Life cycle GHG emissions (kgCO2 eq/MWh) of different technologies.
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Naik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"1082008",title:"Uncertainty Factors Influencing Hydroelectric LCA Studies: A Review",doi:"10.5992/intechopen.1000185",slug:null,body:'A major challenge in today’s world is to meet the demand for increased energy production considering environmental factors. The concern with sustainability in the sector leads countries to sign agreements for the replacement of energy production from non-renewable sources (coal, natural gas, oil and derivatives, uranium) by renewable ones (charcoal, hydraulic, wind, solar photovoltaic, biomass). Brazil has a privileged position in terms of energy production from renewable sources. According to the report [1] the share of renewables sources in the Brazilian electricity matrix reached 84.8% in 2020, against 23% in the rest of the world and 27% in OECD countries. In Brazil, hydraulic energy is positioned as the main generating source, where 67% of the energy generated in 2021 comes from hydroelectric plants [2]. Although Brazil occupies a privileged position in the renewable energy sector, in 2020 Brazil lost its place to China, which added 12.6 GW of hydroelectric capacity and regained its leadership. Many HPPs are being implemented, especially in China, India, and in northern Brazil, with the objective of increasing renewable energy production and meeting the growth of demand. Considering the above, it is important to assess the environmental impact caused by hydroelectric plants, since large hydroelectric plants are part of the energy matrix scenario in Brazil and in the world [3].
There are many factors that influence the analysis of HPP emissions, which is why it becomes a complex task. One of the ways to carry out this analysis, considering these factors, is through the Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). LCA is a methodology that makes it possible to analyze environmental damage and is defined in [4] as: the study of environmental impacts throughout the life of a product from obtaining the raw material, passing through production, use and ending with discard it. LCA methodology approach holistically the entire process, identifying the most significant impacts, pointing out improvements and at what stages they can be applied. In this way, it prevents damage from spreading along the stages, causing a chain effect from one environmental problem to another or from one region to another [5]. According to [4], the methodology for LCA comprises four steps.
1st) Objective and scope definition: the objective and scope must be clearly defined to ensure that no relevant part is omitted.
2nd) Life Cycle Inventory (LCI): in this step, data collection and calculation procedures are carried out to quantify the inputs and outputs relevant to the study of the system, as defined by the objectives and scope in the previous step.
3rd) Impact Analysis (LCIA): the third phase of the LCA aims to assess, quantify, and convert the environmental loads caused by the inputs (raw materials and energy) and outputs (waste and other emissions) of the system, into impacts on health, the environment, and the use of natural resources. Mandatory activities at this stage are the selection of impact categories, the definition of category indicators and characterization models, in addition to the classification and characterization of data. An impact category is a class representing environmental problems, such as global warming, acidification, human toxicity, etc.
4th) Interpretation: the last phase of the LCA aims to identify the significant environmental issues present in the results of the previous phases; evaluate the methodology, check the consistency, completeness and sensitivity of the data and propose recommendations for improvements in the performance of the system.
The LCA methodology is standardized [5]. Currently, LCA is being used for decision making in choosing the best option between products and processes in many contexts such as chemical engineering [6], in the use of disposable packaging [7], in agriculture [8], in the transport of products [9], in building construction [10], and frequently in the production of energy.
Therefore, analysis of emissions in energy production, through the LCA methodology, can be carried out in different contexts, such as: In [11] LCA was carried out in the process of producing biofuel from a palm tree in the Brazilian Amazon. [12] identified the configuration of geothermal systems using LCA. [13–19] applied LCA to study the environmental damage of photovoltaic systems. [20] carried out the LCA study with the aim of identifying the environmental damage of power generation in Mauritius. [21] compared the cradle-to-gate total energy and major emissions for the extraction of raw materials, production, and transportation in wood products industry in United States. In [22] was used LCA to analyze and compare the environmental impact of offshore and onshore wind farms, considering 2 MW installations, which are the most frequent in Central and Eastern Europe.
In relation to HPPs, the analysis of emissions produced by the LCA methodology is accompanied by many uncertainties. Each plant has specific characteristics, such as location, size, type, productivity, land use, among others. All this influence the analysis causing a need for a study with well-defined methodology. HPP are becoming the solution to the problem of energy demand in many countries in the world, justifying the importance of using LCA to analyze the environmental impacts caused by this type of plant [23].
We can cite some examples such as: [24] compared the environmental impacts of a small HPP in China with similar ones located in other parts of the world, while [25] evaluated the environmental impacts through the LCA of mini HPPs that generate electricity in Thailand. The biggest energy producer in the Nordic countries is Vattenfall AB. Vattenfall’s main markets are Sweden, Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, and the United Kingdom. [26] presents the LCA study carried out by Vattenfall, evaluating the environmental impacts of different energy sources in the Nordic countries. [27] analyzed the environmental impacts of HPPs in Mexico and other energy sources that are part of the supply network and presented a comparison between them. [28] conducted a study which had the objective of describing the environmental impacts of construction, operation and decommission of HPPs with the focus on Switzerland, extrapolated to other regions such as Brazil. [29] evaluated life cycle of a mini HPP in Simalungun - Indonesia and showed that the most evident impacts are carcinogenic, and eco-toxicity in marine and freshwater biota generated from the construction of the mini HPP.
