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The church is one agent of the social change in the community, possible to play a significant role if it can synergize between itself, the government and community. It is illuminated by religious values, the church in developing a synergy could promote the model of development that openness, social justice and participatory are as important basic values [2]. So that, by such a promotion, the church always presents Christ—that incognito lived with human and being equal with them—is as a model that all participatory development to refer [3]. Additionally, to establish development rooted in community, it needs social and cultural approach; while to encourage people eager to solve the problem in sustainable way, it needs an entrepreneurial approach [4].
The problem is how the church could do a synergy? What mechanism is to be applied? Is there a theological obstacle for the church to synergize between parties working with the community? One basic element to make a synergy is partnership, and in the history, partnership is inherent thing in the body of the church. As the body that One and Catholic, the church is always doing partnership in the life and its history, particularly among churches and then between the church and other bodies that existed in the community. Is it possible to apply entrepreneurial approach for the church diaconia in implementing community development?
This paper is aiming at describing the problem the church is facing when doing a community development. As a religious institution, when doing development community, the church often confronts the problem dealt with issues conversion [5]. Therefore, the church as a religious body bears a secular identity when doing development in the community [6]. Regarding the partnership and synergy, the church often implements some models to keep the programme well taking place in practice in the community.
It is composed of several field works in three areas of Indonesia: North Sumatera (2008), Sumba in Eastern Indonesia (2010) and Central Java (2015); this paper is seeking to map out the problem of the church in community development and how to solve the problem by implementing an entrepreneurial approach. What does entrepreneurial approach mean here is not limited on the economic aspect, but it is covering the large definition of entrepreneurship. So, entrepreneurship here embraces the idea of innovative and creative and how both stances are dealt with the social transformation [7].1 While sociocultural approach to the entrepreneurship means that all efforts to solve the social and developmental problem, either using social or cultural values, are construed as entrepreneurial activities; and the people are doing such a thing and living out as habitual and are categorized as the entrepreneurs.
To deepen the entrepreneurial character of the church members, this research borrows from Bourdieu’s concept of habitus and practice [8] as social action. It means all new practice of entrepreneurship as social means to develop the developmental programme is traced back to habitus or mental disposition since the people were still young [9, 10]. It is based on such methods we found that the people had a long experience in navigating social problems, social relationship, and all social dynamics in the society are open to the new ideas and being creative persons [2]. Eventually, if such things are continually developed, it could support them to be agent of social change in the developmental processes [4, 8, 9].
Bourdieu stated that: ‘[Habitus]……it ensures the active presence of past experiences, which, deposited in each organism in the form of schemes of perception, thought and action, tend to guarantee the “correctness” of practices and their constancy over time, more reliably than all formal rules and explicit norms’ ([8], 54). In addition, by habitus, we can understand how the actor could do practice in a constant way. If implemented in the developmental transformation, it could generate people to be agent of development, as it explained: ‘(T)he habitus makes possible the production of all the thoughts, perceptions, and actions inherent in the conditions of its production and only those. Through the habitus, the structure of which it is the product governs practice, not along the paths of a mechanical determinism, but within the constraints and limits initially set on its inventions’ ([8], 55).
When doing a field work in three areas, the author was doing a combination between in-depth interview, FGD and collective interview; and on some occasions, the last method was sometimes very effective to get data simultaneously as a kind of validation, as well. To make it a context analysis, Indonesia development is to refer as the large context of this paper. However, analysis of the development of Indonesia, post-modern perspective is used [11]. So, by this way, the church and its role in the partnership could be placed, and the dynamics of the partnership of the church and other organizations could be presented in a balanced way.
Despite of all the definitions, entrepreneurship generally refers to the character of innovative and creative [10, 12], or a kind of novel recombination of products, services or processes to give rise to a social change [7]. Furthermore, in a cultural sense, entrepreneurship refers to ways of embedding a story in the conduct of an activity [4]. As another definition that Ratten [4] developed in the cultural sense, she defined that entrepreneurship is ‘the process of storytelling that mediates between extant stocks of entrepreneurial resources and subsequent capital acquisition and wealth creation’, and from such a definition, it could be enlarged that entrepreneurship is a kind of narrative that empowers people. Therefore, by developing such an entrepreneurial narrative, energy of the people is a source for implementing the development. This means that cultures enable verbal and non-verbal symbols to be used as the way to represent stories to set up identity and developmental processes ([4], 2–3).
