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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"191",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Nanocomposite Technology",title:"Advances in Nanocomposite Technology",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The book "Advances in Nanocomposite Technology" contains 16 chapters divided in three sections. Section one, "Electronic Applications", deals with the preparation and characterization of nanocomposite materials for electronic applications and studies. In section two, "Material Nanocomposites", the advanced research of polymer nanocomposite material and polymer-clay, ceramic, silicate glass-based nanocomposite and the functionality of graphene nanocomposites is presented. The Human and Bioapplications section is describing how nanostructures are synthesized and draw attention on wide variety of nanostructures available for biological research and treatment applications. 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\r\n\r\n\tFilarial nematodes are transmitted by arthropods, although both of these have a more restricted distribution. Larva migrans is a disease condition caused by the transmission of some helminths during immature or larval stages. It causes disease according to the body region where it is located. It is of great zoonotic importance, mostly as an occupational hazard. Actual figures are uncertain as many cases cannot be identified.
\r\n\r\n\tToday, more than a quarter of the world's population is still at risk of infection with STN such as Ascaris lumbricoides, hookworms, Trichuris trichiura, and Strongyloides stercoralis. Children and women are at the forefront of this risk group and are exposed to significant mental and physical development problems. According to the 2016 World Health Organization data, only half of the children living at risk in endemic areas could be treated.
\r\n\tAccording to the protection and control strategies in recent years; Although WHO has reduced the rates somewhat with the application of mass medication in children in places where the prevalence of roundworm is over 20%, to control morbidity and eliminate STN as a public health problem, the mathematical applications have been to apply the treatments to adults as well.
\r\n\tIn this book, roundworms transmitted through soil or arthropods; Developments in epidemiology, life cycles, pathophysiology, clinical diagnosis, management, and public health control in the world will be reviewed with the contribution of studies on this subject from past to present. In addition, this book aims to highlight the connection between helminths and autoimmune and allergic diseases: the determination, treatment, and control strategies.
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The movements of water molecules by the effect of electromagnetic waves, produce heat. But today it is known that molecular effects, especially in the cell membrane, produce the movement of ions, which function as signals for the immune response. The increased production of both epithelial and vascular growth factors, which improve healing and produce angiogenesis, increasing blood circulation, have given a new perspective to this treatment. Where, selecting the appropriate frequency, the highest energy power, expanding the treatment area and the possibility of recognizing the penetration of the energy in the tissue, gives a new perspective to the treatment of Tecartherapy, for the athlete’s injuries. The effects of RF are detailed below. The objective of this Chapter is then to put in the hands of Physicians, Rehabilitators and Physiotherapists the current knowledge of the effects of the new RF equipment for the treatment of sports injuries.
Diathermy, a Greek word that means “through heat”, consists of the application of short or long-wave electromagnetic energy. This wave radiation is in the radiofrequency (RF) range (3 kHz to 300 MHz frequency and 1 m to 100 km of wavelength). The use of diathermy dates back to 1892, when d’Arsonval used radio frequency electromagnetic fields with a 10 kHz frequency to produce a warm sensation without muscle contractions, that take place at a lower frequency [1] (Culotta 1970).
The most important factor that determines whether a diathermy device will increase body temperature is the amount of energy absorbed by the tissue. This is determined by the intensity of the electromagnetic field produced by the device and by the type of tissue in which it is applied. However, there are more factors that contribute to the penetration of energy in the body that we will evaluate below.
We will first describe the electromagnetic field. An electromagnetic field is the force field created around an electric current that is made up of an electric field and a magnetic field. Both electric and magnetic fields are produced when a charged particle moves at a constant speed. EMFs (Electro Magnetic Fields) are generated when the charged particle accelerates and increases in speed. Very often, this acceleration takes place in the form of an oscillation, therefore the electric and magnetic fields are oscillating.
The objective of this Chapter is to put in the hands of Physicians, Rehabilitators and Physiotherapists the current knowledge, of the effects of the new RF equipment for the treatment of sports injuries. This chapter will develop the basic concepts of innovative RF technology with the intention of minimizing the inflammatory and pain effects, that many musculoskeletal injuries cause, as well as, ensuring that tissue regeneration is done through total recovery from injury and that the recovery time is minimized. These concepts will be developed in detail in the next few lines.
Frequency is the wavelength of the oscillation. Different frequencies are used in diathermy. As tissue absorption increases with frequency, it is often assumed that lower frequencies, on the order of MHz, result in better transfer efficiency. But it has been pointed out that the frequency of 1 MHz is the one that manages to overcome the resistance of the cell membrane and produce the intracellular effects that we will see later [2] (Ivorra 2002).