After this preliminary study, we observed that there are extensive possibilities of applications for LCA methodology. An approach to the most influential aspects for analysis using LCA is the objective of this work, and we consider it a contribution to the current state of the art. The analyzed aspects include: the different phases of the LCA, the importance of indirect emissions in studies of hydropower reservoirs, the scale/capacity ratio, land use. We added a discussion on the type of run-of-river hydropower and the challenges of using more sustainable technologies.
The present work demonstrates the importance of the LCA methodology when considering all phases of the life cycle of HPP and highlights specific characteristics of HPPs when their environmental impacts are analyzed. Brazil is a developing country, and, like other similar countries, it has an unexplored hydraulic potential. HPPs can become one of the best solutions to meet energy growth and demand. However, the challenge for these countries is to study and analyze the best way to produce energy without causing major impacts on the environment. And the LCA methodology has been an aid tool for such studies.
The methodology used in this paper included six steps as in [23]:
Definition of the objective and delimitation of the research scope: The objective of the research is to present some characteristics of the HPPs that influence the analysis of environmental impacts through the LCA. This review includes comparative analyzes of the LCA of HPPs and another energy sources.
Selection of sources in the literature: The selection of research sources was conducted with the following criteria: 1st) LCA reports published between 2000 and 2021, containing analysis of the environmental impact of HPPs and other energy sources; 2nd) studies that identified influencing factors on the LCA of HPPs. The search was carried out using the keywords: LCA, Hydropower, GWP, emissions, following this order of priority.
Definition of factors that most influence HPP’s LCA studies: There are many factors that cause uncertainties and influence LCA studies for hydroelectric plants. To carry out this study, the following factors were selected: Indirect emissions, types of HPPs (reservoir and run-of-river), the different phases of the life cycle, land use, location, scala/productivity.
Review including only HPP’s LCA: A review of articles related to HPP’s’s LCA was necessary to compare the different contexts, highlighting a study carried out in a HPP’s in northern Brazil. The impact category highlighted was the Global Warming Potential – GWP, which according to [30] “expresses climate change referring to the global temperature caused by greenhouse gases released by human activity, measured in the reference unit kg of CO2 equivalent (kg CO2 eq)”.
Countries like China, Brazil, USA, Canada, and Russia have a high production of electric energy through HPPs [31]. However, there are few studies on their emissions analyzed through LCA, leading to the need to include here some reviews carried out by other authors. With the results produced by other works cited in this review, it was possible to make comparisons between hydroelectric plants with different characteristics (in Section 4) and between hydroelectric plants and other energy sources (in Section 3).
Recognition of HPP LCA uncertainties: Compiling the results of the reviewed works and recognizing the uncertainties related to HPP LCA constitutes a significant step towards the objective of the study.
Identification of challenges for future research: to highlighting points to be better studied and which constitute challenges for future research is one of the characteristics of the review study. The conclusion includes the authors’ view on this challenge.
It is known that different energy sources have their emissions influenced by their characteristics. To recognize the environmental feasibility and sustainable character of each one, it is necessary to carry out a quantitative comparison of these emissions. And one way to make this comparison is through results from LCA. This section also includes a comparison with the LCA study carried out by the authors at the Curuá-Una HPP, located in the Amazon in northern Brazil.
The electricity and heat distribution company Vattenfall presented in [26] the LCA data for nuclear, hydro, wind, solar and biomass energy. Vattenffal is one of the biggest producers of electricity and heat in Europe. Its most important markets are Sweden, Germany, Holland, Denmark and the United Kingdom. The methodology used pela Vattenfall divided the life cycle into 4 stages, namely: (i) production and transport of fuel; (ii) plant operations; (iii) infrastructure that includes construction, maintenance and decommissioning of the plant and (iv) radioactive waste management. Table 1 presents the main energy production technologies and their respective contributions. According to [26], the largest amount of emissions is generated by the coal plant in the operational phase. This reinforces the conclusion of the analyzes that the emissions from the construction phase are higher for plants that do not burn fuel but use renewable resources such as HPPs and wind farms. For biomass and coal-burning fuel plants, emissions are highest in the operational phase [39].