In terms of pedagogy, an entrepreneurship needs to be embodied culturally by educational processes, particularly among young people. The aim of this is to encourage young people and others as active of developmental agents as well as by becoming agents, people are to be active and curious of resource they have and to develop and improve their life by developmental program and activities ([9], 15–17). With regard to the entrepreneurship as cultural narrative, young people need to encourage expressing their own faith bravely and independently. Therefore, in this context, the church should implement an entrepreneurial pedagogy to motivate and encourage their own agency in developmental programme. By doing so, developmental activities are places for them to actualize and witness that they are productive workers [6].
In addition, entrepreneurial activity is an arena where creativity is an essential thing. If the church implemented an entrepreneurial pedagogy, it aroused people’s curiosity prompting intentionally proactive behaviors in response to novelty, complexity, uncertainty or conflict. Curiosity equips people to be situationally, relationally and vocationally agile, and curious people show signs of experiencing higher levels of well-being [9]. Shortly, an entrepreneurial pedagogy creates an ecosystem that is safe for young people who discovered solutions, and these are that they are expecting that will be beneficial for adult’s schedules and contexts ([9], 15–17), and eventually, it brings about prosperity for all.
In this context, entrepreneurship is not viewed from traditional theory that tended to focus on economic objectives derived from business activity, rather than this entrepreneurship is related to the cultural or lifestyle where entrepreneurship value is derived [4]. This means entrepreneurship is contextual in nature. Therefore, if we make an entrepreneurship relate to the development, it is a compatible thing. Or, if we elaborate more, entrepreneurship is to be one solution for developmental problems. The more people to be entrepreneurial persons, the more community developed. In other words, if entrepreneurship is embodied culturally and brings about cultural entrepreneurship, it could be a means of cultural or local development [12]. Such a process, at least, is in three main forms: making culture, deploying culture and cultural making ([4], 2), and through such a process, the development is a cultural or habitual one.
The church as an important local institution, by entrepreneurial pedagogy or cultural making of entrepreneurship, can play a significant role. In the context of pedagogy as aforementioned, she can shape an entrepreneurial character of agency and curiosity, to make development sustain for a long time, and in terms of practice, the church also plays a role as the network broker bridging entrepreneurs and external partners, connecting them to achieve mutual benefit and as entrepreneurial support organization directly assisting entrepreneurs and networks by providing access to information, capital, support services and training as well as by promoting local entrepreneurial cultures [13].
If the cultural entrepreneurship is compounded by religious values, it will empower Christian people, either leader or lay people to be agency for social transformation [7], and it was a faith expression of Christian people in partnership with the community of faith that can be a means to overcome materialism, individualism and self-centredness [2]; and it will rise ‘religious entrepreneurship for holistic transformation’. New contextual churches are freshening the religious landscape of the global North. One core theological principle of the ‘entrepreneurship for holistic transformation’ is the belief in a ‘the kingdom shaped the church’. The entrepreneurial model intends to offer an open, just and loving relationships—with God and with others, in contrast to the predominate consumer-oriented relationships found in the world and in other models ([2], 333–334, [7], 348–349) of secular societal development.
Indonesia is the largest Moslem-Democratic State in Southeast Asia [14] and implementing
The Christian people, despite the number being less, are mostly also located in outer Island, outside Java, which is identified as the underdeveloped area. In this context, the church is experiencing a double burden of social discrimination: minority and backwardness. This situation is taking place for a long time, and since the last decade, it seemingly is going to be changed. The new spirit of development in Indonesia is that the government is to build from the backward area and distribute justice for all people of Indonesia.
If we look at the context of Indonesian, the current government anchored the official slogan of development: ‘to build (Indonesia) from the edge or border’,
Border, its meaning is dealt with territory or physical zone, or more specifically it refers to a demarcation line of group or ethnic; it is emphasizing on the border physically or see-view thing; while boundary is a kind of imagery concept that embraces a culture and identity; border is a social fact, while boundary social construction ultimately forms a consciousness ([16], 57, [17], 47–49). The concept of ethnicity, in political point of view, relates to boundary and tends to be political claim and simultaneously defined as a kind of restriction, either physically, geographically, and it functions as a mockery or stigma to ignore people or ethnic in the name of social group [18]. By implementing the concept of ethnicity or boundary, construction of discrimination, mentality and identity—in the negative nuance—is applied as a means of domination between one group and another in a community or, largely, in the state.