One of the fundamental components of electromagnetic fields is power or energy. Electromagnetic waves provide energy to a system by virtue of their electric and magnetic fields. These fields can exert forces and move charges in the system and, therefore, work on them. However, there is energy in an electromagnetic wave itself, whether it is absorbed or not. Once created, the fields carry energy from a source. If some energy is then absorbed, the intensity of the field decreases. Clearly, the greater the strength of the electric and magnetic fields, the more work they can do and the greater the energy carried by the electromagnetic wave. In electromagnetic waves, the amplitude is the maximum field strength of the electric and magnetic fields. The energy of the waves is determined by the amplitude of the waves. The energy carried by a wave depends on its amplitude [3] (Ling et Al 2019).
The water in the tissues is the fundamental cause of energy absorption in the human body: the more liquid accumulates in an area, the more energy is absorbed [4] (Romanenko et Al 2017). Being able to recognize the amount of energy that penetrates allows you to locate the area of inflammation. When the radio frequency wave penetrates the tissue, it moves water molecules. Remember that water molecules are a dipole, hence they vibrate with the waves as shown in Figure 1.
Movement of water molecules due to radiofrequency oscillations.
The capacitive electrode is covered by an insulator. Imagine a capacitor formed on one side by the capacitive electrode, and on the other, a resistive conductor formed by the biological tissue and another metallic conductor (return plate) that closes the circuit. The capacitive conductor is made up of metal compounds and alloys. The application of a capacitive conductor is characterized by displacement currents instead of conduction, and the charged particles tend to have a higher charge density in the vicinity of the dielectric, act on the most superficial tissues (first 3 cm) rich in water and its energy tends to progressively increase from the return plate to the capacitive electrode with the consequent increase in temperature of the tissues.
In resistive mode, the electrode is conductive, metallic and is applied directly to the body. The current passes through the sector of the body where it is applied, dispersing towards the return electrode. During this process, heat is generated due to the energy delivery in the tissue and the resistance that the tissues oppose to its passage. The concentration of charges, and therefore the biological effect, occurs at the points of greatest resistance of the current, such as the bone tissue, which is located between the active electrode and the return electrode. But other highly resistant tissues due to their low water content such as tendons, ligaments and bands of muscles and tendons will have also biological effect. In this way, a charge displacement current is created within the biological tissue that determines the involvement of the deep layers and the consequent homogeneity of the endothermic response with greater depth. The plate electrodes are 200 m2 capacitive electrodes (Figure 2).
Electrodes, resistive (a) capacitive (b) and capacitive plate of 200 cm2.
The more area of application, the more energy is delivered. A larger area allows the penetration of the energy to be more extensive and the effects more extensive in the area of the injury and the surrounding tissues.
Being able to increase the amount of energy by incorporating more channels to the treatment, first of all allows incorporating a larger area of application, covering more space around the lesion, and can be used simultaneously with physical activity, on the one hand. Moreover, the.
capacitive and resistive electrode can also be used simultaneously. An energy summation occurs where in the most superficial area the energy load is greater.
Heat is generated in the tissue both by the electrical process and by the magnetic field. The static magnetic field cannot heat the human body as it does not transfer any net energy, so it does not produce heat. Therefore, the tissue heating mechanism is by electric current and is based on the generation of joules of heat. The heat generated is described by Joule’s Law:
Where E is the energy, j is the density of the electric current and σ is the electrical conductivity. The conductivity is 1 / R (R = resistance).
The absorption of electromagnetic energy by the tissues of the human body is complicated because there are different types of tissues, with different coefficients of conductivity. As the depth of penetration into the tissues increases, the frequencies change, such that most of the incident energy can be transmitted at one frequency, but absorbed at another. The depth of penetration per frequency depends on several factors: dry skin, infiltrated fat, and muscle, calculated according to the characteristics of the Gabriel model.
All mechanisms that cannot induce a temperature increase greater than 0.010 ° C (when we consider a system as a living organism), less than 0.001 ° C (when a system is considered as a cell), or again less than 0.0005 °C are considered non-thermal, when studying a sub-cellular system.
At present, there is a controversy between the thermal sensation of the patient and the application of energy. Hence the term athermic, as the temperature in the tissue does not increase. The real connotation of athermic is that the patient does not perceive the increase in temperature. The patient has little thermal sensation, since it is an application with little energy. Due to the fact that energy is introduced into the tissue, it causes the water molecules to vibrate and this produces heat.
The term diathermy already suggests that temperature is the main effect of electromagnetic waves in the body. But the cellular signaling effects that are produced are very important for the resolution of the lesions. We will now see the effects of temperature on tissues and electromagnetic energy on the cell. A general summary of biological effects is presented in Figure 3.
Effect of the electromagnetic field on the cell and the body.
Heat treatment in mammalian cells at temperatures above 40 °C produces multiple effects on cell metabolism. Hyperthermia inhibits protein synthesis. It induces the production of heat shock proteins and inhibits energy metabolism. At temperatures in the range of 50–60 °C it damages DNA and denatures it and at temperatures below 40–46 °C it produces chromosomal aberrations if the cell is in the S phase of mitosis.