SOURCE | Coal | Oil | Natural gas | Biomass | Solar PV | Wind | Nuclear | Hydro | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(kgCO2 eq/MWh) | |||||||||
[32] | 1230 | 1213.4 | 855 | 97.3 | 76.3 | 46.4 | 17.1 | 13.2 | China (Ecoinvent) |
[26] | 15.6 | 4.44 | 7.26 | Nordic Countries (Electricity mix) | |||||
[33] | 600–1050 | 530–900 | 380–1000 | 8.5–120 | 13–190 | 3.0–41 | 3.0–35 | 2.0–20 | Literature review |
[20] | 1444 | 754 | 29 | 8.6 | Mauritius (Electricity mix) | ||||
[31] | 888 | 733 | 499 | 14.0–650 | 9.0–300 | 8.0–124 | 24.2 | 2.0–75 | Literature review |
[34] | 1118 | 514 | 16.9–30.4 | 39.5 | 27.7–43.8 | Literature review | |||
[35] | 960–1050 | 778 | 443 | 118 | 13 | 9 | 15 | 2.0–15 | Literature review |
[36] | 975.2 | 742.1 | 53 | 29.5 | 24 | 11.3 | Japan | ||
[37] | 900–1200 | 790–900 | 400–500 | 4.6–55.4 | 0.2–152 | Literature review | |||
[38] | 28.6 ± 3.2 | 12.4 ± 1.5 | 3.5 ± 0.4 | China |
Life cycle GHG emissions (kgCO2 eq/MWh) of different technologies.
A literature review with 167 LCA studies was performed by [33]. GHG emissions have been identified for the most diverse energy sources, including coal, lignite, natural gas, oil, nuclear, biomass, hydro, solar PV and wind. Table 1 presents the results for each technology and points out that coal, lignite, natural gas and oil have the greatest impact compared to hydro, nuclear and wind power.
In the Republic of Mauritius, the main source of energy is fossil fuels and [20] used the LCA methodology to compare GHG emissions from these plants and eight other hydroelectric plants, of which 4 are reservoir and 4 are run-of-river plants. The results presented in Table 1 reinforce the higher GHG emission for fossil fuel plants compared to HPPs.
In the work of [35] several energy sources were analyzed with the LCA methodology. A point to emphasize in this study is that the results presented the lowest impact for run-of-river plants followed by wind, solar photovoltaic and nuclear plants. The HPPs with reservoir had the worst performance.
The environmental impacts of electricity generation in China were analyzed by [32] through LCA, using data from eight different technologies. For the analysis of energy that has oil, natural gas, hydro, and photovoltaic energy as sources, the Ecoinvent base processes (repository with more than 18,000 datasets) were used. To analyze the impacts produced by nuclear, coal, biomass and wind energy, the studied plants are in China [18]. The study shows that CO2 emissions from fossil fuel-based technologies are much higher than emissions from renewable sources of energy when analyzed over the life cycle (Table 1).
The review of [31] includes 79 studies of LCA. The objective was to compare renewable energy sources (RETs) such as photovoltaic, wind, biomass, wave energy and hydropower with conventional energy sources such as oil, lignite, and coal (Table 1).
The research carried out by [36] pointed out that one of the factors that can reduce the impacts on energy production is the choice of technology, such as the material used in photovoltaic panels. The author proved with his study there was a reduction from 29.5 CO2-eq/MWh to 20.3 CO2-eq/MWh for wind energy and 53.4 CO2-eq/MWh to 26 CO2-eq/MWh for PV (Table 1). For this analysis, it measured the emissions of nine types of energy production technology, among them: nuclear, hydroelectric, geothermal, wind, solar-photovoltaic (PV)coal, oil, liquefied natural gas (LNG) and LNG combined cycle.
[34] included the environmental profile in their research on energy production feasibility analysis. The environmental profile uses LCA and assesses resource consumption, emissions to water and air, solid waste, and land use. Seven technologies were analyzed, among them: hydroelectric, wind, nuclear, natural gas, coal and biomass co-burning, geothermal and solar thermal resources. The results pointed to the wind farm with the best environmental performance (Table 1).
In [38] wind, nuclear and hydraulic plants were evaluated with LCA, considering all stages of the life cycle. Table 1 shows that wind power has a greater environmental impact than nuclear and hydro power. Considering the global warming potential, wind energy produces 28.6 ± 3.2 g CO2-eq/kWh of GWP100 throughout its life cycle, which is higher than nuclear energy (12.4 ± 1.5 g CO2 -eq/kWh) and hydroelectric (3.5 ± 0.4 g CO2-eq/kWh).
We can see that the results presented in Table 1 show the different approaches in the use of LCA to measure the environmental impacts on energy production. Knowing the characteristics of these plants that influence the different results constitutes a relevant study to aid in decision making when seeking sustainability.
The LCA methodology used to compare various energy sources requires a standard of functional unit. This allows the productivity of each energy source to be considered. In the case of the results presented in Table 1, the functional unit is kgCO2-eq/MWh. This standard is important because, like hydroelectric plants, which feature high productivity and longer lifespan than other technologies, their environmental impact is diluted both in the amount of energy produced and in its lifespan. In other words, to produce the same amount of energy a wind farm needs many resources (panels, batteries, inverters) that use raw materials (inputs such as metals and energy), contributing to the various categories of environmental impact [16].
Table 1 shows that the greatest variation in GHG emission quantification is for HPPs (0.2–152 kgCO2-eq / MWh) and biomass (8.5–650 kgCO2-eq / MWh), a result discussed in Topic 5.6.
To further complement the study an analysis of LCAs limited to HPPs with different characteristics was conducted including different phases of LCA, size of plants, type of plants (reservoir or run-of-river) and land use.