Employing such a definition to give a criticism the word of edge,
The concept of boundary is developed to set up identity, either socially, psychologically or mentality of the backwardness [17, 18]. In the concept of boundary, people felt that they underserved to access, privilege and other benefit that others have and get in the other places. It caused a social exclusion, expulsion, limitation and social isolation. Shortly, naming the edge region or backwardness area is a kind of form of the injustice: stigma making, destiny lowering and false-consciousness of the identity and limitation upon the social-economic access among people the rights to develop and the development.
It is based on such an understanding, the developmental model that applied to the edge region is the Java-centred one—it assumed that Java is more advanced rather than others. Accordingly, by such a model what happened is the ‘Javanization’ of the development. What is in Java the appropriate model for another region of Indonesia that is underdeveloped or backward? It starts with education to economy, Java is a model to follow; as well as from how to build a school building to mall or market building [17]. There is no empowerment and bottom-up participation of the development.
The developmental process is not seemingly an overhaul of a machine. Everywhere and every time the development is applied in the same mechanism. The development is a multiparty process and seeks to harmonize one and another. By placing Java as a model, a developmental process is going to an end. It will stop when the developmental process is started. It cannot give rise to a sense of belonging; without open participation, a sense of belonging is not growing. The concept of the edge region needs to revise if it wants to enact the sustainable and rooted development in Indonesia. Instead, it needs a new approach by developing human potencies, and then it empowers people to be creative energy of development. There is no edge region; what happened is the region is forced to be in the edge because of political or ideological aspect.
To eliminate the edge region or zone, it needs an empowerment, either by developing entrepreneurial mentality or culture that gives an opportunity of creativity for all people. Entrepreneurship is meant as systematic approach of changing habit of people and encouraging them to dig out the potency they have and embody it into people’s inspiration-based developmental programme. By applying such an approach there will be a new culture where people are free to think and to do creatively to optimize the potency they have, either socially or culturally. Such an approach is related to emancipation of what Marx had been thinking that to change the environment where people live to be a meaningful context of life, people need an emancipation—to know self as a subject of being that able to think, create and solve the problem they are facing, either individually or collectively [19]. Also, this emancipation is closed to the concept of human being as God’s image. After human beings reach an emancipation, the entrepreneurial mentality follows. In other words, emancipation and entrepreneurial are a pair of words that is important in developing community.
In the developmental process, the involvement of religions is important thing to consider. It means decision to develop is related to how to build a social life better, strength and integrate. Furthermore, by new stance to the religion, the development today is linked to the religious values to achieve better result. It was generated by the proponent religious NGOs in Germany and Netherlands that took part in shaping the model of development today, as expressed in millennium development goals (MDGs) and/or sustainable development goals (SDGs) led by the UN [6]. Therefore, religious values are inscribed or attached in the developmental processes. It is in contrary of what had been in the past that religion is excluded from the development planning and its implementation. Within such an approach, religion is not merely an object of development; instead, religion is to be an important factor or subject of development. It is expected by new approach of development, it brings about a justice for all. In this context, religion is no longer moral guardian of development, but it will be a giver direction and ethical base for the developmental processes; so by doing it, human values and justice will be important values in the developmental processes.
It is based on such a view the religious institution or leader should be the ‘prophet’ in developmental processes. A prophet is not just a rites leader, but she/he is a person that always presents and involves in each process of development: encourages for voicing a justice for all—or in other terms, development as religious discourse [20]; and simultaneously, religion is a source of power for people that is a victim of development and shape development and religious dimension of survival strategies [21]. In addition, outside the role mentioned above, religion also can be a ‘referee’ for all dispute taking place among people involved in a development, and its role is giving a fair decision, even though in doing this there is a risk to bear [22].
In the context of the poor, religious institution—in this context the church—should be living together with people that involve and engage in development; and in the context of referee, the church can make a partnership with the government to issue policies that it will bring about a good decision for people; and if necessary, the church could be the people’s advocate when the government violates them by transgressing the human rights principles. If the church should do all activities, she could make a critical partnership with the government and able to develop solidarity with the people that are victims of the development [1].