An important role in this response is played by the Thermal Shock proteins (HSP), a superfamily of proteins highly conserved in evolution, which play an essential role in the conformational and functional protection of proteins within the cell. With molecular weights of 72 kDa, 73 kDa and 90 kDa they correspond to the largest classes of stress proteins expressed by the body.
Another effect of warming is the local effect. In general, the therapeutic range for sports medicine is assumed to be 41–45 °C, because this range causes the maximum increase in local blood flow [5] (Perez y Al 1993). Therefore, hyperthermia treatment is considered to provide effective therapeutic conditions. On the contrary, from a safety perspective, the possibility that treatment above 45 °C causes muscle damage cannot be ignored. The duration of heat treatment is also a concern in hyperthermia therapy. For example, in oncology, patients receive hyperthermia therapy at 45 ° C for 15 minutes if they do not feel pain. In short exposures 1–2 minutes of duration, temperatures of >45 °C can be reached, without the treatment causing damage to muscle tissue.
Concluding hyperthermia acts by producing an increase in heat shock proteins and increasing local blood flow.
Cells interact with their environment through the cell membrane. Among other functions, the cell membrane is responsible for the detection and subsequent transduction of external biochemical or other signals in the cytoplasmic space. The cell membrane is also considered the main site of interaction of EMF signals with cell systems.
A large body of literature has shown that various biological RF (Radio Frequency) effects can be produced without tissue heating, which are known as non-thermal biological effects of electromagnetic radiation.
The cell membrane is a 5–10 nm thick structure that surrounds and encloses the cell. It is made up of lipid and protein molecules. The most abundant membrane lipids are called phospholipids. The cell membrane is a lipid bilayer that allows the flow of ions through proteins that function as channels and ionic pumps. Ion flow can be stimulated with an external stimulus, to activate specific signaling pathways intracellularly. Although studies have applied electrical and magnetic stimuli to modify cell function, the parameters for stimulating the cell membrane are unknown.
The effects of exposure to an electromagnetic field can be understood as a chain of responses at different interrelated scales in the biological system. This chain of events begins with the interaction between the incoming wave and the charged atomic structure of biomolecules, mainly ions, especially outside the cell. This interaction leads to changes in the chemical composition and charge distribution of proteins and other macromolecules that are transduced into changes in biochemical signaling pathways.
Exposure to EMFs may act to cause excessive Voltage Dependent Calcium Channels (VGCC) activity in many cell types, suggesting that these may be direct targets of EMF exposure. Many of these studies specifically implicate L-type VGCCs, such that various L-type calcium channel blockers may block responses to EMF exposure. Stimulation of VGCC by the electromagnetic wave leads to an increase in intracellular Ca2+, which can act in turn to stimulate the two calcium / calmodulin-dependent nitric oxide synthases and increase nitric oxide [6] (Wooda and Karipidisb 2021). This nitric oxide acts in therapeutic or potentially therapeutic responses of EMF, through its main physiological pathway, stimulating Guanosine Monophosphate cyclic (cGMP) and protein kinase G. Nitric oxide can act in pathophysiological responses to exposure to EMF, acting as a precursor of peroxynitrite, with its dual role, producing both oxidative stress and free radical decomposition products (Figure 4).
Mobilization of intracellular calcium after opening the voltage-dependent calcium channels by electromagnetic energy.
For lymphocytes, Ca2+ mobilization is among the first detectable events to be triggered by binding of a ligand (e.g., Antigen, receptor antibody, mitogenic lectin) to an appropriate receptor structure exposed on the outer cell surface. The cascade of cellular reactions in lymphoid cells subsequent to ligand-receptor interaction is best understood for T cells and has been extensively reviewed. In summary, ligand-induced Ca2+ mobilization is reflected in an initial increase in Ca2+ that is caused by inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate-induced Ca2+ release from intracellular stores and followed by a sustained influx of Ca2+ mediated by receptors from the extracellular environment, including cell proliferation, secretion, motility, etc. or cytotoxicity. With regard to the effects of electromagnetic fields on the immune system, it is proposed that Ca2+ regulation in lymphoid cells could be similarly affected by appropriate signals from electromagnetic fields, leading to informed responses of electromagnetic fields. In cells, for example, on proliferation or cell-mediated cytotoxic agents [7] (Pall 2013).
Cellular Ca2+ mobilization in response to external EMF signals or interference of an EMF with Ca2+ regulatory processes is considered an important target of EMF action in tissues.
Fibroblast is a type of cell that synthesizes the extracellular matrix and collagen, the structural framework of animal and human tissues, and plays a critical role in wound healing. Fibroblasts are the most common connective tissue cells in animals. The main function of fibroblasts is to maintain the structural integrity of connective tissues through the continuous secretion of precursors from the extracellular matrix, and as a result, this type of cell is critically involved in the wound healing process [8] (Aaron et Al 2013).