When comparing LCAs done for different HPPs, to obtain better interpretation and analysis, it is very important to consider the objective of each study as this leads to specific results. Some studies consider only the GWP factor [16, 27, 40], whereas others present the total of emission for some factors [37, 41]. There are studies that review several LCAs done by different authors and compare them, such as the study by [33, 37]. Research in [24, 39] evaluated the most representative impact categories for each stage of LCA applied to hydropower. The review in this session considered analyzes only of HPPs with LCA methodology, independent of other sources of energy production. All were standardized with the functional unit kWh or MWh, and different results for these analyzes are shown in Table 2.
Total (kg CO2-eq/MWh) | Study Site/Type | Type | |
---|---|---|---|
[24] | 28.4 | China | dam-toe-based |
[40] | 32.23–35.35 | India | canal based |
[40] | 11.91–31.2 | India | dam-toe-based |
[25] | 17.62 | Thailand | run-of-river |
[29] | 1.2 | Indonesia | run-of-river |
[42] | 52.7 | Thailand | run-of-river |
[43] | 5.43–8.93 | UK | run-of-river |
[44] | 4.33 | Brazil | reservoir |
[45] | 13.06–19.12 | India | run-of-river |
[46] | 21–40.63 | Literature review | reservoir |
[46] | 3.0–47 | Literature review | run-of-river |
[46] | 256.63 | Literature review | pumped storage |
[33] | 2 | Literature review | run-of-river |
[33] | 15 | Literature review | reservoir |
[37] * | 4.0–152 | Literature Review | reservoir |
[37] ** | 0.2–11.2 | Literature Review | reservoir |
[37] | 4.9 | Literature Review | run-of-river |
[47] | >150.0 | Literature Review | reservoir |
[47] | 4.0–14.0 | Literature review | run-of-river |
HPP- life cycle GHG emissions (kg CO2-eq/MWh).
Including gross emissions from flooded land.
Excluding emissions from flooded land.
[40] studied emissions from 6 hydropower plants located in India, of which three are canal-based projects and three are dam-based projects. The results of this study, in relation to GHG emissions, are shown in Table 2. The specific characteristics of each HPP such as capacity, type of technology, location and head size produce variation in the values found in the analysis performed with LCA.
Five run-of-river mini HPPs, located in Thailand, were the object of study in [25]. Considered useful life was 50 years and functional unit was 1MWh. For analysis of the results, the averages of the five mini HPPs were calculated and are shown in Table 2. Reproducing the authors’ conclusion “the main contributors to the impacts are the materials used in construction such as gravel, sand, cement, steel, iron, copper and the energy used by the equipment” [25].
A review carried out by [37] compared the emissions caused by 28 reservoir-type HPPs and 11 run-of-river HPPs, as shown in Table 2. Among the evidence of the result is the importance of considering the flooded area as a significant factor impact on the environment. The reservoir filling stage is highlighted as the biggest contributor to GHG emissions, even surpassing the construction stage.
In [29] the LCA methodology was used for the analysis and a HPP located in Simalungun in Indonesia. The system operates with two generators, it is of the run-of-river type, has a capacity of 9 MW and productivity of 8MWh, registering 80% efficiency. Considering a useful life of 50 years, the main stages defined by the methodology were: pre-construction, construction, and operation. This study reinforced what other results have also shown, the greatest impact to the construction phase. However, the most influential categories for this phase are ecotoxicity and the release of carcinogenic materials. The authors justify this result using materials such as steel, nickel, and concrete for the construction of the duct. They emphasize that the amount of GHG emission (1.2 kg CO2-eq/MWh) is lower than the categories mentioned above (Table 2).
The review carried out by [47] presents estimates of GHG emissions from reservoir and run-of-river plants, reporting values that exceed 150 kgCO2-eq/MWh for the former and a range of 4–14 kg CO2-eq/MWh for the last. The authors emphasize that this different behavior in terms of emissions is due to the use of land by reservoir-type HPPs and that all phases can contribute to this, due to the emission of methane with the decomposition of vegetation (construction and operation phases) and the sludge deposited throughout the plant’s useful life (decommissioning phase).
The study by [42] compared the emissions produced by a small dam in a rural community in Thailand with the emissions from larger dams, with the objective of finding the best alternative for the electrification of these communities. For this, it carried out the LCA of a small 3 kW system considering its entire life cycle, that is, from the cradle to the grave. The results presented in Table 2 reflect the trend found in the literature, that is, larger HPPs, due to their higher productivity, have a lower environmental impact per kWh produced, compared to smaller HPPs.
Itaipu HPP plant is a binational power plant (Brazil-Paraguay), located on the Paraná River, on the border between these two countries. Until 2012 it was considered the largest hydroelectric plant in the world, with a capacity of 14,000 MW. [44] used the LCA methodology to make an inventory of material and energy consumption, atmospheric emissions and land use and transformation. According to the authors, the good environmental performance (4.33 kg CO2-eq/MWh) obtained as a result of the study (Table 2) is justified by the high productivity of this large hydroelectric plant.