Synergy can start with partnership; the development programme is to improve the life of the poor by providing them goods and services can be developed into synergy. Among the churches, partnership has a long tradition, as stated:
By implementing partnership the parties that cooperate each other are expecting to do a programme in equal position; and it is to come up because one and another has a limitation,3 therefore, by partnership there will be a common strength, and it is to enlarge the service of community development.4 In terms of governance, synergy includes what the government and other sector in community had to do in overcoming the problem that arises and growing the common good [23]. Synergy to some extent is reflecting a human solidarity, moral, political and ideological or spiritual between those are in the North and South to join and seek social transformation collectively [24].
It is related to partnership synergy that stake place if there is a mutuality: there is common objective to achieve [25]. In the more positive context, continuing what Brehm [26] developed, synergy could be construed as a commitment to mutual interaction in long time and share of responsibility, mutual obligation and power equality. Analytically, synergy has two important aspects or dimensions that are a combination of relational and organizational:
This dimension is emphasized on how partnership is effective to implement, and it includes some aspect, among others, mutuality, clear expectation, rights and duty, accountability and transparency. What support these are the principle of trust, expectation, appreciation, integrity, credibility and ownership. It means that partnership is dealt with trusting relationship where each and other are mutually open and responsible [26]. If a partnership is not supported by such principles or values, it will be an unequal partnership. To embody such a partnership into practice, it needs some instruments, i.e. agreement, memorandum of understanding, and it will content what it must do and how to share the burden and responsibility between parties taking part in partnership ([27], 15–17).
In one FGD with some churches and religious NGOs on the partnership and its relational dimension, there was a good idea on the partnership, as following:
Through partnership there was an enhancement capacity among those involved in the partnership, in managerial, personal and cultural aspects. Because when implementing partnership, there is a learning process between one and another.
The issue of how to manage synergy through organization is the core thing of the organizational dimension of partnership. Or, how the partnership is institutionalized in formal way, so that it will be effective to implement. It means, if one organization has no organizational culture, system and mechanism, it is difficult to enact an effective partnership. For instance, if the State does not have the clear system and governmental management, it will be difficult to find international partner of development. If the dimension of relation of partnership is closed to values and character, while the organizational dimension covered the tangible thing: management and governance.
Refer to the above explanation, synergy in the development programme is a necessary [28]. It is impossible to grow the rooted development without synergy among parties, particularly between government, commercial sector and community, including in this context the church. However, in developing a good partnership, particularly between the church and government, both must develop a mentality or culture of the good governance. Partnership without good governance will fall into exploitative one. It means, there is possibility one party exploited by other, or distrust of one and another, because there is no common platform to achieve the common goals. It is expressed, by someone:
If looking at the governmentality, there is an issue of power, even though it is not in the form of violence. The organizational dimension of partnership is often to be a stumbling block of synergy between the church and government. If it is only emphasizing one dimension of partnership, for instance, the dimension of relation and ignoring the organizational one, it will not bring about the good development for people; and corollary, if it pays attention only to the organizational dimension, there is possibility to do a kind of violence, because the good governance is imposed. Both dimensions must be paired when the church is going to make a synergy with government to support people in achieving the good things.
What more to think is the position the church should choose when making a partnership or synergy with the government. The church will choose being the programme implementor or as a mediator of the development—and the community as the implementor of development programme. In context of synergy, at least there are three parties which complete one another when making a partnership; and there are two points of meeting between them: partnership and participation. The first point is engaging the church—as intermediary, and the government (donor); while the second is with recipient/beneficiary of the development (Figure 1).
Partnership synergy and power relation.
Besides the issue of position, something that is important to consider is power relationship among parties involved and shaping the synergy partnership. When the government as donor makes a partnership with the church, it will be possible there is a power balance; as the church has no vested interest upon the development fund, so the church has no ambition of political power. However, we must criticize another interest that might be rising among people within the church; if it happened, the partnership is instrumentalist for them, and the principle of good governance is not taking place, and eventually, community could be the victim of partnership: there is no participation due to people being merely instrument of the church in the political game of development.