EMFs are known to play an important role in the cascade of processes that determine cell migration, adhesion, and differentiation. Electric currents and related fields are generated by passive absorption of Na+ from the environment, leading to an internally positive transepithelial potential difference.
EMF can activate fibroblast migration. EMF has been shown to activate fibroblast proliferation. Activation of the expression of human fibroblast growth factor 1 (HFGF1), after exposure to EMF, showed that molecular wound healing pathways are activated in response to this resonant EMF in water (Figure 5).
Intracellular signaling and stimulation of fibroblasts increasing the levels of both epithelial and angiogenic growth factors.
For this reason, the application of EMF may have therapeutic relevance for wound healing and other pathologies.
Collagen is considered to be one of the most important biomaterials in cartilage repair. We have shown that exposure to pulsed radiofrequency, that is, with more energy and little heat, improves chondrogenic differentiation and protein synthesis of the extracellular matrix of cartilage. Collagens are proteins composed of three polypeptide subunits known as α chains that exist in a single triple helix. There are more than 20 types of collagen in animal tissue. Scientific research has confirmed the activity of EMFs (electromagnetic fields) in this tissue [9] (De Mattei et al. 2007). In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that EMF can change some physiological parameters of bone cells, such as proliferation [10] (De Mattei et al. 1999), differentiation [11] (Lohmann et Al 2000), synthesis of extracellular matrix components [11, 12, 13] (Lohmann et Al 2000, Heermeier et Al 1998, Harting et Al 2000) and production of growth factors. In addition, EMFs can stimulate osteogenesis in bone. This has been shown in many studies [14] (Thamsborg et Al 2005).
Clinical studies demonstrated that EMF exposure could be useful for the treatment of degenerative cartilage disorders such as osteoarthritis. Several studies have investigated the effects of electromagnetic fields on cartilage cells and tissue, showing that electromagnetic fields can stimulate chondrocyte proliferation and increase the amount of ECM (extracellular matrix) components of cartilage. EMFs stimulate proteoglycan (PG) synthesis in vivo and in vitro. TrPs are critical components of the cartilage, and loss of TrP from tissue is seen in OA. EMF can stimulate the synthesis of PG [15] (Goldring 2000).
Electromagnetic fields have positive effects on bone and cartilage tissue. Electromagnetic fields affect the mobility of K, Ca2+, Mg ions in bone and cartilage. They increase collagen synthesis [12] (Heermeier at Al 1998).
There is evidence to support the concept that radiofrequency acts by promoting angiogenesis through the coordinated release of fibroblast growth factor β-2 FGF-2 and, to a lesser extent, various other vascular growth factors angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2), thrombopoietin (TPO) and epidermal growth factor (EGF). This suggests that RF may facilitate healing by increasing blood vessel growth. This finding not only clarifies a novel mechanism for the action of RF, but also suggests widespread applications in the treatment of ischemic disease and a potential link between electromagnetic fields and increased tissue circulation.
When a sports injury occurs, the injury site reaction is inflammation, which is accompanied by edema. The phases of inflammation are, in order: organization of the hematoma, necrosis and finally, degeneration of the muscle fibers with diapedesis of macrophages and phagocytosis towards the necrotic material. After increased blood flow by the action of temperature and EMF, waste substances accumulate in the area of injury and surrounding areas (Figure 6).
Lymphatic drainage in the lower limb: The active plate, which delivers the energy, is placed on the sole and the passive plate, that takes it to the ground, is placed in the lumbar area. Lymph moves from one plate to the other.
Magnetic field interactions with blood flow have been demonstrated. In addition to this, electrically charged proteins also move between the electric poles. An approximately linear growth of the flow rate of water with an electric field intensity has been studied.
The magnetohydrodynamic law explains that the force experienced by an enclosed charge moves fluids. Erythrocytes and proteins have charge and these elements are inside the blood vessels. The RF energy acts on these elements according to this law, and moves the fluids in the body with a speed under an applied electric field. The blood, as the most abundant fluid in the body, will act as a fluid conductor necessary to conduct the energy, as it increases its flow. It has been suggested that the magnetic characteristics of the blood can be used to improve the hemodynamic disturbances associated with atherosclerosis.
The elimination of the substances, which accumulate during inflammation, is achieved by performing a lymphatic drainage: the active plate is placed on the feet or hands and the passive plate in the lumbar area. The movement of blood and the lymph drags the waste substances towards the chest area to join the thoracic duct and circulation [16] (Cau et Al 2019).
