Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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There is a large number of organochlorine compounds known. Large amounts of chlorinated organic compounds are produced for industrial, agricultural, pharmaceutical, household purposes, etc. In many studies, the main focus is on OC that have been evaluated as environmental contaminants with toxic effects on humans. Different types of organochlorines have been produced throughout the world. Some of the most popular classes are organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, chlorobenzenes, chlorophenols, chlorinated alkanes, etc. Organochlorine compounds are very stable. Generally, they are molecules of moderate polarity (low solubility in water). This makes OCs easily soluble in fats. They are found in almost all environments: air, water, soil, sediments and biota samples. They can spread out easily in different geographic altitudes and latitudes. Volatile and semi-volatile OCs have the ability to travel far distances from the place where they were used. Some studies have reported some organochlorines in the North Pole at the same levels as the areas where they were produced or applied. They have the ability to bioaccumulate easily in biota. Passing through the food chain levels, they increase their concentrations (biomagnifying). The main access pathways for OCs to the human body are through foods and exposures. Generally, they display their effects after a relatively long period of exposure. This is the main reason why they were produced and used for a long time before their production and use was banned. The most important health effects that organochlorines can cause are: mutagenic, endocrine-disruptor, carcinogenic and central nervous or peripheral disorders. After identification of the consequences, production of OCs and use was banned in many countries but their effects are still being seen many years later.",isbn:"978-1-78984-264-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-263-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-798-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74499",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"organochlorine",numberOfPages:72,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"bb67784ff0ecf9cb18c3667be3c84c3c",bookSignature:"Aurel Nuro",publishedDate:"October 24th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7265.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4043,numberOfWosCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:11,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 20th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 13th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 12th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 31st 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 29th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"14427",title:"Dr.",name:"Aurel",middleName:null,surname:"Nuro",slug:"aurel-nuro",fullName:"Aurel Nuro",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14427/images/system/14427.jpg",biography:"Aurel Nuro was born in Albania in 1977. 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Combining RNA-Seq with immunoprecipitation and cross-linking techniques is a clever multi-omics strategy assessing transcriptional, post-transcriptional and post-translational levels of gene expression regulation.",isbn:"978-1-83962-815-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-686-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-816-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91555",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"applications-of-rna-seq-in-biology-and-medicine",numberOfPages:142,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"62399ea4ed0544b946dcbd1853b2d1b8",bookSignature:"Irina Vlasova-St. Louis",publishedDate:"October 13th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10369.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:1043,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfTotalCitations:1,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 25th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 22nd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 11th 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. St. Louis conducts discovery research in several key areas including infectious diseases, immunology, and oncology. 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She served as an Assistant Professor at the Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota. \r\nDr. Vlasova-St. Louis has expertise in several biological disciplines including infectious diseases, immunology, and bioinformatics. By integrating state-of-the-art techniques such as next-generation sequencing, she made numerous biomedical discoveries studying normal and pathological conditions at the molecular, cellular, and organismal levels. \r\nCurrently, Dr. St. Louis is a COVID-19 Associate, sponsored by the Association of Public Health Laboratories and the Center for Disease Control and Prevention. She leads the molecular surveillance program of novel SARS-CoV-2 variants. Additionally, she is conducting research at Johns Hopkins University within the Advanced Academic Program: Individualized Genomics and Health.",institutionString:"University of Minnesota",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Johns Hopkins University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"380",title:"Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-biochemistry-molecular-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"78478",title:"Introductory Chapter: Applications of RNA-Seq Diagnostics in Biology and Medicine",slug:"introductory-chapter-applications-of-rna-seq-diagnostics-in-biology-and-medicine",totalDownloads:108,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"211159",title:"Prof.",name:"Irina",surname:"Vlasova-St. Louis",slug:"irina-vlasova-st.-louis",fullName:"Irina Vlasova-St. Louis"}]},{id:"76720",title:"RNA Sequencing in Potentially Malignant Disorders",slug:"rna-sequencing-in-potentially-malignant-disorders",totalDownloads:174,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"334988",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramya",surname:"Ramadoss",slug:"ramya-ramadoss",fullName:"Ramya Ramadoss"},{id:"334997",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajkumar",surname:"Krishnan",slug:"rajkumar-krishnan",fullName:"Rajkumar Krishnan"},{id:"350018",title:"Dr.",name:"Lekshmy",surname:"Jayan",slug:"lekshmy-jayan",fullName:"Lekshmy Jayan"},{id:"415408",title:"Dr.",name:"Priyadharini",surname:"Shankaran",slug:"priyadharini-shankaran",fullName:"Priyadharini Shankaran"}]},{id:"75458",title:"Insights into Oropharyngeal Microbiota, Biofilms and Associated Diseases from Metagenomics and Transcriptomic Approaches",slug:"insights-into-oropharyngeal-microbiota-biofilms-and-associated-diseases-from-metagenomics-and-transc",totalDownloads:99,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"262335",title:"Dr.",name:"Richa",surname:"Priydarshini",slug:"richa-priydarshini",fullName:"Richa Priydarshini"},{id:"263707",title:"Dr.",name:"Karthik",surname:"Krishnan",slug:"karthik-krishnan",fullName:"Karthik Krishnan"},{id:"346817",title:"Ms.",name:"Rashmi",surname:"Niranjan",slug:"rashmi-niranjan",fullName:"Rashmi Niranjan"}]},{id:"76156",title:"Assessing Host-Pathogen Interaction Networks via RNA-Seq Profiling: A Systems Biology Approach",slug:"assessing-host-pathogen-interaction-networks-via-rna-seq-profiling-a-systems-biology-approach",totalDownloads:159,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"146264",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhassu",surname:"Subha",slug:"bhassu-subha",fullName:"Bhassu Subha"},{id:"346140",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Sudhesh Dev",surname:"Sareshma",slug:"sudhesh-dev-sareshma",fullName:"Sudhesh Dev Sareshma"}]},{id:"77730",title:"Diagnostic Applications for RNA-Seq Technology and Transcriptome Analyses in Human Diseases Caused by RNA Viruses",slug:"diagnostic-applications-for-rna-seq-technology-and-transcriptome-analyses-in-human-diseases-caused-b",totalDownloads:176,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"211159",title:"Prof.",name:"Irina",surname:"Vlasova-St. Louis",slug:"irina-vlasova-st.-louis",fullName:"Irina Vlasova-St. Louis"},{id:"414700",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",surname:"Gorzalski",slug:"andrew-gorzalski",fullName:"Andrew Gorzalski"},{id:"414701",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark",surname:"Pandori",slug:"mark-pandori",fullName:"Mark Pandori"}]},{id:"76430",title:"Recent Applications of RNA Sequencing in Food and Agriculture",slug:"recent-applications-of-rna-sequencing-in-food-and-agriculture",totalDownloads:336,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"78209",title:"Dr.",name:"Lloyd T.",surname:"Walker",slug:"lloyd-t.-walker",fullName:"Lloyd T. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Energy harvesting (EH) is a process of converting energy existing in other forms or wasted energy into electrical energy that can be used as an alternative to the existing energy sources. Despite the semantics behind the words harvesting and scavenging the first one has been widely accepted in literature and will be used throughout this paper. EH from vibrations has formed its own niche because many natural phenomena as well as man-made machines and structures generate vibrations that can be converted into electrical energy. For instance, different methods can be used, various materials can be employed, and linear, parametric or nonlinear systems can be utilised for optimising the devices’ efficiency. A number of transduction methods capable of such a conversion have been suggested, including piezoelectric, electromagnetic, electrostatic and triboelectric.
\n
EH using dielectric elastomeric materials is based on the principle of varying capacitance, however, instead of a traditional capacitor with two parallel plates separated by air a dielectric elastomer (DE) is used. This polymer, coated with compliant electrodes on each side, becomes a variable capacitance capacitor and can be used in two opposite modes: actuation, with a high potential in soft robotics and energy generation (Figure 1(a)). When the electric field is above its supported regime a DE is in the actuation zone, below—the generation one. Although there are many interesting and useful applications of DE actuators, this chapter will concentrate on the energy harvesting potential of DEs.
\n
Figure 1.
Basic principals of dielectric elastomer energy harvesting. (a) Actuation and generation zones. (b) The energy harvesting cycle for a dielectric elastomer.
\n
In the energy harvesting mode DEs can generate electricity when stretched by an externally applied force. The DE EH approach has recently seen an increasing amount of attention from a variety of science branches, including chemistry, electrical and mechanical engineering, robotics and MEMS, due to the multidisciplinary nature of the topic and a wide range of potential applications.
\n
Pioneering work on DE EH was conducted by Pelrine et al. [1], who set the basic principles of using DEs for EH. Since then various advantages and disadvantages of this EH method have been investigated, in particular in the context of its high energy density [2]. The maximum energy density that has been achieved by a DE generator is \n\n3.8\n\nμW\n/\n\nmm\n3\n\n\n [3], whereas the electromagnetic and piezoelectric generation resulted in \n\n2.21\n\nμW\n/\n\nmm\n3\n\n\n [4] and \n\n0.375\n\nμW\n/\n\nmm\n3\n\n\n [5] respectively.
\n
This chapter focuses on the DE EH applications and provides an overview of the work done up-to-date in the field, mainly after the book published in 2008 [6]. The chapter is divided into five sections based on the main components of the DE EH theory and cover electrical and material background, failure modes, initial voltage issue and applications.