What no less is saddening is sometimes the church and community make a collaboration to undermine the government authority. Then, synergy partnership is coming to an amorally and fugitive conspiration for the sake of the church authority. Religion is a kind of political commodity, and it will be a politization of religion. Participation is changed into mobilization and people become ‘missile’ for the church’s vested interest and elite. The principle of good governance is not implemented. If such a thing is taking place, democracy is not growing, and freedom is turning into a meaningless party.
The best position for the church in making synergy partnership is in between the government and community—it could give rise to a participatory development. In this position, the church can play a role as prophet as well as the good patriot for the people. As a prophet, the church could be a moral guardian and speak out the critical voice to the government that does not practise the development properly. And at the same time, it will be an advocate for people who undergo repression or subjugation. Accordingly, the church will be able to rise up and encourage people participation in development, so by doing this people are empowered to be the responsible and good citizens.
A strategic partnership might be representing the best synergy in doing development; by doing such a partnership, what they discuss and do is the comprehensive programme to answer the issue of poverty and humanity.
To implement the concept of strategic partnership in practice, at least, there are three models that church could develop: first, cooperation, it is a basic and simple or minimalist partnership: it was not accompanied by creating a common vision; only shares information; and authority is on each organization that makes a partnership. This kind of partnership is manifested in a temporary activity, for instance, when facing a flood or natural disaster; each organization shares and contributes what it has, food, medical or labour to do a programme of flood emergency.
The second model is coordination; it is rather an intensive relation as there is a demand to shape a formality: mission is to be discussed and agreed openly, there is a collective planning and sharing the role; and each organization still has its own authority, but there is a risk taking commonly; resource, for instance, finance, is to manage together, as well as if there is benefit, it is to be managed commonly. The form of this model is manifested in the establishment a forum or a foundation that serves or focuses on the legal aid for migrant worker, for instance. This forum is an amalgamation of several ideas that had been discussed; then from discussion there is a collective mission, and it subsequently breaks down into organizational structure and its programme.
The last is collaboration, it is a kind of profound and trusted partnership; by doing this partnership there is a bounding or commitment of one and another: there is a new structure that set up together—even though it is separated from each organization; there is joint or common vision and mission; there is a common planning that made it comprehensively together; on each level of organization, all information is distributed and shared openly; authority will be decided by new structure that set up together; there is commitment to bear a risk together and openly; resources are to be managed together, and products are to be distributed openly to each organization (Figure 2).
Some models of partnership synergy.
The model that would be implemented by the church is depended on the context and issue they are facing, because each model bears risk that should be taken on. Commitment, engagement, sharing of resources are important aspects that need to be considered. The more to choose the higher model of partnership is the more commitment, engagement and resources are needed, included its risk. However, all these are well taking place if good governance is well implemented. Unfortunately, the aspect of good governance is left behind or abandoned, so that the partnership is coming to the transactional processes, and eventually, partnership is just beneficial for parties involved, while people who should be beneficiaries are ignored and remain as a victim of partnership.
However, to reaching a collaborative model of partnership, there are several obstacles to overcome.
In this context, the dimension power of governmentality is possible to come up. In the management of partnership often there is a potency of power, in which fund and knowledge are to be a sensitive issue. As always, those having resource of power can determine the approach or value that they promote and implement in the partnership. In the collaborative model, one party can share human resources and other raw material, while the other can share fund, knowledge and technology. There are two impacts, the positive one is social change and systematic development, and the other side is economic, social and political hegemony that if not paid attention seriously, it will give an impact that is the marginalization of the poor people by presenting new values of freedom, democracy, liberalism and capitalism that are oriented to those having capital and power.8
If using sociocultural entrepreneurship to analyze what have been described above in detail, the church has potency to implement community development with diaconia approach or involved religious values in shaping development mentality or entrepreneurial character among the church and community members. For instance, the belief in a Kingdom of God, where the final end is justice and prosperity, is reflected in terms of cultural values, such as hard work, discipline, open cooperation and appreciate others; by doing such a reflection, it will find that Kingdom of God is a kind of
In addition, if using theological perspective and transform into social, open, just and loving relationship, it can be a starting point. In this context, the relation between diaconia and entrepreneurship is possible to meet each other. Diaconia is based on the love or compassion, and this kind of love, to avoid romanticism, should be dialogized with other values of social and cultural, to create a self-dignity. Encountering between diaconia and entrepreneurship results in a Christian-based social entrepreneurship that is an expression of the creative loving. This model intended to offer a new kind of loving relationship that empowers people to do creative works to reach self-independency and dignity in the name of faith.