In sports medicine, diathermy devices for musculoskeletal use have been identified by the term “Tecartherapy”. Tecartherapy stands for Transference of Capacitive and Resistive Energy. The Tecartherapy intervention improves the spatio-temporal biomechanical parameters in runners. A study by Duñabeitia in 2018 [17], indicates that the application of capacitive and resistive RF after an exhaustive training session, rather than passive rest, generates a more efficient running pattern, even though selected physiological parameter markers are not affected. These findings highlight the potential role of Tecartherapy in accelerating recovery from muscle fatigue in runners, which could lead to better performance. Differences were detected in the length of the step and the angle of the stride, the height and the frequency between the group of treatment with Tecartherapy and the control group, with an increase of these (Figure 7).
The active plates can be used during physical exercise, which improves muscle performance.
RF procedures in chronic pain utilize alternating current in the AM RF band to produce effects on pain pathways [18](Rea et Al 2011). In 2020 Bretelle y Col [19] publish a Clinical Trial, where they report that RF treatment, showed a significant reduction in perineal discomfort while walking and could halve the use of analgesics, which could improve well-being during this sensitive period. RF treatment showed a significant reduction in perineal discomfort while walking and could halve the use of analgesics, which could improve well-being during this sensitive period. Musculoskeletal diseases comprise several conditions that are characterized by pain and limitations in mobility, dexterity, and functional capacity, reducing people’s ability to work and participate in social roles with associated impacts on mental well-being. Some of the most common and disabling musculoskeletal diseases are osteoarthritis, back and neck pain, tendinopathy, fibromyalgia, and myofascial pain. Also, muscle injuries are the most common category of injuries in athletes and comprise approximately 10% to 55% of all injuries. Most muscle injuries (> 90%) are contusions or strains, while lacerations are much less common. The most serious types of musculoskeletal diseases can cause chronic pain, dysfunction, recurrence, and even compartment syndrome. Studies are in development with partial results. They have shown that these latest generation radiofrequency devices reduce the recovery time from injuries, by increasing blood flow, signaling, and especially by lymphatic drainage [20] (Tramuntana 2020).
Calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) signaling is essential to maintain aberrant hyperexcitability of the dorsal horn neuron in the pain condition. RF signals have been shown to modulate CaM-dependent signaling pathways that orchestrate the release of cytokines and growth factors in cellular responses to injury. RF signals have been shown to modulate CaM-dependent NO signaling cascades in articular chondrocytes [21] (Pilla et Al 2011) and other cells using CaM antagonists, and NO downstream inhibitory.
Trigger points are specific sensitive areas in a muscle. They are part of a condition called myofascial pain syndrome, which involves muscle stiffness, tenderness, and pain that radiates to other areas, also known as referred pain [22] (Melzack et al., 1997). The term “myofascial” has evolved from the perspective that it is likely that both muscle and fascia may be contributors to symptoms [23] (Akamatsu et al.). Trigger points arise from the clustering of sodium-sensitive sites. In fact, the excitation processes of cells involve the entry of sodium through the membrane of the muscle fibers. Therefore, it is thought that most, if not all, pain points will be associated with sodium-sensitive sites.
The effects of magnetic, electric and electromagnetic fields on sodium / potassium ATP-handle have been studied extensively over the last quarter of a century by various researchers, but the most important for trigger points are the studies conducted by https://www.mendeley.com/download-desktop-new/, in addition to the Na ion transport mechanism, by K-ATPase, EMF interactions with transient electrons and protons that are released from the oscillating motion that affects the bonds of hydrogen (H) in hydrated proteins which could be involved in the mechanism of action. It is highly probable that the hydrogen bonding of water molecules with ions / ligands could be a hypothesis, for understanding the effects of magnetic fields on pain relief. Therefore, it would be logical to transfer these interactions to the discussion of trigger points as an acceptable mechanism for pain relief in myofascial pain [24] (Blank 2005) (Figure 8).
Effect of electromagnetic energy on Na / K ATP ASA. Hydrogen bonds in protein release electrons and protons, which block the pump proteins.
There is a study with patients with trigger points that prevented them from carrying out their daily activities and where capacitive radiofrequency (C-RF) was applied. The results found proved that C-RF is an effective solution to treat painful conditions with a limiting factor for daily activities.
After a muscle injury secondary to trauma, there is a rupture of blood vessels, bleeding at the injury site, and subsequent edema. Direct trauma to muscle fibers also causes rupture of the basal lamina and sarcolemma and subsequent degeneration of the sarcomeres in the affected area [25] (Hazlewood and Markov 2007). Diathermy produces a much faster increase in soft tissue temperature. Associated with the increase in tissue temperature there is an increase in blood flow. Elevated tissue temperatures improve blood flow and can relieve muscle spasms and pain [26] Karpati et Al 1982), and improve recovery from injury.
The use of RF for the treatment of injured cartilage has increased enormously in recent years. The safety and effectiveness of this technique depend on an understanding of the physics behind RF. First, it is not electrocautery. During application, a high frequency alternating current flows from the uninsulated probe tip into the tissue. Ionic agitation occurs in tissue when the ions try to follow the directional changes of the alternating current. This agitation produces frictional heating so that the tissue around the electrode tip, rather than the electrode plate itself, is the main source of heat. The heat produced during the application of RF is the difference between the heat generated by the flow of RF current through the tissue surrounding the probe tip and the heat that is dissipated in this region [27] (Ryland et Al 2001).