\n
\n
\n
2. Electrical background
\n
The basic equation describing the behaviour of an ideal capacitor, with two parallel plates and air between them, is well-known and states that:
where \n\nQ\n\n is the charge held on the electrodes, \n\nV\n\n is the voltage over the capacitor and \n\nC\n\n is the capacitance, \n\nϵ\n\n is the relative permittivity of the substance between the plates, \n\n\nϵ\n0\n\n=\n8.854\n×\n\n10\n\n−\n12\n\n\n\n\nFm\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n is the permittivity of free space, \n\nA\n\n represents the effective area of the plates and \n\nz\n\n is the distance between the plates. When the distance between the plates is changed (the plates area is assumed to be a constant) the capacitance will be changed accordingly. Thus, the variable capacitance indicates the two energy harvesting schemes: constant voltage and constant charge. First one assumes the application of an initial voltage to the plates and then the distance between the two plates is reduced, leading to an increase in the capacitance and thereby in the charge increase that can be harvested at the minimum distance between two plates. A similar approach can be employed when the constant charge scheme is used. In this case increasing the distance between the two plates reduces the capacitance and thereby increases the voltage that can be harvested. The energy gain is related to the difference in its values between the maximum and minimum capacitances. The electrical energy stored in a classical capacitor is given by the following equation:
where the second equality can be obtained by using Eq. (1). However, in some applications moving physically capacitor plates is not feasible or efficient. Thus, a material mimicking the properties of a capacitor can be used instead and DEs are a perfect fit for that. Indeed, DEs are extremely poor conductors, relatively inexpensive in production and can be repeatedly deformed and stretched. To manufacture a DE-based capacitor a DE is sandwiched between two deformable electrodes serving as an insulator. Another important property of DEs from the EH point of view is their high deformability because it enables the capacitor to reach high values of the capacitance by stretching the DE and, subsequently, significantly reducing its thickness, i.e. \n\nz\n\n, as can be seen from Eq. (1) expressed in a slightly different form:
where \n\nP\n=\nAz\n\n is the material volume and \n\n\nε\nd\n\n\n is the relative permittivity of the dielectric elastomer. It should be noted that whilst the area of the electrodes (plates) for a conventional electrostatic energy harvester remains constant, the area of the DE capacitor changes under deformation. Since a DE can usually be treated as an incompressible material, i.e. its volume does not change under deformation, Eq. (1) can be expressed in the form of Eq. (3). Thus, cyclic stretching can be used to increase an initial bias voltage of the capacitor to a higher voltage that can be harvested. The diagram demonstrating all stages of this repeatable EH process is presented in Figure 1(b), where the numbers 1–4 in Figure 1(b) represent the stages of the energy harvesting cycle and may be explained as following:
The DE is stretched increasing the area of the electrodes and decreasing the thickness between the electrodes, leading to an increase in the capacitance.
A charge is placed over the DE.
The DE is allowed to return to its original shape that decreases the capacitance, resulting in a higher potential voltage over the elastomer.
The gained electrical energy is then removed.
\n
Pelrine et al. [1] derived the following formula for estimating the energy gain per cycle, \n\n\ne\ng\n\n\n:
where \n\n\nE\nc\n\n\n and \n\n\nE\ns\n\n\n, defined as \n\nE\n=\nV\n/\nz\n\n, represent the electric field at the contracted and stretched states, respectively.
\n
Having outlined the basic principle of energy harvesting using DEs, let us consider electrical methodology designed for EH. Currently, three EH schemes are being used: constant voltage, constant charge and constant field. The term ‘constant’ refers to the electrical state of the DE during the transition of the material from the stretched to its relaxed state. The first two schemes are the most investigated ones and have been used before in electrostatic EH; their advantages and disadvantages have been discussed in [7, 8]. The cycles’ stages for constant voltage and constant charge are shown in Figure 2(a) and (b), where \n\n\nλ\nmin\n\n\n and \n\n\nλ\nmax\n\n\n denote the minimum and maximum stretching states, respectively.
\n
Figure 2.
Common energy harvesting schemes. (a) Constant voltage scheme. (b) Constant charge scheme.
\n
The constant voltage scheme in Figure 2(a) begins with stretching the DE and charging it at its maximum stretching state (line 1). Reaching the maximum voltage, controlled by the electrical breakdown (Section 5), the material is released and returns to its unstretched state along the constant voltage line 2 with the corresponding decrease in the capacitance. To maintain the constant voltage the charge needs to be decreased from \n\n\nQ\nhigh\n\n\n to \n\n\nQ\nlow\n\n\n; the charge difference flows to a reservoir (e.g. battery) through the circuit controlled by diodes. The capacitor is then discharged into the reservoir so that the DE returns to its original state (line 3), and after that the next cycle can begin. The amount of harvested energy per one cycle is represented by the area circumscribed by the three lines and can be calculated as [8]:
where \n\nΔ\nC\n\n is the difference between high and low capacitance values.
\n
A range of electrical circuits for DE generators is discussed in [7]. In particular, it is mentioned that the constant voltage scheme is the most practical one to realise. This is due to the lack of switches that can be difficult to effectively integrate into a EH device, especially considering the exact timings necessary to achieve the maximum efficiency.
\n
The constant charge scheme is depicted in Figure 2(b) and uses the variable capacitor as a pump to move a charge from a low to high voltage. This is done by initially stretching the DE and placing a charge onto it while the latter is at its high stretching state (line 1). The power supply is then disconnected and the DE is released to return to its original state increasing the voltage from \n\n\nV\nlow\n\n\n to \n\n\nV\nhigh\n\n\n due to the decreasing capacitance (line 2). At this point the electrical energy is harvested and the DE reverts back to its initial state (line 3). The energy harvested per one cycle is represented by the area enclosed by the three lines and equals [8]:
Although the constant charge scheme may be useful and effective as shown by Blokhina et al. [9], who considered a constant charge circuit for a nonlinear electrostatic vibration energy harvester, it is hampered by its need for switches which can reduce the power output and increase the complexity of the entire circuit. Thus, following this argument and discussion in [7] it is save to say that the constant voltage scheme is more preferable for implementation. However, high voltage is not suitable for most micro-power devices operating at a low voltage, in which a DC-DC voltage step down is normally needed. This extra component can reduce the overall efficiency of the DE EH so that the constant charge scheme may provide a greater efficiency for such applications.
\n
Most recent works have been based on the electrical circuitry first implemented by Huang et al. [10], which operates according to the constant voltage scheme. In the latter work the authors devised an electrical circuit, shown in Figure 3(a), which can measure the charging and harvesting currents as well as the voltage over the DE. It has also been confirmed that there is a proportional quadratic dependence of the dielectric capacitance on the membrane stretch. Using this result it was found that the dielectric constant of the common DE VHB 4905 (3M) was \n\nϵ\n=\n4.03\n±\n0.17\n\n.
\n
Figure 3.
Dielectric elastomer energy harvesting circuits. (a) A common circuit for dielectric elastomer EH research. (b) A circuit highlighting features for the optimised scheme.
\n
The circuit shown in Figure 3(a) works as following. The DE is charged using a power supply; the charge passes through a rectifier diode, \n\n\nD\n1\n\n\n, at the maximum stretch of the DE. As the DE stretch reduces, the voltage initially increases at a constant charge, with no new charges flowing through \n\n\nD\n1\n\n\n. This continues until the voltage over the DE reaches a pre-determined discharge voltage, governed by the Zener diode \n\n\nD\n2\n\n\n. Once this voltage has been reached, the charge leaves the circuit through this diode. Finally, the membrane is stretched out again, lowering the voltage of the charge that remains, until the voltage reaches that of the power supply, which is connected again and the cycle is repeated. The circuit shown in Figure 3(a) is very useful for DE EH research since through its various components a large amount of information can be gathered about the behaviour of the DE generator. For example, using the lower of the three parallel branches, which behaves as a voltage divider, the voltage over the DE can be constantly monitored using \n\n\nV\n3\n\n\n. Similarly, \n\n\nV\n1\n\n\n and \n\n\nV\n2\n\n\n can be used to measure the charging and harvesting currents, respectively, utilising the measured voltage in each voltmeter and the known resistances. Once these currents are known the input and harvesting charges can be found using \n\nQ\n=\n∫\nidt\n\n. The net energy gain can then be estimated as \n\nΔ\nE\n=\n\n\n\nV\nhigh\n\n−\n\nV\nlow\n\n\n\nΔ\nQ\n\n.
\n
The above discussion is related to the ideal material behaviour with no failure modes considered and no losses taken into account. Electromechanical coupling, e.g. further stretching of a DE when a charge is applied and the corresponding change of the capacitance, has also not been mentioned. Since DEs may experience electrical and mechanical failures (Section 4) it is essential to account for them [2]. These failure modes, shown as curves on the \n\nQ\n−\nV\n\n plane in Figure 4(a), change the idealistic EH picture. Apparently, the maximum harvested energy corresponds to the maximum area enclosed by the lines connecting the maximum and minimum stretch states, without crossing to the failure regions. In Figure 4(a) such a cycle is constrained between the aforementioned upper and lower stretch states. It is also limited by two failure modes, dielectric breakdown (DB) and electromechanical instability (EMI), which are discussed in Section 4 in greater detail. An ‘optimal’ scheme, developed by Shian et al. [11], built upon the conventional EH schemes as shown in Figure 4(a). In [11] the authors proposed this new harvesting cycle, which utilises the circuit diagram shown in Figure 3(b). This scheme maximises the working area within the limits imposed by the failure criteria set out in [2]. The optimal cycle is shown in Figure 4(a) in black, whereas the areas for the constant voltage (green) and constant charge (blue) are also superimposed into the graphs to demonstrate the difference between the schemes. One can see clearly the benefits of the optimisation by simply comparing the corresponding areas. Following one of the conventional methods (constant voltage or charge) a designer must lose large sections of the available energy in order to avoid failure. It should be noted that the values for the stretch during the cycle and the maximum charge or voltage used in the conventional schemes can be used to alter their respective areas on Figure 4(a), in accordance with Eqs. (5) and (6). However, this system is hard to implement for a real DE material as its rate of the stretch decrease will not be as ideal as indicated in [12]. In that work the authors attempted to optimise the system of harvesting by showing an analytical method of determining the ideal stretch ratio at which the membrane discharging should occur. Additionally, Hoffstadt et al. [13] conducted an optimisation of the conventional EH cycles and determined the ideal charging and discharging times for maximal energy gain in the optimised scheme.
\n
Figure 4.
More recent energy harvesting schemes. (a) The optimised scheme. (b) Constant field scheme.
\n
The circuit, presented in Figure 3(b) was proposed to work with the above EH scheme. The first phase of this cycle is charging the DE at its maximum stretch state, after which switch 1 is used to disconnect the DE from the supply. The second phase of the cycle is decreasing the DE stretching. This sees the DE discharge into a temporary storage capacitor, \n\n\nΦ\nC\n\n\n, which is connected in parallel to the DE and the harvesting section of the circuit. This discharging to the capacitor will cause the charges on the actual DE to drop, however the voltage will continue to increase as shown by Eq. (3). The final stage of this cycle occurs at the low stretch state, where all electrical energy is removed from both the DE and the temporary capacitor.