Three run-of-river HPPs located in the United Kingdom (UK) were analyzed in [43]. Each one had a capacity of 650 kW, 100 kW and 50 kW and the result of the study shows emissions of 5.43 kg CO2-eq/MWh, 7.39 kg CO2-eq/MWh and 8.93 kg CO2-eq/MWh respectively (Table 2). According to the authors, there are few LCA studies for small (~100–1000 kW) and micro (~10-100 kW) HPPs that highlighted the importance of knowing their emissions because hydroelectric plants have significant growth in some regions (Table 2).
[46] created an index categorizing HPPs according to capacity (micro, small and large) and type (impoundment, diversion, pumped storage, miscellaneous hydropower works). The mean GHG emission resulting from small HPP dams was higher than large hydropower dams of the same type. The highest average emissions were found for pumped storage (Table 2).
[45] selected three small run-of-river hydropower plants located in India with capacities of 30 MW, 33.33 MW and 51 MW. The analysis was carried out using the LCA methodology, considering, in addition to the capacity, the head of the power plants. The results show that emissions are lower when there is higher productivity, on the other hand, they increase with the increase in the head of the plant.
Different stages of the life cycle of a HPP produce emissions of the most diverse natures and quantities. In this session, we present some studies on HPP LCA found in the literature that confirm this statement.
[24] confirmed in their research (Table 3) using the LCA methodology, that the construction phase in the life cycle of a HPP is the one with the greatest environmental impact due to the emission of GHGs. They analyzed the Guanyinyan power plant, in northeast China, which has 2 turbines, a capacity of 1.6 MW and an average annual production of 6.28GWh. They used the 1 MWh functional unit and considered the plant’s useful life to be 30 years. To complement the research, they carried out a sensitivity analysis, increasing and decreasing inputs by 10%, and studying the consumption of materials such as steel, cement, and energy. They obtained ±6.8% in the results and concluded that “it is necessary to optimize structural designs using new materials and best practices to reduce the level of emissions in relation to the energy generated [24].”
Total | Construction | Operation | Transportation | Maintenance | Disposal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(kg CO2-eq/MWh) | ||||||
[24] | 28.4 | 27.3 | 0.2 | 0.9 | 0.0 | |
[39] | 5.4 | 4.8 | 0.11 | 0.46 | 0.0 | |
[48] | 78.1 | 2.5 ± 0.5 | 75 ± 0.5 | 0.55–0.65 |
HPP - life cycle GHG emissions (kg CO2-eq/MWh) – Phases.
The LCA study carried out in [39] specified the emissions from the Curuá-Una hydroelectric plant located in the Amazon region in its different phases (Table 3). [48] included in his study the HPP of Nam Theun 2, located in southeastern Laos with a capacity of 1070 MW (Table 3), also in different phases.
In [48] they pointed out that the operational phase of the plant is the phase had the greatest impact due to the emissions produced by the reservoir. The gases carbon dioxide is produced by aerobic decomposition and methane by anaerobic decomposition and are the gases produced in greater quantity in the plants located in tropical regions. Methane accounts for 85% of total emissions at warmer temperatures.
These three studies are used here because they relate a high amplitude in the results that can be attributed to the different forms of application of the LCA methods.
In [24] the LCA analysis of a small HPP (1.6 MW) with a useful life of 30 years was performed. In the other case [39] the HPP has a capacity of (30.3 MW) and the analysis was performed for a useful life of 100 years. The results as shown in Table 3 were quite different, justified by the fact that the greater capacity and longer useful life results in greater productivity, causing the quantities to be diluted in relation to the production factor (emission/production factor). And as already mentioned, the high value of the operation phase in [48] is due to the inclusion of direct emissions of methane and carbon dioxide gases, produced by the decomposition of biomass in the flooded area of the reservoir. It is worth mentioning that in [24, 39] only indirect emissions were analyzed.
[39] investigated the environmental impacts of the construction, operation and deactivation phases of the HPP Curuá-Una plant located 70 km from the city of Santarém, in the northern region of Brazil, that is, in the Brazilian Amazon. The HPP was inaugurated on 08/19/1977 and at the time of the study (2016), the plant operated with three turbines with an operating capacity of 30.3 MW and with an efficiency rate of 92.89%, being considered by Brazilian standards as a large plant. The investigation was carried out with real data and data from the Ecoinvent database and the categories analyzed include:
Global Warming Potential (GWP),
Acidification Potential (AP),
Abiotic Depletion Resources (ADP),
Freshwater Aquatic Ecotoxicity Potential (FAETP)
Human Toxicity Potential (HTP),
The results presented in Table 4, show the four phases of the life cycle analyzed in [39]. Among the categories analyzed, the most affected are HTP, GWP and FAETP and the stage with the highest emission is the construction phase. Fossil energy was used in this phase, which is a major contributor to these impact categories. The construction phase has emissions related to all impact categories and among the main contributors to this fact is the use of concrete used in the dam and steel used in infrastructure and equipment such as generators and turbines. It is noteworthy that the methodology used did not include direct emissions, that must be measured directly in the reservoir, as already mentioned, so the low results for the operation phase with the appropriate emissions of CH4 and CO2 are noted.
