacher quality, teacher professional development is becoming increasingly crucial, and the stress and challenges for principals are more severe than ever. Teachers can improve their professional abilities through principals’ instructional supervision and their own knowledge-management (KM) behaviors to benefit students. Thus, this chapter analyzes the relationship among principals’ instructional supervision, teachers’ KM, and teachers’ professional development. The author believes that principals’ instructional supervision and effective KM can facilitate the professional development of teachers. The author also believes the readers can know the relationships among them, and teachers’ professional development can be improved through principal’s instructional supervision and teachers’ KM behaviors.",book:{id:"6674",slug:"contemporary-pedagogies-in-teacher-education-and-development",title:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development",fullTitle:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development"},signatures:"Chien-Chin Chen",authors:[{id:"232569",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Chien Chih",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chien-chih-chen",fullName:"Chien Chih Chen"}]},{id:"75908",title:"From the Classroom into Virtual Learning Environments: Essential Knowledge, Competences, Skills and Pedagogical Strategies for the 21st Century Teacher Education in Kenya",slug:"from-the-classroom-into-virtual-learning-environments-essential-knowledge-competences-skills-and-ped",totalDownloads:501,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"As teachers in Kenya begin to migrate from the classroom to virtual learning spaces following COVID 19 pandemic, there is pressing need to realign Teacher Education to requisite Knowledge, competences, skills, and attitudes that will support online teaching. This chapter explores these needs using a combination of lived experiences and literature review that captured a meta-analysis of research trends on e-learning. While trends in Teacher Education indicate progression towards adoption of technology, there are disparities between the theory and practice. Evidence from recent research and reports; and the recollected experiences confirmed knowledge, competence, skills and pedagogical gaps in the implementation of online learning, that have been exacerbated by COVID-19. The researcher recommends that teacher education should sensitize and train teacher trainees on how to access, analyze and use new knowledge emerging with technology; they also should be coached on how learners learn with technology and on fundamentals of the communication process. Particularly the course on educational technology, should focus on how to create and manage online courses. The 5-stage E-Moderator Model and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) are recommended as effective pedagogical scaffold for online teaching.",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo",authors:[{id:"333482",title:"Dr.",name:"Catherine Adhiambo",middleName:null,surname:"Amimo",slug:"catherine-adhiambo-amimo",fullName:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo"}]},{id:"75224",title:"Decoding the Digital Gap in Teacher Education: Three Perspectives across the Globe",slug:"decoding-the-digital-gap-in-teacher-education-three-perspectives-across-the-globe",totalDownloads:552,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Educational use of technology is regularly assessed, and results often show a gap between educational policies and what is actually practiced. This chapter will help clarify how teacher educators experience the changing educational contexts due to the digital revolution, how their meaning-making shifts, and how outside forces influence those processes. The results are based on comparative international studies. Central for this study is practitioners’ professional digital competence, their attitudes towards digital technology and the use of digital technology in education. We found that the influence and contribution of digital practice is carried out quite differently across the globe. Our research questions were: How do practitioners experience teaching in a rapidly changing context? How do attitudes change due to top-down governing of education? and What motivates teacher educators to implement digital technology?",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Steinar Thorvaldsen and Siri Sollied Madsen",authors:[{id:"332624",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Siri Sollied",middleName:null,surname:"Madsen",slug:"siri-sollied-madsen",fullName:"Siri Sollied Madsen"},{id:"332626",title:"Prof.",name:"Steinar",middleName:null,surname:"Thorvaldsen",slug:"steinar-thorvaldsen",fullName:"Steinar Thorvaldsen"}]},{id:"75416",title:"Self-Study Research: Challenges and Opportunities in Teacher Education",slug:"self-study-research-challenges-and-opportunities-in-teacher-education",totalDownloads:724,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This article aims to describe what self-study research is, why self-study can be a good approach to teacher educators’ professional development and improvements in practice and highlight some challenges and opportunities in this research approach. In addition, the article will shed light on some methodological aspects related to self-study. Self-study refers to teacher educators who in an intentionally and systematically way examine their practice to improve it, based on a deeper understanding of practice, as well as the context practice takes place. In the article, I argue that engaging in self-study is a learning and development process and an approach to developing personal professionalism, collective professionalism and improvements in practice.",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Kåre Hauge",authors:[{id:"332053",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kåre",middleName:null,surname:"Hauge",slug:"kare-hauge",fullName:"Kåre Hauge"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"265",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81937",title:"Socialization Experiences among Undergraduate Students in Higher Learning Institutions (HLI)",slug:"socialization-experiences-among-undergraduate-students-in-higher-learning-institutions-hli",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99007",abstract:"This work portrays the problems of socialization among undergraduate students in higher learning institutions. The socialization processes in higher learning institution are significant for the successful navigation of students in the academic programs and university environment in preparing the next generation of professional practitioners and scholars. But the undergraduate student socialization experiences of students at university environment are overlooked. To navigate in the higher learning institutions, students should be socialized effectively to the normative contexts of the higher learning institutions. The normative contexts of the higher learning institutions are generally categorized into social and academic contexts, because these context academic and social context integration have been linked to student retention and success. Social integration involves interpersonal relationships, support, interactions with others, and a sense of belonging at a university, which stems from extracurricular activities, informal dealings with peer groups, and interactions with faculty and staff, whereas academic integration is described through grade performance and intellectual development that reflects an ability to meet the standards of the academic system; intellectual development involves a student valuing their education as a process of development in which they gain knowledge and ideas. Students’ background is also the contributing factor for students’ socialization in the University.