\n
A relatively new constant field EH scheme, shown in Figure 4(b), proposed to improve the conventional schemes. This cycle begins with initial stretching of the DE to its maximum level (line 1). The DE is then charged up to an electric field pre-determined by the designer (line 2). After that the DE streching is reduced back to its original level at a constant electric field (line 3). It is worth to recall that the electric field is defined as \n\nE\n=\nV\n/\nz\n\n, therefore, at constant electric field a decrease in the DE stretching and the corresponding increase in the DE thickness lead to an increase in the voltage over the DE. This is an advantage over the constant charge scheme, since at the latter the electric field increases during the reduction of DE stretching that may cause failure due to dielectric breakdown (Section 4). The final stage of the circuit is to remove the electrical energy from the DE, returning the latter to its original state (line 4). Since failure by dielectric breakdown is of no concern for this scheme this allows the DE to be operated closer to its dielectric breakdown strength (Section 4). Czech et al. [14] analytically compared the ideal constant voltage, constant charge and constant electric field schemes and found that the constant electric field was the most effective. However, it should be noted that maximising the energy output by increasing the electric field may have an adverse effect on the lifespan of the generator [15].
\n
A few other works have been recently done on improving electrical aspects of DE EH, e.g. Kaltseis et al. [16] developed an experiment based on operating a DE generator between two charged reservoirs of different voltages that allowed them to monitor separately electrical and mechanical energies and determine the net energy gain.
\n
\n
\n
3. Material background
\n
DEs belong to a group of electroactive polymers (EAP) that received this name because of their ability of changing their shape under applied electrical field. Essential properties of DEs for EH applications are low mechanical stiffness, high dielectric constant, high electrical breakdown strength, high elastic energy density and high deformability. There are a number of DEs possessing these properties including acrylates (e.g. VHB 4905 and 4910), silicones, polyurethanes, rubbers, etc. It is also worth to note that DEs have a number of properties such as nonlinear stress-strain relationship, viscoelasticity (i.e. time-dependent behaviour), electromechanical coupling, temperature-dependent performance, etc., which significantly complicate the modelling and design of DE generators. Quite extensive overview of the main properties of these materials in the context of EH can be found in [17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. The relevant material properties of DEs and their modelling are also briefly considered further in this section.
\n
\n
3.1. Material properties
\n
A typical DE-based system (i.e. capacitor) comprises a DE membrane sandwiched between two electrodes, as depicted in Figure 5. Depending on the purpose of the system in-plane stretching of the DE can be done either by applying an electrical field (actuator) or mechanical deformation (harvester). The applied electrical field causes the so-called Maxwell stress in the material due to the interaction of opposite charges on both electrodes, resulting in the DE stretching. This concept has been well demonstrated, e.g. by Mockensturm et al. [22] who manipulated a DE membrane by altering the applied electric field to move the membrane between its various steady state equilibria. Tensile stresses in the plane of the DE membrane, caused by in-plane or out-of-plane loading, lead to the material deformation reducing the membrane thickness and increasing its area, thereby changing the capacitance of the DE-based capacitor.
\n
Figure 5.
Loading of a dielectric elastomer.
\n
A well-known material property of DEs is their high deformability, i.e. the ability to undergo large deformations without rupture. The stretch ratio (or simply stretch), defined as a ratio of the stretched length to the initial one \n\nλ\n=\n\nL\ns\n\n/\nL\n\n, may reach for some materials up to 900% [23, 24]. This property is very important since it enables to impose relatively high levels of pre-stretch on DE membranes that improves their material performance, in particular increases the dielectric (i.e. electrical breakdown) strength and reduces the effective compressive modulus [25]. At low deformations the material demonstrates strain softening that changes to stiffening at higher deformations. This type of mechanical behaviour is usually described by a hyperelastic constitutive model under the assumption that the DE is an ideally elastic material. Different hyperelastic models used for DEs will be briefly described in the next sub-section. To determine parameters of such models data from uniaxial tensile tests, and for more accurate determination also from biaxial tests, are needed. Results of uniaxial and biaxial tests of VHB 4910 were reported in [26, 23] and for silicone-based elastomers in [27]. Results of uniaxial tests of natural rubbers can be found in [28].
\n
Another important property that significantly affects the mechanical behaviour of DEs is viscoelasticity, which occurs due to the realignment of polymer chains of the materials under loading and leads to time-dependence of deformations and stresses. For example, stress-stretch (or strain) curves of DEs depend on the strain (i.e. loading) rate and are usually show stiffening with increase in the rate, e.g. [24]. In particular, viscoelasticity causes dissipation, i.e. losses, of the mechanical energy that, in its turn, reduces the efficiency of DE generators [10, 29, 30, 31]. The losses are associated with a hysteretic behaviour of a DE, i.e. the stress-stretch curves of the material follow different paths during loading-unloading forming a hysteresis loop whose area represents the energy loss, e.g. [32]. Creep and stress relaxation are other phenomena associated with viscoelasticity. Creep is usually defined as a time-dependent increase in deformation under constant load, while stress relaxation is a decrease in stress under constant deformation. Creep is more important for DE actuators, while stress relaxation may have a significance influence on the performance of both DE generators and actuators. Typical tests to determine viscoelastic characteristics of a DE as well as parameters of a model describing the material’s viscoelastic behaviour include loading-unloading tests at a range of strain rates, single-step relaxation tests at various stretch levels and multi-step relaxation tests, in which at each step loading follows by a sufficiently long holding period to allow for stress relaxation [32]. The tests are usually uniaxial, however, equi-biaxial tests may also be useful. Most of the experimental studies on the viscoelastic behaviour of DEs have been carried out for VHB 4905 and VHB 4910 [24, 26, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. In particular, it has been shown that for this material very rapid stress relaxation occurs within the first few seconds of holding, while after 30 min the remaining stress almost stabilises [32]. Past experiments also showed that for VHB polymers the viscoelastic relaxation time is of the order of 102 seconds at room temperature [37]. Pharr et al. [24] demonstrated that the strain rate and the specimen size had a noticeable influence on rupture of VHB 4905. Hossain et al. [33] reported results of relaxation tests under both mechanical and electric loading and showed that the latter had a major effect on the time-dependent behaviour of VHB 4910. A few results of similar experiments for other DEs have been published. In particular, Schmidt et al. [23] presented results of uniaxial and equi-biaxial relaxation tests for Interpenetrating Polymer Network Reinforced Acrylic Elastomers (IPN), which were produced on the basis of VHB 4910. Bernardi et al. [27] published similar results for silicone-based DEs.
\n
A hysteretic behaviour of DEs, especially of rubbers and rubber-like materials, and associated with it loss of mechanical energy can also be due to the so-called Mullins effect, also known as stress softening [38]. This effect causes a decay of the elastic stiffness of a material under repeated loading-unloading, which depends on the maximum stretch previously experienced by the material. Recommendations regarding experimental characterisation of the effect can be found in [39].
\n
Effects of the operating temperature on the material properties of VHB 4910 and the performance of a generator made of this material were investigated by Chen et al. [40]. In particular, it was found that the generator operated more efficiently under lower temperatures due to smaller viscoelastic losses.
\n
As can be seen from above, so far VHB 4905/10 (3MTM) have received most attention from researchers. However, other DEs, in particular natural rubbers and polyurethanes (PUR), have been also investigated and demonstrated good potential for EH, in some cases better than VHB, e.g. [28, 41, 42]. One of the researches, [41], examined the influence of stretching on the electrical properties, such as the electrical (or dielectric) breakdown strength (DBS) and dielectric constant, of VHB 4910 and natural rubber and suggested that the latter had advantages over VHB in the context of EH. It also necessary to note that in our overview of the DE material properties we mainly concentrated on their mechanical properties, while the electrical properties were only mentioned in relation to the last referred publication. Of course, the electrical properties of DEs are also very important for EH and were considered in a number of the references provided above. Detailed recommendations on experiments that can be used to determine both mechanical and electrical properties of DEs are given in [39].
\n
Finally, based on data presented in [43] we include Table 1, which provides the important mechanical and electrical properties of some DEs that can be used for EH. More information about specific DEs appearing in the table, in particular polyurethanes (i.e. PUR 1, PUR 2, etc.), can be found in the source [43]; acrylate means VHB 4905.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Name
\n
Mechanical properties
\n
Electrical properties
\n
\n
\n
DE thickness (μm)
\n
Break Strain (%)
\n
E at 50% (MPa)
\n
Creep (30 min) (10% Def.)
\n
\n\n\n\nε\nd\n\n\n (1/8 Hz)
\n
DBS (MV/m)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
PUR 1
\n
50
\n
421
\n
3.36
\n
24
\n
6
\n
218
\n
\n
\n
PUR 2
\n
50
\n
252
\n
1.47
\n
2.9
\n
7.1
\n
108
\n
\n
\n
PUR 3-1
\n
49
\n
251
\n
1.96
\n
1.9
\n
7.1
\n
132
\n
\n
\n
PUR 3-2
\n
97
\n
319
\n
1.3
\n
6.5
\n
8.0
\n
102
\n
\n
\n
Silicone
\n
45
\n
422
\n
0.25
\n
16
\n
2.5
\n
80
\n
\n
\n
Acrylate
\n
498
\n
879
\n
0.04
\n
70
\n
4.5
\n
31
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Comparison of various elastomer properties.
\n
\n
\n
3.2. Modelling
\n
Modelling is essential for the development and design of DE-based devices for EH. The idea is to simulate the performance of such devices using analytical and/or numerical models and reduce the need for time-consuming and relatively expensive experiments. Basic theory of DEs based on thermodynamics and continuum mechanics was described in [44]. In this section we overview some specifics of its practical implementation.
\n
As has been noted previously, the elastic behaviour of DEs under large finite deformations is usually modelled within the hyperelasticity framework. This means that the material is assumed to be ideally elastic and that stress-strain (or stretch) relationships are obtained based on a strain energy density function, which is expressed as a function of the invariants of the Cauchy-Green deformation tensor, e.g. [45]. Thus, a particular hyperelastic constitutive model fully depends on the corresponding formulation of the strain energy density function. So far various formations of the strain energy density function and, subsequently, hyperelastic models have been used to describe the elastic behaviour of DEs under large deformations, e.g. Neo-Hookean [46, 47, 48], Mooney-Rivlin [49], Ogden [27, 49, 50], Yeoh [51], Arruda-Boyce [26, 52] and Gent [48, 53, 54]. Of course, this list is far from being exhaustive. There are other hyperelastic models that could also be used for modelling the constitutive behaviour of DEs. Many researchers have compared the predictions provided by different hyperelastic models with the experimentally observed behaviour of DE membranes, e.g. Yeoh, Ogden and Arruda-Boyce [26], Mooney-Rivlin and Ogden [55], Neo-Hookean and Gent [48]. It is important to note there is no universal hyperelastic model that would provide accurate and reliable predictions for all DEs. A hyperelastic model that yields excellent results for a particular DE under specific conditions may be inapplicable for another DE. An extensive review of the hyperelastic models can be found in [56, 57].