Urinary incontinence (UI) is defined as the involuntary loss of urine. When pressure inside the abdomen increases due to exertion, it is transmitted to the bladder causing the pressure within the bladder to be higher than in the urethra. For proper function of urination and urinary continence, intraurethral pressure must be higher than intravesical pressure both at rest and in activities that require effort. There is pelvic floor dysfunction in high-performance athletes associated with athletic activity and urinary incontinence. Eating disorders, constipation, family history of urinary incontinence, history of urinary tract infections and decreased flexibility of the plantar arch are associated with an increased risk of UI in elite female athletes. Pelvic floor physiotherapy as a treatment for urinary incontinence in elite female athletes, former elite female athletes and pregnant athletes who engage in regular aerobic activity leads to a higher continence gain than that obtained by nonathlete women [28] (Thyssen et al., 2002).
The use of radiofrequency with high power, which is a diathermic process generated by the radiation of an electromagnetic spectrum, resulting in an immediate retraction of existing collagen and the subsequent activation of fibroblasts causing non-ablative neocollagenesis. The female urethra is known for having a maximum length of five centimeters, and its anatomical structure and length justifies the use of radiofrequency on the external urethral meatus. Radiofrequency waves can reach a sufficient depth to induce collagen production in the whole urethra. RF has shown to be a treatment with low adverse effect. Patients reported no symptoms during or after treatment [29, 30] (Lordelo et Al 2017, Sodré et Al 2019). In Figure 9, the intracavitary electrodes are shown. E electrode (a) is the general one, to work vaginal and anal. The (b) is specific for pediatrics and vaginismus, because it is thinner for applications in which the (a) and it will be more difficult to apply. The (c) is rectal for anal application only. And the d is for specific rectal application, in specific and focused points. With this, the entire pelvic floor can be addressed intracavitary. These devices apply energy to the vagina in 360°.
Different capacitive intracacavitary vaginal devices.
The capacitive intracavitary device, shaped like a finger, allows not only the penetration of the energy that passes through the (Figure 10) pelvic floor structure but also massages the vaginal region, allowing the vaginal introitus to reach the entire length of the vagina, which makes the urethra receive the necessary energy, to produce structural changes, to improve urinary incontinence.
Diagram of the use of the intracavitary device. The movement of energy towards the passive plate can be observed.
The state of the art determines the technological evolution of the equipment. Within the market, there are models with different characteristics and benefits, which present significant differences in energy delivery and, consequently, in obtaining results. It is important to become familiar with the available device options to gauge expectations for therapeutic efficacy.
The first generation of equipment was developed in the 80s. Today, they are still in the market with an exclusively manual use feature. They have a single channel, with a capacitive electrode holder, a resistive electrode holder and a return plate. The power of this equipment varies between 50 and 250 W.
The second generation of equipment was developed in the 2010s. This new technological family was characterized by increasing performance, as well as power, since the supply of electronic components allowed more complicated designs. The equipment of this second generation has an automatic working option, in addition to the classic capacitive and resistive electrode holders; they allow working in multichannel (that is, several channels within the same container), they have a temperature sensor and even allow an intracavitary approach with controlled temperature. The input powers of these devices start at 300 W.
Although it is true that all devices start from the same type of energy, the dosage provided by both technologies makes a difference at the therapeutic level. This factor determines, not only a physiological improvement in obtaining results of 75%, but even that some equipment with temperature sensors avoid the absolute contraindication of its application in sensitivity disorders, when the temperature of the device can be controlled.
Over the years, a large number of contraindications to radiofrequency therapy have been identified. Some are clearly documented, others are based on assumptions. Others still depend on the dose or the location. For these reasons, the contraindications are divided into:
Pregnancy - In view of the rapid division of embryonic tissue and the blood supply to the placenta, it is not advisable to treat pregnant women with radiofrequency.
Active bacterial infectious diseases (e.g. Tuberculosis) - In certain forms of tuberculosis or in active infections, heating in deep tissue can cause a large decrease in the number of leukocytes. Viral infections, on the contrary, have shown a positive reaction to the therapy.
Implanted electronic device - it is recommended that a patient with an implanted electronic device (e.g. cardiac pacemaker) not be subjected to radiofrequency, unless a specialized medical opinion has been previously obtained.
Hearing aids - Hearing aids must be removed. If they are subjected to radio frequency, hearing aids may experience irregularities in their operation. People with pacemakers and hearing aids should therefore not remain in the vicinity of radio frequency equipment when they are switched on.
Fever - Using radio frequency with fever can further increase metabolism. This could cause an even higher rise in temperature, leading to hyperthermia.