Impact category | Reference unit | Complete life cycle | Construction | Operation | Transportation | Decommission |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AP | [kg SO2-eq] | 0.0223 | 0.0189 | 0.0009 | 0.0025 | −0.000 |
GWP 100y | [kg CO2-eq] | 5.4659 | 4.8922 | 0.1121 | 0.4679 | −0.0065 |
ADP | [kg Sb eq] | 0.0312 | 0.0247 | 0.0033 | 0.0032 | 0 |
FAETP 100y | [kg 1.4-DCB eq] | 2.4505 | 2.2971 | 0.1169 | 0.0371 | −0.0007 |
HTP 100y | [kg 1.4-DCB eq] | 7.2858 | 6.4277 | 0.6267 | 0.2345 | −0.0031 |
Contribution of Curuá-Una life cycle phases to each impact category [39].
All results presented confirm the need for specific studies in each context and for each objective, since the characteristics of each plant are different, and the objectives of the studies require adequacy of the LCA methodology. According [39] “a direct comparison between HPPs is difficult and should be made carefully because HPPs are highly site-specific, and their environmental impacts are associated with their different characteristics.”
This session discusses issues regarding the specific characteristics of hydropower that impact the Life Cycle Analysis results when analyzing emissions. The diversity of studies and contexts in which this methodology is applied was observed in the previous sessions, generating variation in the results.
Emissions produced by the generation of energy are classified in two ways: indirect and direct [28] The former are the emissions caused by the construction, implantation, and deactivation of the plant, which according to [49] include infrastructure of roads and transmission lines, the work of implantation, manufacture of materials, transport, disposal of material, etc. According to [41], the largest contributor to GHG emissions in this category includes cement production and the use of diesel for electricity. [29] state that “the biggest contributing factor related to the infrastructure for the emission of GHGs is the production of concrete and the transport of stones for the construction of dams and tunnels”. Indirect emissions can represent less than 20% of generating plants using fossil fuel and more than 90% of generating plants using renewable and nuclear sources [49].
And direct emissions are those resulting from the phase in which the plant is in operation, such as burning of fuel used to operate the plant, use of land/flooded area, goods and services for plant operation, etc. In relation to the direct emission produced by the hydroelectric plants, the decomposition of the biomass of the flooded soil of the reservoir is one of the most significant [29]. The impacts caused by these emissions are classified according to the scope of the area they affect in global impact, regional impact and local impact, that is, some may have a significant impact in one region, but not in another. For example, global warming, depletion of the ozone layer, biotic and abiotic resources caused by emissions from a particular location, can cause global impacts; land use will be responsible for local impacts [4].
Hydroelectric plant is a renewable energy source that is not entirely clean, because if considered throughout its life cycle, it has direct and indirect contributions to the production of GHGs. Some studies [28, 49–52] are concerned to show that the idea that hydroelectric plants have low levels of emissions is somehow wrong. They argue that emissions can sometimes exceed those of plants that use non-renewable raw materials, such as fossil fuels, in their implementation phase and in some cases also in the operational phase, as described by [53, 54]. The review presented in this chapter is not intended to provide details of these results.
The consumption of concrete, steel, energy, fuel, and other materials for the construction of the plat, in addition to the use and transformation of the soil, are the most responsible for the indirect emissions that impact the construction phase.
[39] state that the construction stage at the Curuá-Una HPP was the most critical phase in relation to the indirect emissions caused (Table 3), due to the inputs for deploying the HPP, which is corroborated by other authors [24, 41, 49, 55]. [24] concluded that steel and concrete are the largest contributors among the materials used as inputs due to their production chains.
[37, 41] reinforce that cement production, the use of diesel for electricity and the transport of stone for construction of dams and tunnels are major contributors to GHG emissions. 90% of emissions from renewable plants come from the construction phase [49]. [26] say that plants that use renewable resources for energy production (hydro, solar, wind), that is, do not burn fossil fuel, have their most impacting indirect emissions in the construction phase.
According to [24, 35, 41, 44] the capacity and scale of projects also influence GHG emissions, stating that smaller systems have worse environmental performance than systems with greater capacity. This is since the higher productivity of the latter, reduces the ratio between the emission and the energy produced in MWh during the useful life of the plant. [56] carried out LCA of two HPPs in China, with 44 MW and 3600 MW, and the GHG emissions were 44 and 6 kg CO2-eq/MWh, respectively.
We can explain by observing the statements of these authors that the ratio between the impact per MWh and the higher productivity of the plant, considering its long-life cycle, are factors that can make the HPPs the more environmentally viable option to meet greater demands, because it dilutes the amount of impacts over its useful life. However, the need to serve small populations or rural communities located at great distances from large HPPss, small plants are still a very viable alternative for energy production, having better environmental performance than fossil fuel plants, that is often used in this context.
Environmental impacts are influenced by several factors in addition to the productivity of the plant, as already seen. Therefore, the analysis of the LCA of HPPs with different scale and capacity must be carried out with great care, even when the values are parameterized.