\n
The hyperelastic models describe the time-invariant behaviour of DEs. However, this is not the case because of viscoelasticity. Thus, in order to achieve more realistic predictions of the DE performance under mechanical and/or electrical loading, especially cyclic or dynamic loading, the time-dependency due to viscoelasticity needs to be taken into account. Wissler and Mazza [51] suggested to use the quasi-linear viscoelastic (QLV) model. This model is based on the assumption that the relaxation function is independent of the stretch ratio (or strain), i.e. depends only on time. The relaxation function was determined based on experimental results using the so-called Prony series. To combine the hyperelastic and QLV models, the coefficients of the energy density function are multiplied by the relaxation function. The same approach was also used by Wang et al. [58]. The model provides reasonable for quasi-static creep and stress relaxation problems; however, its predictions noticeably deviated from experimental results in the case of dynamic loading as the number of cycles increased [26].
\n
Many researchers use models based on classical rheological models such as Maxwell and Kelvin-Voight with added elements. One of the most popular models is the so-called standard linear solid model presents a Maxwell element in parallel with an elastic spring, e.g. [37, 59, 60]. Others used an extended Kelvin-Voight model, i.e. a Kelvin-Voight element in series with an elastic spring [58, 61]. A model combining in parallel Maxwell and Kelvin-Voight elements has also been suggested [62]. Models based on the generalised Maxwell model, also known as Maxwell-Wiechert model, have also been proposed and implemented [56, 63, 64]. An extensive review of viscoelastic models can be found in [65].
\n
It is worth to note that the viscoelastic models described above were usually implemented for uniaxial or equi-biaxial problems that led to a set of ordinary differential equations, which were solved numerically. However, to solve more general problems or obtain more accurate results (i.e. avoid simplifying assumptions) the finite element (FE) modelling is needed. One of the main challenges here is to develop and implement finite elements that take into account electromechanical coupling since commercial FE software, e.g. ABAQUS, does not currently provide such an option. FE models for simulating the DE behaviour under both mechanical and electrical loads have been proposed in [66, 67, 68]. In particular, Henann et al. [67] employed the developed FE model to carry out an analysis of both DE actuator and generator. Jean-Mistral et al. [69] also used FE modelling to investigate a new technique for DE EH.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Failure modes
\n
In order to fully asses the DE generators potential the failure mechanisms have to be considered. In general there are two types of failures a DE device may face: material and manufacturing related. Whereas the former are discussed in this section the latter are not because they are mostly related to imperfections due to the manufacturing process. This group includes but not limited to failures due to non-uniform stretching of the material over the working area, poor or uneven distribution of charges (electrodes) over the working surface, loss of contact between electrodes and working surfaces, others malfunctioning of electrodes during normal operation. The material related failures may be combined into four groups: rupture by stretch, loss of tension, electrical breakdown and electromechanical instability.
\n
Rupture by stretching occurs when the membrane is stretched too much and the internal strain becomes too high leading to the material ripping, as explained by the classical stress-strain curve for a material. Loss of tension occurs when the initial voltage placed over the membrane is enough to remove the pre-strain put onto the generator in its construction.
\n
Dielectric breakdown is a complex topic, however it is enough to say that there is a specific electric field at which the membrane will essentially become a conductor and the generator will fail. As the electric field is given by \n\nE\n=\nV\n/\nz\n\n, the dielectric breakdown strength (DBS) is inversely proportional to the thickness, thus the thinner the material the larger its DBS [70]. This was investigated further by Tröls et al. [41] who reported how the dielectric breakdown strength and dielectric constant is influenced by the stretch of the material. Their main findings regarding \n\n\nE\nEB\n\n\n and \n\nϵ\n\n for 3MTM VHB 4910 are shown in Table 2. Pre-straining, typically performed during the manufacturing stage, can improve the DBS. The pre-straining is done by taking the DE to a minimum level of stretch \n\n\nλ\nmin\n\n\n in a device. Besides improving the DBS of the material, pre-straining negates the risk of failure by loss of tension. The increase in DBS of VHB 4910 (3MTM) by 1100% under an equal biaxial pre-straining of 500% has also been reported in [71].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Value
\n
\n\n\nλ\n=\n1\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\nλ\n=\n2\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\nλ\n=\n3\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\nλ\n=\n4\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\nλ\n=\n5\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n\nE\nEB\n\n\n V\n\n\nμm\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n\n
\n
–
\n
100
\n
124
\n
145
\n
163
\n
\n
\n
\n\n\nϵ\n\n (1 Hz)
\n
4.24
\n
–
\n
3.83
\n
–
\n
3.44
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Dependence of the electrical properties of VHB 4910 on the stretch ratio.
\n
Electromechanical instability occurs due to nonlinearities in the materials behaviour. As the membrane stretches due to increasing electrostatic forces, nonlinearities occur in the stretching and some areas will become wrinkled producing thinner and thicker sections.
\n
The failure modes associated with dielectric elastomers were investigated by Koh et al. [2] who derived the equations of failure for the two work conjugate planes of force-displacement and voltage-charge. These equations can then be plotted as lines on the respective graphs with the enclosed area representing the maximum working area, which can be used to find the maximum energy per cycle for a specific membrane. This work showed that for a membrane with modulus, \n\nμ\n=\n\n10\n6\n\nN\n/\n\nm\n2\n\n\n, permittivity of \n\nϵ\n=\n3.54\n×\n\n10\n\n−\n11\n\n\nF\n/\nm\n\n and density of \n\nρ\n=\n1000\n\nkg\n/\n\nm\n3\n\n\n, an energy gain of 6.3 J/g per cycle was achieved. However, this would be difficult to implement in experimental conditions. Pelrine and Kornbluh [72] then updated this describing the fundamental science and derivations behind dielectric elastomers as well as covering the failure methods and a variety of dielectric elastomer configurations. In addition to the commonly cited failure limits set out by Koh et al. [2], Zhou et al. [73] conducted an investigation into the performance and lifetime of dielectric elastomer generators subjected to a cyclic deformation. Their work hypothesised that a decrease in the generator output is due to fatigue cracks forming on the membrane. In order to minimise this effect a smaller strain and deformation rate is proposed to increase the lifetime of the device. With an increase in applied voltage keeping the output energy higher, in accordance with Eq. (4).
\n
Other failures that have not been mentioned above may be associated with the loss of electrical contacts, different stretching capabilities of the DEs and electrodes, fatigue and durability, as well as multiscale instabilities [74, 75].
\n
\n
\n
5. Initial voltage issue
\n
One of main concerns with dielectric elastomer generators (DEGs) is the need for an initial voltage. Given that the larger the supply voltage, the larger the energy gain, ideally the supply would be in the kilovolt range, which causes an issue for small-scale or portable generators. One solution to this problem is self-priming circuits proposed by McKay et al. [76]. This circuit allows any energy not used in powering the load to go back into the energy supply, so that over time this increases the power input to the system. In their experiment the input voltage was taken from an initial 10 V to 3250 V after only 236 cycles. This work is the basis for many future real world applications, since a high voltage DC power supply or transformer is not commonly available at small-scale portable sizes. This work would allow generators to be started with low voltage batteries and power up to a working voltage. Illenberger et al. [77] further advanced the theoretical aspect of self-priming circuits by providing a mathematical analysis backed up by experimental validation with an accuracy of 0.1% after five cycles. Panigrahi and Mishra [78] built and simulated an electrical model of a dielectric elastomer generator using the common electrical simulation software, Pspice.
\n
The use of self-priming circuits would allow other vibration energy harvesting techniques to be used to initialise a dielectric elastomer generator, which has been explored in some works including [69]. Their work used electret technology to generate a bias voltage of 100 V which acted as the input to the DEG. In a later publication [79] this idea was studied by a finite element modelling. In general there is a great potential in combining some other types of energy generation with the self-priming circuit to raise the bias voltage to a level required.
\n
\n
\n
6. Applications
\n
A clear metric of progress being made in any energy generation field is evidenced in the new applications and performances of new devices. For that reason this section will highlight some of the significant breakthroughs made in recent years.
\n
\n
6.1. Indoor tests
\n
Huang et al. [80] developed a DEG that was stretched radially, in-plane, in a laboratory setting. Their device had an energy density of 550 J/kg and an efficiency of 22.1%. McKay et al. [81] developed and tested a generator in laboratory conditions that consisted of 42 membranes placed on top of each other. The total volume of the device was \n\n0.86\n\n\ncm\n3\n\n\n and it could produce an output power of \n\n300\n\nμW\n\n at an excitation frequency of 0.5 Hz. This design was further developed [3] using 48 membranes within the same volume and a larger applied voltage saw the output power increase to \n\n1.8\n\nmW\n\n at \n\n1.6\n\nHz\n\n. Lai et al. [82] conducted a laboratory test on dielectric elastomers in the application of human walking. Their device was simple in nature and generated a relatively low energy gain, \n\n10\n−\n50\n\nμJ\n\n, however it did experimentally prove the validity of energy harvesting from human walking. Kaltseis et al. [16] conducted a laboratory based experiment on a dielectric elastomer generator in diaphragm mode and showed a specific energy of 102 mJ/g and an average power of 17 mW/g, however it only achieved a 7.5% efficiency.
\n
\n
\n
6.2. Wave energy converters
\n
There are several types of wave energy converters that utilises DEs. Moretti et al. [83] proposed a generator called poly-surge that has to be sealed to the seabed. Their numerical study based on this design provided an output of 1.56 MW; however, this was based on \n\n15\n\n\nm\n3\n\n\n of dielectric elastomer and a model, which unrealistically assumed no losses due to viscoelasticity. Later Moretti et al. [84] developed a generator, similar in principle to an oscillating water column (OWC) generator, but using DEs instead of an air turbine. Their generator had an output of \n\n0.3\n\nJ\n\n, or \n\n173\n\nJ\n/\nkg\n\n, which is equivalent to \n\n0.15\n\nW\n\n. Vertechy et al. [85] have also investigated an OWC generator and experimentally tested it in a tank at a scale of 1:50. Their scaled model produced a maximum power of 76.8 mW. However, if the model was built at its full scale size, the authors estimated that it would be capable of producing 68 kW of power at the optimal wave conditions of 2 m height and a period of 11.7 s. Lv et al. [48] developed a DE-based wave energy converter for capturing heaving motion of waves. Their work showed that as the input voltage increased the experimental and theoretical power output both increased as expected, but the efficiency dropped. This was mainly due to the current leakage at high voltage. The approximate energy output of the system was 0.25 mJ per cycle. Binh et al. [86] designed a floating wave energy converter that uses a control system, which aided in maximising the generated energy. The proposed control system allowed to increase the device efficiency of up to 25% in numerical simulations.