Neoformations - Active cancer is a contraindication when blood flow may imply the dissemination of the metastasis. Treatment of some muscular skeleton diseases may be accepted even when the patient has cancer, when this specification is detailed in the diathermy device User’s Manual.
Sensitivity alterations - The application of radiofrequency should be used with caution on areas with sensory alterations. Special care is needed also for debilitated patients, since dosimetry depends largely on the sensation of heat felt by the patient. Pain is an indication that excessive heat is occurring. Sensitivity alteration is an absolute contraindication in devices with no temperature sensor control. This contraindication is avoided when the device has temperature sensor control and can be adjusted to a tolerable temperature without risk of burns.
Rheumatoid arthritis - Researchers report that deep heating in the treated joints can increase enzyme activity and induce breakdown of articular cartilage. Nevertheless, diathermy treatment in athermal or moderately thermal mode has shown a positive reaction. Dose management is important, and should be precise.
Large metal implants - Metals concentrate electromagnetic energy. To prevent possible concentrations of energy, around the implant and the resulting dangers (burns), radio frequency application should only be used if the indications are more important than the possible adverse effects while using specific guidelines and applied in mobile modalities with dose management.
Chronic systemic diseases - In decompensated chronic diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, coronary artery disease, kidney failure, etc. the use of radiofrequency concomitant to decompensated systemic diseases can induce adverse effects.
This chapter discusses the main effects of high-power, multi-channel radio frequency in sports lessons, the most important factor determining whether a diathermy device increases intracellular signaling, vascularity, and body temperature is the amount of energy absorbed by the tissue. This energy is provided in Tecartherapy devices through the generation of an electromagnetic field, and through the use of capacitive and resistive electrodes. The key results that contribute to improving sports injuries are presented, being able to improve, including muscular capacities. This electromagnetic field will have various metabolic effects on the vascular, musculoskeletal and immune systems, which are beneficial for work in different areas of health such as sports, pain, the vascular area, urogynecology, important in urinary incontinence in athletes, feminine among others, being increasingly extensible to other fields of health. This procedure is safe, with no known side effects, and the patient can be returned to normal activity immediately.
Manufactured Device.
Pictures courtesy of Capenergy Medical, S.L. Barcelona, Spain.
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Women are diagnosed with PTSD approximately twice as often as men. In this review, we outline the evidence of gender differences related to PTSD, and the factors of resilience and susceptibility differ between men and women.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Jingchu Hu, Biao Feng, Yonghui Zhu, Wenqing Wang, Jiawei Xie\nand Xifu Zheng",authors:[{id:"190985",title:"Dr.",name:"Xifu",middleName:null,surname:"Zheng",slug:"xifu-zheng",fullName:"Xifu Zheng"},{id:"194981",title:"BSc.",name:"Yonghui",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"yonghui-zhu",fullName:"Yonghui Zhu"},{id:"194982",title:"MSc.",name:"Wenqing",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"wenqing-wang",fullName:"Wenqing Wang"},{id:"194985",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingchu",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"jingchu-hu",fullName:"Jingchu Hu"},{id:"194986",title:"MSc.",name:"Biao",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"biao-feng",fullName:"Biao Feng"},{id:"194987",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jiawei",middleName:null,surname:"Xie",slug:"jiawei-xie",fullName:"Jiawei Xie"}]},{id:"52472",doi:"10.5772/65410",title:"Gender and Health",slug:"gender-and-health",totalDownloads:3432,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Research has found differences between women and men in some health indicators. 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Also, differences in self-rated health vary depending on other psychosocial and demographic variables. The present study reviews the main differences in women’s and men’s health as well as the most relevant factors that may account for them.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"María Pilar Matud",authors:[{id:"189729",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Pilar",middleName:null,surname:"Matud",slug:"m.-pilar-matud",fullName:"M. Pilar Matud"}]},{id:"52503",doi:"10.5772/65457",title:"Gender and Leadership",slug:"gender-and-leadership",totalDownloads:4127,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The topic of leadership has been addressed and applied for millennia. Yet, it is only within the past 80 years that leadership has been a topic of serious discussion. It is important to understand variables relevant to effective leadership. Gender is one such variable that must be examined with regard to optimizing leadership effectiveness. The topic of gender and leadership deserves serious and thoughtful consideration and discussion because of professional, political, cultural, and personal realities of the twenty‐first century. Women and men have been, are, and should be leaders. Gender must be considered to determine how each leader can reach maximum potential and effectiveness. The FourCe‐PITO conceptual framework of leadership is designed to help guide leadership development and education. The present chapter uses this conceptual framework of leadership to discuss how consideration of gender may affect and optimize leadership development and effectiveness. 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I am giving examples from my developmental psychology research where the split-sample analysis by gender showed amazing and often unexpected effects.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Chris Lange-Küttner",authors:[{id:"190245",title:"Prof.