Both models, social diaconia and religious entrepreneurial activities, are possible to implement in practice. In this context, religion is able to give a positive-critical meaning of the developmental processes: from planning to evaluation. Employing Christian-based social-cultural entrepreneurial, the practice of community development is a practice of social diaconia of the church. It means, the church does not let the development process without her ‘intervention’, due to the development seen as diaconia service of the church to confess her faith. Accordingly, social diaconia is not merely love-charity service, but it should be able to build people awareness to express the creative loving for social justice by creative participation in the development.
Such a practice of development must encourage the church as a mediator between government and community to implement the participatory development for the sake of social justice and prosperity. Participatory itself is rising when people have a mentality of subject of being, by entrepreneurial programme, either accompanied by social or cultural approaches.
To make it clear the role of social and cultural entrepreneurship for developing community, the effort of local church and its pastor to build an economic institution is here presented as a model. Living among the church members are relatively poor as well as the community members, the church seeks to find both theological thinking on economy and proper instrument as a means of prosperity. Due to the historical trauma on the cooperative, the church does not want to revitalize it. Discussing the theological and practical aspect of credit union (CU), the church supports the pastor initiative to set up CU as new economic institution for the church and community members. To develop entrepreneurial character or mentality among people, the church builds social-theological foundation: (1) theological piety must be embodied in economic piety, and (2) management of mammon; for the last idea, pastor said: ‘If we ourselves are not able to manage the earthly mammon, how we can manage another thing?’9.
Both theological foundations are not emphasizing on ‘money’, but on the stance to and management of money. To institutionalize both personal stance and management, it needs an organization; and then CU is to ‘transform’ the negative nuance of cooperative in the past. Shortly, CU is a fellowship to institutionalize the positive stance and outlook on money, and it intended to materialize the common welfare.10 Additionally, what important is the character changing that brings about a new paradigm in looking at money and wealth, as expressed:
Transformation of the idea of cooperative that in the past had negative nuance into CU is a reflection of cultural transformation of entrepreneurial mentality. By doing such transformation the church has promoted a thorough community development. Furthermore, looking at the success of this CU, the local government has offered a collaborative programme: CU will be an official instrument of poverty alleviation. The transformation process of CU is also an explanation that the entrepreneurial changing of mentality had given positive contribution to the development in community. Because CU now is reaching out to members in community and not limited only in the church. ‘Through this CU, we feel that Christ is not far away and flee from the social problem’, pastor said:
The good the church is, the church that continues to do public service for common good or
The church as religious and social institution, in the context of Indonesia, a country that is doing a massive development, has a task that is not easy to do. It is not a state-church, the Indonesian church must do creative thing to develop community for the community and the church members as well. Also, it is not supported by sufficient fund, particularly from the members, the church should look for another source of fund to empower people surrounding.
In doing a community development that is giving a positive impact to its members, the church implements partnership with the government. By doing such a partnership, the church is able to empower people; and to continue the development sustain, entrepreneurship is applied as a means of completing it. Through the partnership the church is facing a problem of the limitation and power relation. In seeking to overcome the problems that are possible rising, the church attempt to implement a good governance. Developing trust, making a good communication, negotiation and complying with the items that are drafted in the contract are some managerial actions as a faith expression that matches with the concept of good governance.
By tracing the history of the church by life span of the pastor and some young people involved in the developmental practices, we found that good governance is a meaningful point of reference. Good governance is interpreted by them as an expression of faith as well to erect an open and equal partnership with government. Once the developmental programme secured, the church implements a socio-entrepreneurship to empower both the church and community members.