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Mulusew Birhanu Ayalew"},{id:"80280",title:"Adoption of Online Learning during the Covid19 Pandemic Lockdown by Universities in Garowe",slug:"adoption-of-online-learning-during-the-covid19-pandemic-lockdown-by-universities-in-garowe",totalDownloads:86,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99941",abstract:"In response to the Covid-19 outbreak the world closed and therefore countries like Somalia have not been exceptional. The government of Somalia and all higher education institutions adopted crisis intervention measures on implementation of blended learning approaches like online teaching and learning. In this chapter we explore the process and challenges of adopting online learning in response to the world wide lockdown due to the pandemic. Given that this was an abrupt requirement, the survey was interested in finding out whether universities adopted and adapted easily. Researchers compared findings from previous studies and theoretical inclinations on online learning. Results indicate that the adoption of online learning among universities in Garowe was as a matter of crisis management whereby administration, lecturers and students were all not ready and had no prior grounding in this pedagogical learning platform. Just like previous studies online learning implementers have continued to encounter several challenges like intermittent internet network, cost of gadgets and facilities, inadequate skills of both the instructors and students, aspects of communication and satisfaction from stakeholders. With the research survey in Garowe, results show that this is still pervading and therefore need for more rigorous contextualised research on this subject.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Tumwebaze Alicon Auf and Omer Abdi Hamdi"},{id:"78597",title:"Public-Private Participation in Funding University Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Nigerian Case-Study for Sustainable Development",slug:"public-private-participation-in-funding-university-education-in-sub-saharan-africa-a-nigerian-case-s",totalDownloads:132,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99940",abstract:"The developing countries in Africa still cannot withstand the pressure of the highly competitive global education market. Together with the large numbers of people who make a living in various innovative companies, these countries have solved key contemporary issues affecting global education. For this reason, it is necessary to actively respond to current technological innovation and educational challenges and to eliminate new technology graduates who can effectively interact with students through the responsive expansion of education and training. Expansion of education can produce effective expansion that promotes educational development, but due to budget constraints, most African governments cannot successfully and sustainably implement such educational programs. This is difficult. However, public-private partnership efforts provide a way out of this financial dilemma. The Sub-Saharan Africa initiative has achieved important educational objectives, such as: ensuring relevance for quality; secure funding for sustainability and establish resource mobilization partnerships and connections; and promote international cooperation. This discussion is relevant to the basic conditions for a successful public-private partnership with educational institutions and extended education and sheds light on the impact, lessons, and challenges. The public is increasingly concerned about the importance of higher education in the 21st century. This chapter explores some of the key functions of an innovative education system that supports the development of education in Nigeria and enhances people’s ability to use information. Nigeria’s education system re-emphasizes the importance of public and private universities, but the country does not have a sustainable education system and well-equipped educational institutions to support people’s ability to use information, learning, education, and research activities.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Lawrence Jones-Esan"},{id:"79197",title:"University Teachers’ Conceptions of What University Is: Implications for the Future of Higher Education",slug:"university-teachers-conceptions-of-what-university-is-implications-for-the-future-of-higher-educatio",totalDownloads:107,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100813",abstract:"This chapter presents the perception of university teachers about the university, the most recent changes and how they have influenced their activity. The phenomenographic study was conducted with 10 university teachers, nine females and one male with more than 15 years of professional activity. The perception of the university emerges, in the teachers’ voice, focused on the description of its mission, namely as a context for the production and diffusion of knowledge to society, as a space for creative and critical thinking about the world, as an interdisciplinary space and as a system focused on teaching and research. It also includes characteristics related to its structure and functioning, such as the level of hierarchization, bureaucratization, competitiveness, dehumanization and bibliometrics overvaluation. Regarding the perceived changes, they are related to the structural reforms resulting from the Bologna Process, diverse student populations, research and internationalization, new technologies, institutional cooperation, bureaucratization and relationship with the community. Teachers also revealed some dissatisfaction in the way they are experiencing university life due to the overwork resulting from the multiple tasks required in the four activity strands (teaching, research, management and extension) with an impact on quality and innovation, but in line with what the institution demands.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Elisa Chaleta"},{id:"78595",title:"Globalization and Education: Trends towards Sustainability",slug:"globalization-and-education-trends-towards-sustainability",totalDownloads:57,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99974",abstract:"Higher Education Institutions (IES) have a very relevant role in the path towards sustainability. The problem of the implementation of curricular sustainability is the disparity of solutions that can be adopted depending on the political and economic situation of each country. The study of a practical case in the south of Honduras allows the student to approach key decisions in a real scenario to bring improvements to a very disadvantaged population, lacking basic services, such as water and electricity, under the premise of sustainability, facing aspects as relevant such as sustainable mobility, water resources management, energy and construction models, in a context where globalization and technological innovation play a very important role. It is essential to know in depth the real context where structural changes will be applied to understand that there is no single reality, that actions are built adapting to specific situations and that the effectiveness of the measures that can be adopted to establish models that prioritize that part of sustainability that best weighs the balance between the environment, society and the economy for each case.