A highly discussed issue with respect to LCA of HPPs is to land use change and Land Use Change (LULUC). Land use of HPPs implies land transformation (flood area and implantation) and occupation (entire occupied area concerning the time of use). According to [57], hydroelectric pumped storage and storage hydroelectric plants, which use dams to store water in reservoirs to allow flexible production of electricity, cause LULUC. In addition to filling the reservoir, also due infrastructure, including power lines and access roads.
It should also be noted in [58] that state the occupancy factor is indirectly proportional to the time that a given area is used to generate renewable energy, that is, the longer the time, the lower the occupancy factor. On the other hand, for the production of energy from non-renewable sources (biomass, coal, natural gas, etc.), the relationship is direct, that is, the longer the time, the greater the occupancy factor.
The analysis of land use, such as occupation or transformation of HPPs using LCA is necessary. Take the example of Balbina HPP in Brazil. According to [53], this plant will produce more GHG than fossil fuels because the proportion of the reservoir size per unit of energy generated is very high. The example of the LCA of the Curuá-Una plant in [39] in the Amazon region can illustrate these conclusions. The result of the analysis in this regard was 1.33E-02 km2.y/MWh. For an efficiency of 92.89%, its projected production is 29,976,720 MWh in 100 years. By reducing the operating time to 50 years considering the same efficiency, the HPP would produce half of that energy, and consequently would increase its occupancy factor and its environmental damage.
The environmental impacts produced by reservoir and run-of-river plants were presented by [59]. For reservoir plants, the average was 15 kg of CO2-eq/MWh and for run-of-river plants, the average was 2 kg of CO2-eq/MWh. As already mentioned, steel and concrete are the main contributors to these emissions, as they are consumed in greater quantities in reservoir plants. The authors detailed the factors that contribute to emissions in the construction phase and the study includes the following criteria: (i) run-of-river hydroelectric plants versus reservoir plants; (ii) materials used (earth/rock versus reinforced concrete); (iii) volume of dikes and dams, which may be site-specific; and (iv) total size of the project or group of plants [59].
An important issue to consider when comparing run-of-river and reservoir plants is the reliability of the electricity supply. LCA studies of HPPs present results pointing to better performance for run-of-river HPPs [33, 37, 46, 47]. However, according to [59], reliability is only possible when the energy source (water) can be stored in a reservoir, being available for operation. We emphasize that production reliability must also be considered when comparing reservoir HPP with plants that have intermittent sources, such as wind and solar photovoltaic. In the absence of these resources (wind and sunlight) it will be necessary to complement them to meet the demand, which is usually through fossil resources, greatly increasing the environmental impact.
Another issue to be considered is the use of reservoirs for other purposes, such as irrigation, flow control, flood control, storage of drinking water and even fishing. Currently, large reservoirs are planned and built for these purposes, such as the Three Gorges HPP in China, which uses stored water to control the flow available during the dry season, to facilitate navigation and to irrigate [32, 47]. On the other hand, there are cases, such as the Sardar Sarovar dam, Gurajat in India, where the main purpose of its construction was the irrigation of arable areas and the storage of water for domestic and industrial consumption, while the generation of hydroelectric energy was considered a side benefit, although more recently it has increased its importance [60]. The study of LCA in these cases becomes difficult because the importance of the reservoir as an energy producer is not fully known [35].
The type of technology used its manufacturing location and the distance of travel for the implantation in the plant is a significant factor for the environmental impacts [31]. Transporting this equipment from origin to destination consumes fossil fuel, leading to a significant increase in emissions. Like the Curuá-Una HPP, in Brazil, in which most of the equipment was manufactured far from the implantation site and it was often necessary to transport turbines and generators by river and road [39].
Some uncertainty factors in LCA of HPPs were listed in this study. In general, it can be attributed to the lack of a standard for applying the methodology. However, the complexity and diversity of these systems makes this standardization difficult.
Initially, the use of a standard functional unit in the comparison of the different plants is not enough to guarantee a correct analysis of the results. There is divergence in the results when we have variation in the limits or boundaries of the system. Is important know well which specificities of each study will be included in the inventory.
For example, the LCA methodology applied to plants that have a reservoir most of the time includes all phases of the life cycle, namely, construction, operation/maintenance and decommissioning. However, there are few reports of LCAs that include the measurement of methane and carbon dioxide emissions that occur during the filling of the reservoir or the flooded area during the operational phase. There are many factors that can influence these measurements, such as pre-existing vegetation, location and climate, size and depth of the reservoir, among others. It is noteworthy that these emissions can significantly influence the results [52].
According to [34] the uncertainty factors are greater in the production of energy from renewable sources and [33] add that among these, biomass and hydroelectric technologies are the most divergent in the LCA results (Table 1 and Table 3). Temperature variation is also an important factor, according to the authors [33, 34], and reservoirs in tropical regions may be subject to higher GHG emission due to high temperature, which accelerates the biomass decomposition process.