\n
\n
\n
6.3. Vibro-impact harvester
\n
Recently a novel DE-based device for EH from a vibrational motion has been proposed in [87, 88]. The main idea centres around a hollow cylinder, excited by an external force, and a free moving internal ball (friction was neglected), motion of which is constrained at both the ends of the cylinder by DE membranes. The ball motion is excited through its impacts against the DE membranes, which causes the membranes deformation (increase in the capacitance) leading to energy harvesting. The cylinder can be placed under an angle \n\nβ\n\n with respect to the horizon. For an inclination angle \n\nβ\n=\n0\n\n the motion of the cylinder should be large enough to engage the ball motion, however for any angle \n\nβ\n>\n0\n\n the ball will be at rest on the lower membrane and its separation from the membrane will be engaged under a set of certain conditions. This design was called vibro-impacting EH and the dynamics of the generator has been investigated for various initial conditions, angles of inclination and restitution coefficients under deterministic and random loading. Numerically simulations have shown the rich nonlinear dynamics of the harvesters and indicated a mechanism for the device optimisation.
\n
\n
\n
\n
7. Conclusions
\n
This chapter covers the fundamental aspects of Dielectric Elastomers and their potential application for Energy Harvesting. The chapter intended to overview the new developments made since the publication of [6]. There has been a significant progress made in understanding the material and electrical properties of DEs, optimisation of the energy harvesting process and modelling DEs. Some new ideas of ceasing the need for a substantial initial voltage using a self-priming circuit and ferroelectrics/electrets have been explored. New concepts of DE-based devices have been designed and tested. Nevertheless, it would be wrong to say that the behaviour of DEs and their capabilities have been entirely studied, thus more investigations are required.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"dielectric elastomer, circuits, materials, applications, electrostatic",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/60131.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/60131.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60131",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60131",totalDownloads:1207,totalViews:322,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:16,totalAltmetricsMentions:3,impactScore:6,impactScorePercentile:95,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"October 13th 2017",dateReviewed:"January 17th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 27th 2018",dateFinished:"March 22nd 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Dielectric elastomers are a type of electroactive polymers that can be conveniently used as sensors, actuators or energy harvesters and the latter is the focus of this review. The relatively high number of publications devoted to dielectric elastomers in recent years is a direct reflection of their diversity, applicability as well as nontrivial electrical and mechanical properties. This chapter provides a review of fundamental mechanical and electrical properties of dielectric elastomers and up-to-date information regarding new developments of this technology and it’s potential applications for energy harvesting from various vibration sources explored over the past decade.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/60131",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/60131",book:{id:"6509",slug:"energy-harvesting"},signatures:"Gordon Thomson, Daniil Yurchenko and Dimitri V. Val",authors:[{id:"227338",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Gordon",middleName:null,surname:"Thomson",fullName:"Gordon Thomson",slug:"gordon-thomson",email:"grt2@hw.ac.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"227344",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniil",middleName:null,surname:"Yurchenko",fullName:"Daniil Yurchenko",slug:"daniil-yurchenko",email:"D.Yurchenko@hw.ac.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"227346",title:"Prof.",name:"Dimitry",middleName:null,surname:"Val",fullName:"Dimitry Val",slug:"dimitry-val",email:"D.Val@hw.ac.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Electrical background",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Material background",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Material properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Modelling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Failure modes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Initial voltage issue",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"6. Applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"6.1. Indoor tests",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"6.2. Wave energy converters",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"6.3. Vibro-impact harvester",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"7. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Pelrine R, Kornbluh R, Eckerle J, Jeuck P, Oh S, Pei Q, Stanford S. Dielectric elastomers: Generator mode fundamentals and applications. Proceedings of SPIE. 2001;4329:148-156\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Koh SJA, Zhao X, Suo Z. Maximal energy that can be converted by a dielectric elastomer generator. Applied Physics Letters. 2009;94(26)\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Mckay TG, Rosset S, Anderson IA, Shea H. Dielectric elastomer generators that stack up. 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An electroactive polymer energy harvester for wireless sensor networks. In: Journal of Physics: Conference Series. Vol. 476, No. 1. IOP Publishing; 2013\n'},{id:"B82",body:'Lai H, Tan CA, Xu Y. Dielectric elastomer energy harvesting and its application to human walking. In: ASME 2011 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 2011 Jan 1; pp. 601-607\n'},{id:"B83",body:'Moretti G, Fontana M, Vertechy R. Model-based design and optimization of a dielectric elastomer power take-off for oscillating wave surge energy converters. Meccanica. 2015;50(11):2797-2813\n'},{id:"B84",body:'Moretti G, Righi M, Vertechy R, Fontana M. Fabrication and test of an inflated circular diaphragm dielectric elastomer generator based on pdms rubber composite. Polymer. 2017;9(7):283\n'},{id:"B85",body:'Vertechy R, Fontana M, Papini GPR, Forehand D. In-tank tests of a dielectric elastomer generator for wave energy harvesting. In: Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices (EAPAD) 2014. Vol. 9056. International Society for Optics and Photonics; 2014\n'},{id:"B86",body:'Binh PC, Ahn KK. Performance optimization of dielectric electro active polymers in wave energy converter application. International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing. 2016;17(9):1175-1185\n'},{id:"B87",body:'Yurchenko D, Val DV, Lai ZH, Gu G, Thomson G. Energy harvesting from a de-based dynamic vibro-impact system. Smart Materials and Structures. 2017;26(10)\n'},{id:"B88",body:'Yurchenko D, Lai ZH, Thomson G, Val DV, Bobryk RV. Parametric study of a novel vibro-impact energy harvesting system with dielectric elastomer. Applied Energy. 2017;208:456-470\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Gordon Thomson",address:"grt2@hw.ac.uk",affiliation:'
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Dimitri V. Val",address:null,affiliation:'
EGIS, Heriot-Watt University, UK
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1. Introduction
The Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) [1] is a microprocessor present on graphic cards or game consoles. It has a strong parallel framework initially dedicated to accelerating graphics tasks. Having this innovation and programming language General Purpose computation on GPUs (GPGPU) languages such as Compute Unified Device Architecture (CUDA) [2] and Open Computing Language (OpenCL) [3] enabled applications development in many domains.
CUDA is an NVIDIA Corporation programming model that runs only on NVIDIA GPUs. The OpenCL method, an effort of the Khronos Community, is very close to the CUDA method. However, this is a requirement open for parallel programming on various platforms: CPUs, GPUs, Digital Signal Processors (DSPs) and other types of processors. Taking into account that, OpenCL is able to manage several devices. The concept of context makes it possible to deal with this problem. A context designates a set of devices.
However, there are two major differences. The first difference is that OpenCL codes are much larger than CUDA C codes. The multiplatform side of OpenCL explains this. The second difference is that the kernel is built from the host code during runtime using the OpenCL runtime library [4].The OpenCL kernel can be used in two ways, expressly defining the working group’s local and global size and the local size or indirectly leaving OpenCL to select its global size of working group. The size of a working group equals a CUDA thread size block, the size of a working group is also known as ND Range configuration, as seen in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Model of software programming.
The two languages provide similar hierarchical decomposition of the computation index space explained on Table 1. The synchronization is available on thread block/ work-group level only.
CUDA
OpenCL
Grid
NDRange
Thread Block
Work group
Thread
Work item
Thread ID
Global ID
Block index
Block ID
Table 1.
Execution model terminology mapping.
This paper proposed an implementation of the Sum of Absolute Differences (SAD) of the High Efficiency Video Coding (HEVC) Motion Estimation (ME) algorithm on an NVIDIA GPU using CUDA and OpenCL languages to compare their performances.
This manuscript is structured as follows: Section 2 introduces the HEVC SAD algorithm. In Section 3, an overview of ME is given. Section 4 gives and describes the SAD kernel proposed. In Section 4 the experimental results and the discussion are given. Finally, Section 5 concludes this paper.
2. HEVC ME feature
The key element of HEVC is the ME, which represent the most time-consuming task in video coding. Actually, the complexity of ME increases significantly due to the increase in the coding block size [5]. Inter-prediction requires a great complexity burden of up to 80% [6] in the total encoding process, due to the ME, which consumes around 70% of the inter-prediction time, as mentioned Figure 2 [6].
Figure 2.
HEVC inter-prediction time distribution [6].
ME is performed on a block-by-block basis and supports variable block sizes in HEVC. This coding tree unit (CTU) structure, which offers a compromise between a good quality and a less bit-rate, is based on three new concepts: coding unit (CU), prediction unit (PU), and transform unit (TU) [7, 8].
Each picture is divided into CTU of size 64 × 64 pixels, which can be partitioned after that into 4 CUs [9] sized from 8 × 8 to 64 × 64 pixels. These regions of CU contain one or several PUs and TUs.
In the HEVC ME algorithm, SAD and SSD are the most requested functions. These several cost functions are used to decide the best coding mode and its associated parameters. An idea of the SAD is given in the next subsection.
3. HEVC SAD algorithm
The calculation of the Sum of Absolute Difference (SAD) is commonly used for motion estimation in video coding. This is usually the computational intensive part of video processing [10, 11]. It computes the difference between the pixel intensity of the current and reference frame macro block. The motion compensation block size is N × N, where, Currenti,j, and Referencei,jare current and reference frame block [12].
SAD=∑i=0N−1∑j=0N−1Currenti,j−Referencei,jE1
SAD is also used as an error calculation in order to define the similar block and to evaluate the motion vector in the motion estimation phase [13]. SAD is a simple and fast evaluation metric. This calculation takes every pixel in a block into an account. For many motion estimation algorithms, it is therefore very efficient (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Block matching algorithm based on SAD.
4. Proposed SAD kernel
The calculation of the SAD can be parallelized using GUP since it treats each pixel separately, which corresponds to the architecture of the graphics processors 2D-grid of threads blocks which computes all disparities for 2D blocks of the image. Each thread computes the SAD value for a block in the search range, and a thread block calculates the entire SAD value for an image block. The benefit is that all SADs are calculated in the same thread block for an image block.
In [14] the authors implemented the SAD on the general purpose GPU architecture. A significant acceleration of 204x for an image size of 1024 × 768 was obtained for SAD on the GeeForce GTX 280 compared to the serial implementation as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Typical mapping of a block-matching algorithm to a GPU.