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Maria Olga Bernaldo and Gonzalo Fernandez-Sanchez"},{id:"79255",title:"Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Africa Embracing the “New Normal” for Knowledge Production and Innovation: Barriers, Realities, and Possibilities",slug:"higher-education-institutions-heis-in-africa-embracing-the-new-normal-for-knowledge-production-and-i",totalDownloads:127,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101063",abstract:"If Africa is to remain relevant and competitive in today’s knowledge-based economy, it has to rely on higher education institutions (HEIs) as centers of excellence for knowledge production. HEIs nurture and sustain the production of highly-skilled individuals to support Africa’s growing economies. Among all possible ways, this could be achievable through strategic curricula innovation driven by emerging mobile technologies. Consequently, Africa’s HEIs need to embrace the ‘New Normal’ by optimizing online teaching and learning in their pursuit to expand information and communications technology (ICT) literacy as a means to increase students’ opportunities in higher education (HE). However, Africa’s ability to embrace the ‘New Normal’ has been marred by inadequate ICT infrastructures, low connectivity, unreliable power supply, and national budget constraints that may undermine Africa’s HEIs’ potential to augment knowledge production and innovation.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Christopher B. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",biography:"Full professor at University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Spain, previously working at the University of Alicante, Autonomous University of Madrid and Polytechnic University of Valencia. Graduate in Sciences (Chemist), graduate in Geography and History (Geography), master in Water Management, Treatment, master in Fertilizers and Environment and master in Environmental Management; Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences. His research is focused on soil-water and waste-environment relations, mainly on soil-water and soil-waste interactions under different management and waste reuse. His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. Prof. Navarro-Pedreño is also a director of the Ph.D. Program Environment and Sustainability (2012-present) and a member of several societies among which are the Spanish Society of Soil Science, International Union of Soil Sciences, European Society for Soil Conservation, DessertNet and the Spanish Royal Society of Chemistry.",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",slug:"salustiano-mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",biography:"Salustiano Mato de la Iglesia (Santiago de Compostela, 1960) is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago and a Professor of zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. 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Heshmati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313921/images/system/313921.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hassan Massoud Heshmati is an endocrinologist with 46 years of experience in clinical research in academia (university-affiliated hospitals, Paris, France; Mayo Foundation, Rochester, MN, USA) and pharmaceutical companies (Sanofi, Malvern, PA, USA; Essentialis, Carlsbad, CA, USA; Gelesis, Boston, MA, USA). His research activity focuses on pituitary tumors, hyperthyroidism, thyroid cancers, osteoporosis, diabetes, and obesity. He has extensive knowledge in the development of anti-obesity products. Dr. Heshmati is the author of 299 abstracts, chapters, and articles related to endocrinology and metabolism. He is currently a consultant at Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC, Anthem, AZ, USA.",institutionString:"Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC",institution:null},{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Mexico. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. in Chemistry in July 2000, and his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. In 2009 he joined the Dr. Ron Clarke research group at the School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the Interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+, K+-ATPase, and Dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+, K+-ATPase by ATP. He then worked as Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum, and in 2014 was promoted to Associate Professor ranking. In 2011 he joined the staff of the Chemistry Department at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently active as an Assistant Professor. His research interests include:\r\n(1) P-type ATPase Enzyme Kinetics and Mechanisms; (2) Kinetics and Mechanism of Redox Reactions; (3) Autocatalytic reactions; (4) Computational enzyme kinetics; (5) Allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP; (6) Exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in the cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. 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\r\n\tSustainable development focuses on linking economic development with environmental protection and social development to ensure future prosperity for people and the planet. To tackle global challenges of development and environment, the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. SDGs emphasize that environmental sustainability should be strongly linked to socio-economic development, which should be decoupled from escalating resource use and environmental degradation for the purpose of reducing environmental stress, enhancing human welfare, and improving regional equity. Moreover, sustainable development seeks a balance between human development and decrease in ecological/environmental marginal benefits. Under the increasing stress of climate change, many environmental problems have emerged causing severe impacts at both global and local scales, driving ecosystem service reduction and biodiversity loss. Humanity’s relationship with resource exploitation and environment protection is a major global concern, as new threats to human and environmental security emerge in the Anthropocene. Currently, the world is facing significant challenges in environmental sustainability to protect global environments and to restore degraded ecosystems, while maintaining human development with regional equality. Thus, environmental sustainability with healthy natural ecosystems is critical to maintaining human prosperity in our warming planet.
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