Considering the above, there is a need for more specific conduct for each case of HPP LCA. This constitutes a great challenge. As a contribution to facilitating this process, we include the following recommendations: (i) elaboration of a framework to assess uncertainties; (ii) definition of a standard to classify dams according to their size, geographic location and climate; (iii) a framework to conduct the collection of essential data for hydroelectric plants, defining the system boundary in the inventory phase; (iv) construction of a common vocabulary, a practical application guide, so that researchers from other areas can contribute to the application of the LCA of HPPs methodology, with the objective of reducing these uncertainty factors.
The conclusions lead us to enumerate some alternatives to reduce the environmental impacts in energy production from HPPs: (i) future research to quantify emissions from hydroelectric plants should be conducted to include their entire life cycle, from cradle to grave, considering direct and indirect emissions; (ii) using LCA to analyze emissions from large hydroelectric plants located in developing countries such as China, Brazil and India can bring elements to a better choice of energy production in very extensive territories; (iii) the integration between different technologies of renewable sources, in an optimized way, can be a good alternative to meet the growing demand considering the parameters of sustainability; (iv) choosing more modern technologies for infrastructure (turbines, dams, pipelines, etc.) can reduce emissions during the construction phase of hydroelectric plants.
We understand that the optimized integration of different technologies in energy production is a viable way to meet the demand and, in this context, the hydroelectric plant plays an important role. However, the challenges of meeting the economic, social, and environmental viability of these projects have caused many concerns, discussions, and controversies.
Some research considers hydropower to be a clean, renewable energy source, while others claim that its emissions can sometimes be even higher than those of fossil fuels. It is important that this topic is discussed in a context based on the results of peer-reviewed scientific studies, such a scientifically based discussion will allow the rigorous evaluation of the most viable forms of energy production that attend the principles of sustainability.
The chapter presents a review of the HPP’s LCA and compiles aspects that may influence these analyses, therefore the main contribution of this work is to highlight the different characteristics of the HPPs that impact the analysis of their indirect emissions.
Among the factors mentioned are the capacity and scale of projects, pointed larger systems have better environmental performance than smaller systems, due the ratio between the emission rate and the energy produced in MWh in the plant’s lifetime.
Regarding the type if is reservoir or run-of-river, there is a factor that must be considered. Although reservoir plants produce more emissions, authors cite the use of these reservoirs for other purposes (water flow control, fishing, etc.), bringing additional benefits.
Land use must be critically analyzed when dealing with HPPs that use dams, due to the construction of its infrastructure including power lines and access roads. Although, the longer time a certain area is used for generation of renewable energy the lower is the occupation factor.
It is notorious and research shows that HPPs produce less emissions per energy generated than technologies that use fossil fuels. However, to evaluate the results among only renewables sources, such as wind, solar and hydroelectric, it is necessary to consider the intermittence of sources, that is, the constant availability of the natural resource (wind, water, solar) to generate energy. And this factor corroborates to the better performance of HPP in some cases.
Regarding the phases analyzed by the HPP’s LCA, most studies state that the construction phase is the one that produces the most emissions in relation to renewable plants. But some studies also cite emissions from the flooded area and submerged vegetation as an important emission factor.
The results obtained by the research with LCA methodology exemplified here confirm that it can be widely used for the environmental analysis of electric energy production systems. However, the lack of standards for the preparation of inventories and for their analysis is pointed out by many authors as one of the difficulties for the use of LCA. The authors list in the challenges section some suggestions to minimize this problem.
In this context, it is considered that the more studies of the environmental impacts produced by the indirect emissions of HPS, using LCA, the more knowledge about the adequacy of the use of this methodology, the uncertainty factors and their restrictions will be consolidated, thus collaborating in the decision process involving HPPs.
The authors acknowledge the support of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Pará (FAPESPA).
Despite the increase in research on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Hydroelectric Power Plants (HPP) there are issues that need to be better discussed. This review aims to discuss factors that influence HPP LCAs such as: indirect emissions, different stages of HPPs (construction, operation, and decommissioning), scale/productivity of HPPs, types of projects (reservoir and run-of-river) and use of the ground. Most of the results obtained by HPP LCAs indicate that the construction phase is the most influential phase for indirect emissions due to the use of steel and concrete. The comparison of the HPP’s LCA results with the LCA of other energy sources indicates that for the analyzed category Global Warming Potential (GWP), the HPPs present a good environmental performance considering the quantified emissions, their productivity and useful life. The present review highlights some uncertainty factors that influence HPP LCA studies and cites the need to carry out future studies on the environmental impacts of HPPs including these factors.
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',metaTitle:"Odredbe i uvjeti",metaDescription:"Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/cro-terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Pristupom na stranicu www.intechopen.com slažete se s ovim odredbama, sa svim primjenjivim zakonskim odredbama, te se slažete s poštovanjem svih lokalnih zakona. Korištenje i/ili pristup ovoj stranici temelji se na potpunom prihvaćanju ovih odredbi. Svi materijali na ovoj stranici zaštićeni su primjenjivim zakonima o autorskim pravima i žigu.
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\n\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\n\nKlijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
\n\nKompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
\n\nStranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\n\nSve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
\n\nOsim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\n\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\n\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. 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