To make a partnership is a difficult thing; therefore, the church should be able to navigate, so it will not be entrapped into the government manipulation, or the church is instrumentalist in the development processes. Developing the dimension relational and organizational of partnership has made it possible for the church to do synergy with the government. Being synergy, it means the church could be equal partner of the government in doing community development. Accordingly, engaged in such a process, the church has an opportunity to witness the world that the community development is a manifestation of the social diaconia. It is oriented to public service, social diaconia of the church is to intend to create a common good,
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Stress is any adverse environmental condition that hampers proper growth of plant. Abiotic stress creates adverse effect on multiple procedures of morphology, biochemistry and physiology that are directly connected with growth and yield of plant. Abiotic stress are quantitative trait hence genes linked to these traits can be identified and used to select desirable alleles responsible for tolerance in plant. Plants can initiate a number of molecular, cellular and physiological modifications to react to and adapt to abiotic stress. Crop productivity is significantly affected by drought, salinity and cold. Abiotic stress reduce water availability to plant roots by increasing water soluble salts in soil and plants suffer from increased osmotic pressure outside the root. Physiological changes include lowering of leaf osmotic potential, water potential and relative water content, creation of nutritional imbalance, enhancing relative stress injury or one or more combination of these factors. Morphological and biochemical changes include changes in root and shoot length, number of leaves, secondary metabolite (glycine betaine, proline, MDA, abscisic acid) accumulation in plant, source and sink ratio. 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It has been demonstrated that an increase in crop yields significantly reduces poverty. Yield, the mass of harvest crop product in a specific area, is influenced by several factors. These factors are grouped in three basic categories known as technological (agricultural practices, managerial decision, etc.), biological (diseases, insects, pests, weeds) and environmental (climatic condition, soil fertility, topography, water quality, etc.). These factors account for yield differences from one region to another worldwide. The current chapter will discuss each of these three basic factors as well as providing some recommendations for overcoming them. In addition, it will provide the importance of climate-smart agriculture in the increase of crop yields while facilitating the achievement of crop production in safe environment. This goes in line with the second goal of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of United Nations in transforming our world formulated as end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.",book:{id:"8153",slug:"agronomy-climate-change-food-security",title:"Agronomy",fullTitle:"Agronomy - Climate Change & Food Security"},signatures:"Tandzi Ngoune Liliane and Mutengwa Shelton Charles",authors:[{id:"313819",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliane",middleName:null,surname:"Tandzi",slug:"liliane-tandzi",fullName:"Liliane Tandzi"},{id:"314316",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles Shelton",middleName:null,surname:"Mutengwa",slug:"charles-shelton-mutengwa",fullName:"Charles Shelton Mutengwa"}]},{id:"40178",title:"Molecular Markers and Marker-Assisted Breeding in Plants",slug:"molecular-markers-and-marker-assisted-breeding-in-plants",totalDownloads:23145,totalCrossrefCites:85,totalDimensionsCites:153,abstract:null,book:{id:"3060",slug:"plant-breeding-from-laboratories-to-fields",title:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields",fullTitle:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields"},signatures:"Guo-Liang Jiang",authors:[{id:"158810",title:"Dr.",name:"Guo-Liang",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"guo-liang-jiang",fullName:"Guo-Liang Jiang"}]},{id:"60074",title:"Pollen Germination in vitro",slug:"pollen-germination-in-vitro",totalDownloads:2819,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Pollen germination in vitro is a reliable method to test the pollen viability. It also addresses many basic questions in sexual reproduction and particularly useful in wide hybridization. Many pollen germination medium ranging from simple sugars to complex one having vitamins, growth regulators, etc. in addition to various minerals have been standardized to germinate pollen artificially. The different media, successful pollen germination methods, procedures from pollen germination studies with wheat, rye, brinjal, pigeonpea and its wild relatives are discussed.",book:{id:"6659",slug:"pollination-in-plants",title:"Pollination in Plants",fullTitle:"Pollination in Plants"},signatures:"Jayaprakash P",authors:[{id:"235465",title:"Dr.",name:"Jayaprakash",middleName:null,surname:"P",slug:"jayaprakash-p",fullName:"Jayaprakash P"}]},{id:"62376",title:"Genotype × Environment Interaction: A Prerequisite for Tomato Variety Development",slug:"genotype-environment-interaction-a-prerequisite-for-tomato-variety-development",totalDownloads:2347,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is the second most important vegetable crop in the world due to its high level of nutrition particularly in vitamins and antioxidants. It is grown in several ecologies of the world due to its adaptability and ease of cultivation. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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