The SAD kernel is composed of two main steps. The subtraction of the PU pixels then the summation. The addition was achieved on the GPU with the parallel reduction. In step1, the first N/2 elements are added to the other N/2. In the result, in the step 2, we have N/2 elements to add up. The first half was added to the next half. The same steps are repeated until there is only one number remaining as shown in Figure 5 [15].
Figure 5.
Reduction technique.
5. Experimental results
5.1 OpenCL performance on GPU compared the CPU one
OpenCL offers a convenient way to construct heterogeneous computing systems and opportunities to improve parallel application performance. As first step, the OpenCL SAD kernel was implemented in two platforms: CPU with 4 cores at frequency 2.5 GHz and an NVDIA GPU 920 m of 954 MHz as frequency. The SAD block dimensions are from 4 × 8 to 64 × 64 pixels. A comparative analysis was made on the same video between the CPU and GPU is seen in Figure 6. It is clear from the next figure that the GPU execution time is greater than CPU execution (Figure 7) [16].
Figure 6.
Performance OpenCL comparison with GPU and CPU platforms.
Figure 7.
Speed-up using OpenCL language.
When using the Eq. (2), Figure 6 indicates the speed up [17] of the both implementations.
Speed−up=CPUexecution time/GPUexecution timeE2
The speed up shows that the GPU platform is more efficient than the CPU platform, and this is due to the efficient parallel architecture of GPU compared to CPU. To validate the OpenCL code compared to the CUDA code the next study is proposed.
5.2 Execution performance OpenCL GPU compared to CUDA GPU
Running the application through GPU requires these steps as it is shown in Figure 8. For OpenCL, approach contains GPU detection and kernel compilation. The CPU input is read from the host to the device by all frameworks; the kernel is executed on the GPU; the device is returned to the host by copy data. Finally, the results are displayed on CPU.
Figure 8.
Algorithm flow.
Table 2 reports the kernel running time for different size of Prediction Unit (PU) (designed the block size used). In order to get repeated average times, we fixed each problem 10 times for both CUDA and OpenCL.
Block sizes
GPU execution time (μs)
CUDA language
OpenCL language
CU 8 × 8
PU 4 × 8
6.63
5.592
PU 8 × 4
6.885
5.482
PU 8 × 8
7.573
5.831
CU 16 × 16
PU 8 × 16
8.224
6.013
PU 16 × 8
8.402
5.909
PU 16 × 16
8.992
6.356
CU 32 × 32
PU 16 × 32
10.17
6.451
PU 32 × 16
9.037
6.503
PU 32 × 32
9.729
6.877
CU 64 × 64
PU 32 × 64
10.265
7.964
PU 64 × 32
13.1
7.297
PU 64 × 64
13.687
8.614
Table 2.
GPU and CPU application running times in seconds.
We use a normalized performance metric, called Performance (PR), to compare the performance of CUDA and OpenCL (Figure 9).
Figure 9.
Performance ratio.
PR=CUDAexecution time/OpenCLexecution timeE3
If performance ratio is greater than 1, OpenCL will give a better results compared to CUDA language. As shown in Figure 8, the performance ratio indicates that the OpenCL kernel running time is better than CUDA kernel running for each size block. Similar results are obtained by Frang et al. [18] and Exterman [19], respectively.
5.3 Comparative study
In this section, we compared the time performance of our proposed implementation to State-of-the-Art process [20, 21].
In the work presented by Xiao et al. [20], when comparing the result of the proposed with the HEVC reference software, experimental results show that the proposed GPU implementation achieves 34.4% encoding time reduction on average while the BD-rate increase is only about 2% for a typical low delay setting. Another interesting work is proposed by Karimi et al. [21] used a specific real-world application to compare the performance of CUDA with NVIDIA’s implementation of OpenCL. Contrary to our results, CUDA’s kernel execution was here consistently faster than OpenCl’s, despite the two implementations running nearly identical code. CUDA seems to be a better choice for applications where achieving as high a performance as possible is important. Otherwise the choice between OpenCL and CUDA can be made by considering factors such as prior familiarity with either system, or available development tools for the target GPU hardware. The performance will be dependent on some variables, including code quality, algorithm type and hardware type.
6. Conclusion
OpenCL is quite competitive with CUDA on the NVIDIA graphics processor in terms of performance. In this work, the use of OpenCL as a portable language for the development of GPGPU applications was studied. SAD is the largest part of runtime and calculation in motion estimation the reduction technique was used to implement the SAD, which significantly allows reducing the run time. The performance ratio was equals to 2 when comparing the OpenCL implementation to the CUDA one.
Paralleling multiple GPU algorithms could improve performance. In addition to the ME algorithm of the Joint Collaborative Video Coding Team (JCT-VC) [22], we assume that the suggested concept can also be applied.
Networked Objects, Control, and Communication Systems Laboratory (NOCCS), National Engineering School of Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia
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The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
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Every year, the number of palm oil mills increases rapidly, thus increasing the capacity of fresh fruit bunch waste or effluent discharge. Based on the data from the Malaysian Palm Oil Board in 2012, Malaysia produced 99.85 million tons of fresh fruit bunch (FFB) per year. However, about 5–5.7 tons of water was required in order to sterilize the palm fruit bunches and clarify the extracted oil to produce 1 ton of crude palm oil resulting in 50% of the water turning into palm oil mill effluent (POME). POME is one of the major environmental pollutants in Malaysia. The characteristics of POME and its behavior, if discharged directly, in water are described in this chapter. The suspended solid and nutrient content in POME could be able to support the growth of algae. This chapter aims to demonstrate that POME could be used as a main source for algae production, and this effluent is one of the main environmental problems in the tropical region especially in Malaysia.",book:{id:"6730",slug:"palm-oil",title:"Palm Oil",fullTitle:"Palm Oil"},signatures:"Hesam Kamyab, Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan, Mohd Fadhil Md Din,\nShahabaldin Rezania, Tayebeh Khademi and Ashok Kumar",authors:[{id:"225957",title:"Dr.",name:"Hesam",middleName:null,surname:"Kamyab",slug:"hesam-kamyab",fullName:"Hesam Kamyab"},{id:"237449",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreeshivadasan",middleName:null,surname:"Chelliapan",slug:"shreeshivadasan-chelliapan",fullName:"Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan"},{id:"241504",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Fadhil",middleName:null,surname:"Md Din",slug:"mohd-fadhil-md-din",fullName:"Mohd Fadhil Md Din"},{id:"241505",title:"Dr.",name:"Shahabaldin",middleName:null,surname:"Rezania",slug:"shahabaldin-rezania",fullName:"Shahabaldin Rezania"},{id:"241506",title:"Dr.",name:"Tayebeh",middleName:null,surname:"Khademi",slug:"tayebeh-khademi",fullName:"Tayebeh Khademi"},{id:"241508",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashok",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"ashok-kumar",fullName:"Ashok Kumar"}]},{id:"38711",doi:"10.5772/51238",title:"Hydrogen Storage for Energy Application",slug:"hydrogen-storage-for-energy-application",totalDownloads:12195,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:41,abstract:null,book:{id:"2873",slug:"hydrogen-storage",title:"Hydrogen Storage",fullTitle:"Hydrogen Storage"},signatures:"Rahul Krishna, Elby Titus, Maryam Salimian, Olena Okhay, Sivakumar Rajendran, Ananth Rajkumar, J. 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Many common products and foods are derived from oil palm, its making them one of the most economically important plants. On the other hand, declining supply of raw materials from natural resources has motivated researchers to find alternatives to produce new materials from sustainable resources like oil palm. Oil palm waste is possibly an ideal source for cellulose-based natural fibers and particles. Generally, oil palm waste such as oil palm empty fruit bunches, oil palm trunk, oil palm shell and oil palm ash are good source of biomaterials. Lack of sufficient documentation of existing scientific information about the utilization of oil palm waste raw materials for biomaterial production is the driving force behind the this chapter. Incorporation of various types of biomaterial derived from oil palm waste resources as reinforcement in polymer matrices lead to the development of biocomposites products and this can be used in wide range of potential applications. Properties and characterization of biomaterial from oil palm waste will not only help to promote further study on nanomaterials derived from non-wood materials but also emphasize the importance of commercially exploit oil palm waste for sustainable products.",book:{id:"6730",slug:"palm-oil",title:"Palm Oil",fullTitle:"Palm Oil"},signatures:"Rudi Dungani, Pingkan Aditiawati, Sri Aprilia, Karnita Yuniarti, Tati\nKarliati, Ichsan Suwandhi and Ihak Sumardi",authors:[{id:"220081",title:"Dr.",name:"Pingkan",middleName:null,surname:"Aditiawati",slug:"pingkan-aditiawati",fullName:"Pingkan Aditiawati"},{id:"234728",title:"Dr.",name:"Rudi",middleName:null,surname:"Dungani",slug:"rudi-dungani",fullName:"Rudi Dungani"},{id:"249537",title:"Dr.",name:"Sri",middleName:null,surname:"Aprilia",slug:"sri-aprilia",fullName:"Sri Aprilia"},{id:"249539",title:"Dr.",name:"Karnita",middleName:null,surname:"Yuniarti",slug:"karnita-yuniarti",fullName:"Karnita Yuniarti"},{id:"249541",title:"Dr.",name:"Tati",middleName:null,surname:"Karliati",slug:"tati-karliati",fullName:"Tati Karliati"},{id:"249542",title:"Dr.",name:"Ichsan",middleName:null,surname:"Suwandi",slug:"ichsan-suwandi",fullName:"Ichsan Suwandi"},{id:"249543",title:"Dr.",name:"Ihak",middleName:null,surname:"Sumardi",slug:"ihak-sumardi",fullName:"Ihak Sumardi"},{id:"256251",title:"Dr.",name:"Sri",middleName:null,surname:"Hartati",slug:"sri-hartati",fullName:"Sri Hartati"}]},{id:"52155",doi:"10.5772/64828",title:"EOR Processes, Opportunities and Technological Advancements",slug:"eor-processes-opportunities-and-technological-advancements",totalDownloads:5455,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes are well known for their efficiency in incrementing oil production; however, the selection of the most suitable method to adopt for specific field applications is challenging. Hence, this chapter presents an overview of different EOR techniques currently applied in oil fields, the opportunities associated with these techniques, key technological advancements to guide the decision‐making process for optimum applicability and productivity and a brief review of field applications.",book:{id:"5143",slug:"chemical-enhanced-oil-recovery-ceor-a-practical-overview",title:"Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery (cEOR)",fullTitle:"Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery (cEOR) - a Practical Overview"},signatures:"Lezorgia Nekabari Nwidee, Stephen Theophilus, Ahmed Barifcani,\nMohammad Sarmadivaleh and Stefan Iglauer",authors:[{id:"37799",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Iglauer",slug:"stefan-iglauer",fullName:"Stefan Iglauer"},{id:"179076",title:"Dr.",name:"Lezorgia",middleName:"Nekabari",surname:"Nwidee",slug:"lezorgia-nwidee",fullName:"Lezorgia Nwidee"},{id:"179077",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Barifcani",slug:"ahmed-barifcani",fullName:"Ahmed Barifcani"},{id:"179078",title:"Prof.",name:"Stephen",middleName:null,surname:"Theophilus",slug:"stephen-theophilus",fullName:"Stephen Theophilus"},{id:"189371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarmadivaleh",slug:"mohammad-sarmadivaleh",fullName:"Mohammad