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Lange-Küttner",slug:"chris-lange-kuttner",fullName:"Chris Lange-Küttner"}]},{id:"53721",doi:"10.5772/66093",title:"Professional Women's Experience of Autonomy and Independence in Sindh-Pakistan",slug:"professional-women-s-experience-of-autonomy-and-independence-in-sindh-pakistan",totalDownloads:1644,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter summarises the part of findings of my doctoral studies at the University of Sussex, Brighton, UK. In this case study, there are elements of both qualitative and quantitative approaches; the former is the principal approach to this research while the latter works as complementary. Participants of the research were divided into two categories: academic and non‐academic. Forty semi‐structured interviews (20 from each category) and 100 survey questionnaire (50 from each category) were collected. This research argues that existing concepts of ‘autonomy’ and ‘independence’ may not be useful indices/indicators for measuring the social status or position of women in Sindhi society, due to variations in understanding or the meanings attributed to these concepts across the globe. Findings argue that these professional women perceived concepts of ‘autonomy’, ‘independence’ and ‘individuality’ categorically different than those of Westernised understandings. This research asserts that Sindhi society, similarly to that of Tamil society, emphasises social groups rather than individuals. Hence, ‘collective identities’ are the essence of Sindhi society; however, individuals find their autonomy, independence and individuality in the context of ‘others’, which means to be more responsible for group's interests.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Mukesh Kumar Khatwani",authors:[{id:"196384",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Khatwani",slug:"mukesh-khatwani",fullName:"Mukesh Khatwani"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52503",title:"Gender and Leadership",slug:"gender-and-leadership",totalDownloads:4125,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The topic of leadership has been addressed and applied for millennia. Yet, it is only within the past 80 years that leadership has been a topic of serious discussion. It is important to understand variables relevant to effective leadership. 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In this review, we outline the evidence of gender differences related to PTSD, and the factors of resilience and susceptibility differ between men and women.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Jingchu Hu, Biao Feng, Yonghui Zhu, Wenqing Wang, Jiawei Xie\nand Xifu Zheng",authors:[{id:"190985",title:"Dr.",name:"Xifu",middleName:null,surname:"Zheng",slug:"xifu-zheng",fullName:"Xifu Zheng"},{id:"194981",title:"BSc.",name:"Yonghui",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"yonghui-zhu",fullName:"Yonghui Zhu"},{id:"194982",title:"MSc.",name:"Wenqing",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"wenqing-wang",fullName:"Wenqing Wang"},{id:"194985",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingchu",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"jingchu-hu",fullName:"Jingchu Hu"},{id:"194986",title:"MSc.",name:"Biao",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"biao-feng",fullName:"Biao Feng"},{id:"194987",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jiawei",middleName:null,surname:"Xie",slug:"jiawei-xie",fullName:"Jiawei Xie"}]},{id:"52472",title:"Gender and Health",slug:"gender-and-health",totalDownloads:3430,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Research has found differences between women and men in some health indicators. Women’s life expectancy is higher than men’s, but research on differences in morbidity has proved less consistent than on the differences in mortality. These differences vary in terms of the type of health indicator used, the life cycle period analyzed, and even the country where research is conducted. Generally, men have more life-threatening chronic diseases at younger ages, including coronary heart disease, as well as more externalizing mental health problems and substance use disorders. Women present higher rates of chronic debilitating conditions such as arthritis, frequent or severe headaches, gallbladder conditions, and also more internalizing mental problems such as affective and anxiety disorders. Results of research on the differences between women and men in self-rated health have also highlighted the complexity of gender differences in health. Although several studies have shown that women have poorer self-rated health than men, this is not the case in all countries. Also, differences in self-rated health vary depending on other psychosocial and demographic variables. The present study reviews the main differences in women’s and men’s health as well as the most relevant factors that may account for them.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"María Pilar Matud",authors:[{id:"189729",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Pilar",middleName:null,surname:"Matud",slug:"m.-pilar-matud",fullName:"M. Pilar Matud"}]},{id:"53212",title:"Broken Dreams—Balancing Self and Family Well-Being: The Experiences of Women Immigrants to Hamilton, ON",slug:"broken-dreams-balancing-self-and-family-well-being-the-experiences-of-women-immigrants-to-hamilton-o",totalDownloads:1512,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the preliminary analysis of a study conducted in Hamilton, ON. It explores the intersection of women’s immigration, integration and mental health. Their perceptions of what is needed from them in relation to the various challenges/changes that moving to a new country entails is a particular focus of this research. To begin with, the term “women immigrant” (WI) is used, rather than immigrant women as commonly used—as the participants were women long before they became immigrants. 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Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. 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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular Economy, Contingency Planning and Response to Disasters, Ecosystem Services, Integrated Urban Water Management, Nature-based Solutions, Sustainable Urban Development, Urban Green Spaces",scope:"