Sarmadivaleh"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52155",title:"EOR Processes, Opportunities and Technological Advancements",slug:"eor-processes-opportunities-and-technological-advancements",totalDownloads:5455,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes are well known for their efficiency in incrementing oil production; however, the selection of the most suitable method to adopt for specific field applications is challenging. Hence, this chapter presents an overview of different EOR techniques currently applied in oil fields, the opportunities associated with these techniques, key technological advancements to guide the decision‐making process for optimum applicability and productivity and a brief review of field applications.",book:{id:"5143",slug:"chemical-enhanced-oil-recovery-ceor-a-practical-overview",title:"Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery (cEOR)",fullTitle:"Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery (cEOR) - a Practical Overview"},signatures:"Lezorgia Nekabari Nwidee, Stephen Theophilus, Ahmed Barifcani,\nMohammad Sarmadivaleh and Stefan Iglauer",authors:[{id:"37799",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Iglauer",slug:"stefan-iglauer",fullName:"Stefan Iglauer"},{id:"179076",title:"Dr.",name:"Lezorgia",middleName:"Nekabari",surname:"Nwidee",slug:"lezorgia-nwidee",fullName:"Lezorgia Nwidee"},{id:"179077",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Barifcani",slug:"ahmed-barifcani",fullName:"Ahmed Barifcani"},{id:"179078",title:"Prof.",name:"Stephen",middleName:null,surname:"Theophilus",slug:"stephen-theophilus",fullName:"Stephen Theophilus"},{id:"189371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarmadivaleh",slug:"mohammad-sarmadivaleh",fullName:"Mohammad Sarmadivaleh"}]},{id:"60752",title:"Biomaterial from Oil Palm Waste: Properties, Characterization and Applications",slug:"biomaterial-from-oil-palm-waste-properties-characterization-and-applications",totalDownloads:2832,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:38,abstract:"Oil palm are among the best known and most extensively cultivated plant families, especially Indonesia and Malaysia. Many common products and foods are derived from oil palm, its making them one of the most economically important plants. On the other hand, declining supply of raw materials from natural resources has motivated researchers to find alternatives to produce new materials from sustainable resources like oil palm. Oil palm waste is possibly an ideal source for cellulose-based natural fibers and particles. Generally, oil palm waste such as oil palm empty fruit bunches, oil palm trunk, oil palm shell and oil palm ash are good source of biomaterials. Lack of sufficient documentation of existing scientific information about the utilization of oil palm waste raw materials for biomaterial production is the driving force behind the this chapter. Incorporation of various types of biomaterial derived from oil palm waste resources as reinforcement in polymer matrices lead to the development of biocomposites products and this can be used in wide range of potential applications. Properties and characterization of biomaterial from oil palm waste will not only help to promote further study on nanomaterials derived from non-wood materials but also emphasize the importance of commercially exploit oil palm waste for sustainable products.",book:{id:"6730",slug:"palm-oil",title:"Palm Oil",fullTitle:"Palm Oil"},signatures:"Rudi Dungani, Pingkan Aditiawati, Sri Aprilia, Karnita Yuniarti, Tati\nKarliati, Ichsan Suwandhi and Ihak Sumardi",authors:[{id:"220081",title:"Dr.",name:"Pingkan",middleName:null,surname:"Aditiawati",slug:"pingkan-aditiawati",fullName:"Pingkan Aditiawati"},{id:"234728",title:"Dr.",name:"Rudi",middleName:null,surname:"Dungani",slug:"rudi-dungani",fullName:"Rudi Dungani"},{id:"249537",title:"Dr.",name:"Sri",middleName:null,surname:"Aprilia",slug:"sri-aprilia",fullName:"Sri Aprilia"},{id:"249539",title:"Dr.",name:"Karnita",middleName:null,surname:"Yuniarti",slug:"karnita-yuniarti",fullName:"Karnita Yuniarti"},{id:"249541",title:"Dr.",name:"Tati",middleName:null,surname:"Karliati",slug:"tati-karliati",fullName:"Tati Karliati"},{id:"249542",title:"Dr.",name:"Ichsan",middleName:null,surname:"Suwandi",slug:"ichsan-suwandi",fullName:"Ichsan Suwandi"},{id:"249543",title:"Dr.",name:"Ihak",middleName:null,surname:"Sumardi",slug:"ihak-sumardi",fullName:"Ihak Sumardi"},{id:"256251",title:"Dr.",name:"Sri",middleName:null,surname:"Hartati",slug:"sri-hartati",fullName:"Sri Hartati"}]},{id:"66623",title:"Catalytic Dehydration of Glycerine to Acrolein",slug:"catalytic-dehydration-of-glycerine-to-acrolein",totalDownloads:1425,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The biodiesel production yields glycerine as a by-product in quantities around 10 vol% of produced biodiesel. Acrolein can be obtained from glycerine by a dehydration reaction. Catalytic processes in gas phase have been developed to obtain acrolein from a renewable feedstock using heterogeneous catalysts. The main process variables are the reaction temperature, the concentration of glycerol in water, and the space velocity in fixed-bed reactors. A thermodynamic study of the equilibrium has been made to estimate the conversion to equilibrium as a function of temperature. The reactors have been heated usually between 523 and 603 K. Generally, an aqueous glycerol solution is preheated in a preheating zone at a temperature enough to vaporize the feedstock, between 473 and 533 K, depending on the concentration of reactant required in the feed. Some of the most active catalysts in the gas-phase reaction (yield >70%) were NH4-La-β zeolite, Pd/LaY zeolite, hierarchical ZSM-5, WO3/ZrO2, WO3/TiO2, ZrOx-NbOx, WOx-NbOx, WO3-SiO2/ZrO2, NbOx-WOx/Al2O3, H3PO4-MCM-41, SAPO-40, NbPSi, Pd-H3PW12O40/Zr-MCM-41, H3PW12O40/Cs-SBA-15, H3PW12O40/Nb2O5, Cs-doped H4SiW12O40/Al2O3, H4SiW12O40/TiO2, and H4SiW12O40/SiO2.",book:{id:"8448",slug:"glycerine-production-and-transformation-an-innovative-platform-for-sustainable-biorefinery-and-energy",title:"Glycerine Production and Transformation",fullTitle:"Glycerine Production and Transformation - An Innovative Platform for Sustainable Biorefinery and Energy"},signatures:"Israel Pala Rosas, Jose Luis Contreras Larios , Beatriz Zeifert and José Salmones Blásquez",authors:[{id:"94936",title:"Dr.",name:"José Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras",slug:"jose-luis-contreras",fullName:"José Luis Contreras"},{id:"284261",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Israel",middleName:null,surname:"Pala-Rosas",slug:"israel-pala-rosas",fullName:"Israel Pala-Rosas"},{id:"284262",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Salmones",slug:"jose-salmones",fullName:"Jose Salmones"},{id:"284263",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Zeifert",slug:"beatriz-zeifert",fullName:"Beatriz Zeifert"},{id:"295779",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras",slug:"jose-luis-contreras",fullName:"Jose Luis Contreras"}]},{id:"64816",title:"PVT Properties of Black Crude Oil",slug:"pvt-properties-of-black-crude-oil",totalDownloads:1572,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Precise PVT studies and behavior of phase-equilibrium of petroleum reservoir fluids are essential for describing these fluids and appraising their volumetric behavior at several pressure stages. There are numerous laboratory studies that can be performed on a reservoir sample. The amount of data desired determines the number of tests to be performed in the laboratory. Generally, there are three laboratory tests which characterize hydrocarbon fluids, namely primary study, constant mass depletion, and differential vaporization test. Generally, PVT properties are determined either experimentally or calculated theoretically through published correlations. This chapter presents different PVT laboratory tests that are required to understand the phase behavior of black oils.",book:{id:"7323",slug:"processing-of-heavy-crude-oils-challenges-and-opportunities",title:"Processing of Heavy Crude Oils",fullTitle:"Processing of Heavy Crude Oils - Challenges and Opportunities"},signatures:"Abdelaziz El-Hoshoudy and Saad Desouky",authors:[{id:"201556",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelaziz",middleName:"Nasr",surname:"El-Hoshoudy",slug:"abdelaziz-el-hoshoudy",fullName:"Abdelaziz El-Hoshoudy"},{id:"210639",title:"Dr.",name:"Saad M.",middleName:null,surname:"Desouky",slug:"saad-m.-desouky",fullName:"Saad M. Desouky"}]},{id:"64885",title:"Environmental Challenges Associated with Processing of Heavy Crude Oils",slug:"environmental-challenges-associated-with-processing-of-heavy-crude-oils",totalDownloads:890,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The petroleum industry is one of the largest industries in the world and plays a pivotal part in driving a nation’s economy. However, the exploration and exploitation of heavy crude oil have raised series of environmental challenges and caused increased concern for the communities where the oil refineries are cited. Activities such as gas flaring and oil spillage have led to the release of toxic organic and inorganic pollutants, which has resulted in acid rain, climate change, and contamination of soil, water, and air. These environmental hazards have caused adverse effects directly or indirectly to the ecosystem. This chapter offers a general overview of the processes involved in the processing and some of the potential environmental challenges associated with heavy crude oil processing.",book:{id:"7323",slug:"processing-of-heavy-crude-oils-challenges-and-opportunities",title:"Processing of Heavy Crude Oils",fullTitle:"Processing of Heavy Crude Oils - Challenges and Opportunities"},signatures:"Samuel O. Sojinu and Onome Ejeromedoghene",authors:[{id:"265172",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Sojinu",slug:"samuel-sojinu",fullName:"Samuel Sojinu"},{id:"275861",title:"Mr.",name:"Onome",middleName:null,surname:"Ejeromedoghene",slug:"onome-ejeromedoghene",fullName:"Onome Ejeromedoghene"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"702",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81472",title:"Improving Reserves and Well Productivity Using Modern Technologies",slug:"improving-reserves-and-well-productivity-using-modern-technologies",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102897",abstract:"The oil trapped in a reservoir rock through geological processes over millions of years is called the Original Oil in Place (OOIP). Oil recovery factor (RF) represents the recoverable fraction of OOIP. We do not have any control on the quantity of OOIP. However, the volume that we can recover is partly in our control. Through proper well placement, engineering, and production technologies, we can recover anywhere from 5 to 70% of OOIP. Exactly how much we will recover depends on the techniques employed and the nature of the reservoir. The economically recoverable oil is called the reserves. In this chapter, we will talk about various oil field technologies that can be employed to maximize petroleum reserves. We will explore some emerging technologies and processes that have helped some fields achieve 70% recovery factor while others are trailing behind, stuck at an average of 35% recovery factor, some as low as 10%. Despite all the hype, and many decades of research, Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) is contributing just about 4% of total world production, and most of it is from thermal EOR. We need a profound shift in the EOR technology application required to make it simple and widely applicable.",book:{id:"10856",title:"Crude Oil - New Technologies and Recent Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg"},signatures:"Haq Minhas"},{id:"78298",title:"Technologies Involved in the Demulsification of Crude Oil",slug:"technologies-involved-in-the-demulsification-of-crude-oil",totalDownloads:132,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99743",abstract:"Due to the use of enhanced recovery processes that necessitate the use of a considerable amount of water, mature petroleum reservoirs generate crude oil with huge amounts of water. The majority of this water gets emulsified into crude oil during production, increasing viscosity and making flow more difficult, resulting in production, transportation, and refining operational challenges that have an influence on corporate productivity. Natural surfactants with a strong potential to create stable emulsions are naturally mixed with crude oils. Because crudes with a high amount of stable emulsion have a lower value, the stable emulsion must be adequately processed to meet industrial requirements. As a result, basic research on natural surfactants that contribute to emulsion stability is examined in order to effectively separate emulsions into oil and water. This would need a review of various emulsification methods as well as the proper formulation for effective demulsification. The petroleum industry recognizes the importance of an efficient demulsification procedure for treating emulsions. Numerous studies on the mechanisms of emulsification and demulsification have been undertaken for decades. To guarantee optimal hydrocarbon output, effective treatment is required. The present paper is to review reported works on the formation of petroleum emulsions, demulsification treatments, and characteristics of fit-for-purpose demulsifiers as well as research trends in emulsion treatment.",book:{id:"10856",title:"Crude Oil - New Technologies and Recent Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg"},signatures:"Karthika Rajamanickam"},{id:"78507",title:"Actinomycetes as An Environmental Scrubber",slug:"actinomycetes-as-an-environmental-scrubber",totalDownloads:145,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99187",abstract:"Biotechnological tools engaged in the bioremediation process are in reality, sophisticated and dynamic in character. For specialized reasons, a broad variety of such devices are employed to produce a safe and balanced environment free of all types of toxins and so make life simpler for humans on planet Earth. Actinomycetes is one of these extremely important and functionally helpful groups. They can be used for a variety of bioremediation objectives, including biotransformation, biodegradation, and many more. Actinomycetes are one of the most varied groups of filamentous bacteria, capable of prospering in a variety of ecological settings because to their bioactive capabilities. They’re famous for their metabolic diversity, which includes the synthesis of commercially useful primary and secondary metabolites. They produce a range of enzymes capable of totally destroying all of the constituents. They are well-known for their ability to produce bioactive secondary metabolites. Members of various genera of Actinomycetes show promise for application in the bioconversion of underutilized urban and agricultural waste into high-value chemical compounds. The most potential source is a wide range of important enzymes, some of which are synthesized on an industrial scale, but there are many more that have yet to be discovered. Bioremediation methods, which use naturally existing microbes to clear residues and contaminated regions of dangerous organic chemicals, are improving all the time. In the realm of biotechnological science, the potential of actinomycetes for bioremediation and the synthesis of secondary metabolites has opened up intriguing prospects for a sustainable environment.",book:{id:"10856",title:"Crude Oil - New Technologies and Recent Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg"},signatures:"Sutaria Devanshi, Kamlesh R. Shah, Sudipti Arora and Sonika Saxena"},{id:"78072",title:"Green Polymers and Their Uses in Petroleum Industry, Current State and Future Perspectives",slug:"green-polymers-and-their-uses-in-petroleum-industry-current-state-and-future-perspectives",totalDownloads:185,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99409",abstract:"The concept of green chemistry has been established to find safe methodologies and environmentally benign solutions for the present and the onset problems. In this regard, extensive work has been carried out worldwide to replace the currently used materials with green ones. The terminology green relies on all the non-pollutive or the degradable materials regardless of their source. Therefore, there are biobased green materials and non-biobased green materials. This review sheds light on several green polymers used in different petroleum industries. The polymers are reviewed according to the stage of oil processing in which they are applied. Furthermore, different modification methodologies of natural polymers are revised. Also, the role of green non-biopolymers in different petroleum industries is investigated. It is worth mentioning that we concentrate our efforts on the utilization of different natural polymers in petroleum applications. Thereafter, some natural polymers such as chitosan and cellulose and their derivatives were specifically reviewed.",book:{id:"10856",title:"Crude Oil - New Technologies and Recent Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg"},signatures:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf, Mohamed Keshawy and Abdulraheim M.A. Hasan"},{id:"77633",title:"Biotechnological Potentials of Microbe Assisted Eco-Recovery of Crude Oil Impacted Environment",slug:"biotechnological-potentials-of-microbe-assisted-eco-recovery-of-crude-oil-impacted-environment",totalDownloads:149,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98808",abstract:"Globally, the environment is facing a very challenging situation with constant influx of crude oil and its derivatives due to rapid urbanization and industrialization. The release of this essential energy source has caused tremendous consequences on land, water, groundwater, air and biodiversity. Crude oil is a very complex and variable mixture of thousands of individual compounds that can be degraded with microbes with corresponding enzymatic systems harboring the genes. With advances in biotechnology, bioremediation has become one of the most rapidly developing fields of environmental restoration, utilizing microorganisms to reduce the concentration and toxicity of various chemical pollutants, such as petroleum hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, phthalate esters, nitroaromatic compounds and industrial solvents. Different remediation methods have been introduced and applied with varied degrees of success in terms of reduction in contamination concentration without considering ecotoxicity and restoration of biodiversity. Researchers have now developed methods that consider ecotoxicology, environmental sustainability and ecorestoration in remediation of crude oil impacted sites and they are categorized as biotechnological tools such as bioremediation. The approach involves a natural process of microorganisms with inherent genetic capabilities completely mineralizing/degrading contaminants into innocuous substances. Progressive advances in bioremediation such as the use of genetically engineered microbes have become an improved system for empowering microbes to degrade very complex recalcitrant substances through the modification of rate-limiting steps in the metabolic pathway of hydrocarbon degrading microbes to yield increase in mineralization rates or the development of completely new metabolic pathways incorporated into the bacterial strains for the degradation of highly persistent compounds. Other areas discussed in this chapter include the biosurfactant-enhanced bioremediation, microbial and plant bioremediation (phytoremediation), their mechanism of action and the environmental factors influencing the processes.",book:{id:"10856",title:"Crude Oil - New Technologies and Recent Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg"},signatures:"Chioma Bertha Ehis-Eriakha, Stephen Eromosele Akemu, Simon Obgaji Otumala and Chinyere Augusta Ajuzieogu"},{id:"77342",title:"Green Technology for Crude Oil Processed Water Treatment: A Practical Approach for Nigeria Petroleum Industry",slug:"green-technology-for-crude-oil-processed-water-treatment-a-practical-approach-for-nigeria-petroleum-",totalDownloads:140,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98770",abstract:"Cleaner production is the key to environmental sustainability. Conversion of crude oil to various beneficial products is responsible for the contamination of air, water, and soil which are harmful to human, plants, animals, public health and the environment. Adequately treating produced water is beneficial for irrigation, wildlife consumption, industrial water and for domestic purposes. Therefore, green technology for treatment of crude oil processed water would provide the environmental friendliness needed for prolong utilization of our natural resources. Hence, the aim of this book chapter is to investigate the potentials of constructed wetland as a promising, effective and environmentally friendly alternative for secondary petroleum refinery wastewater treatment. Planted and unplanted mesocosm scale experiment with real secondary refinery wastewater was used for the purpose of the study. The parameters investigated were temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity, total suspended solids, carbon oxygen demand, total petroleum hydrocarbon and oil and grease. The results revealed that Typha latifolia planted VSSF CWs effectively treated organic contaminants in secondary refinery wastewater with a better performance than the unplanted control VSSF CWs. The chromatographs for wastewater and T. latifolia samples showed a hydrocarbon distribution between n-C9 to n-C24 indicating abundance of lower weight hydrocarbon contamination.",book:{id:"10856",title:"Crude Oil - New Technologies and Recent Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg"},signatures:"Hassana Ibrahim Mustapha"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:290,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence"},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",scope:"Computational neuroscience focuses on biologically realistic abstractions and models validated and solved through computational simulations to understand principles for the development, structure, physiology, and ability of the nervous system. This topic is dedicated to biologically plausible descriptions and computational models - at various abstraction levels - of neurons and neural systems. This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",keywords:"Single-Neuron Modeling, Sensory Processing, Motor Control, Memory and Synaptic Pasticity, Attention, Identification, Categorization, Discrimination, Learning, Development, Axonal Patterning and Guidance, Neural Architecture, Behaviours and Dynamics of Networks, Cognition and the Neuroscientific Basis of Consciousness"},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
",annualVolume:11968,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorialBoard:[{id:"220987",title:"Dr.",name:"António",middleName:"Onofre",surname:"Soares",fullName:"António Soares",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNtzQAG/Profile_Picture_1644499672340",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Azores",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
",annualVolume:11969,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"216491",title:"Dr.",name:"Charalampos",middleName:null,surname:"Skoulikaris",fullName:"Charalampos Skoulikaris",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRMsbQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-04-21T09:31:55.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"300124",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Shahady",fullName:"Thomas Shahady",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002kuIgmQAE/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:32:10.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lynchburg College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/60131",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"60131"},fullPath:"/chapters/60131",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()