IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
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Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
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After a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
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Our innovative Book Series format brings you:
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Topic Focused Publications - Each topic showcases high impact subject areas
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Renowned Editorial Expertise - Series Editors, Topic Editors, and a team of international Board Members that permanently support each Book Series
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Fast Publishing - quick turnaround which is unique for book publishing
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The benefit of ISSN and ISBN for increased citation and indexing possibilities
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IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
We invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
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Note: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10423",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems",title:"The Wonders of Diptera",subtitle:"Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book provides comprehensive and concise knowledge about Diptera, an order of insects that has both useful and harmful aspects for humans, animals, plants, and the environment. Insects of this order act as agricultural pests as well as vectors of diseases and carriers of microorganisms. Chapters cover such topics as characteristics of different types of Dipteran insects including fruit flies, mosquitos, and midges, and strategies to control insect populations to combat the spread of human and animal diseases such as dengue, trypanosomosis, and others.",isbn:"978-1-83968-883-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-882-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-884-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91609",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"the-wonders-of-diptera-characteristics-diversity-and-significance-for-the-world-s-ecosystems",numberOfPages:188,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2746b4288e78c8688d1be1bd9d99a127",bookSignature:"Farzana Khan Perveen",publishedDate:"September 8th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10423.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2488,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 18th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 16th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 15th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 5th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 4th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75563/images/system/75563.jpg",biography:"Dr. Farzana Khan Perveen (FLS; Gold Medalist) obtained her BSc (Hons) and MSc in Entomology from the University of Karachi, Pakistan, and MAS (Monbusho Scholarship) in Agronomy from Nagoya University, Japan, and a Ph.D. in Toxicology from the University of Karachi. She is the founder of the Department of Zoology and former controller of examinations at Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University, Hazara University, and Kohat University of Science and Technology. She is the author of 150 high-impact research papers, 135 abstracts, 40 authored books, 9 chapters, and 9 edited books. She is also a student supervisor. Her fields of interest are entomology, toxicology, forensic entomology.",institutionString:"Classes et Events in Sciences (C.E.S.)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"35",title:"Entomology",slug:"entomology"}],chapters:[{id:"78012",title:"Introductory Chapter: Diptera",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99440",slug:"introductory-chapter-diptera",totalDownloads:178,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Farzana Perveen and Anzela Khan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78012",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78012",authors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"},{id:"383356",title:"Dr.",name:"Anzela",surname:"Khan",slug:"anzela-khan",fullName:"Anzela Khan"}],corrections:null},{id:"75438",title:"Characteristics of Dipteran Insects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96448",slug:"characteristics-of-dipteran-insects",totalDownloads:486,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Diptera means two wings (Di: two, pteron: wing). They have complete metamorphosis and they are holometabolous insects which means there are 4 stages (egg, larvae, pupae and adult). The name of larval stage is “maggot”. Some of the dipteran insects cause damage in agricultural production. Some are harmful for humans. Dipteran insects have two wings. Hind wings are reduced and they are called “halteres”. Function of halteres is balancing when the insects fly. Except mosquitoes, dipteran insects have sponging-sucking mouthparts. Important examples for dipteran insects are Olive fruit fly and Medfly which cause damages in agricultural production. OFF is the most destructive pest in olive growing areas and Mediterranean fruit fly cause damages in fruit production.",signatures:"Murat Helvacı",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75438",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75438",authors:[{id:"301984",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Murat",surname:"Helvaci",slug:"murat-helvaci",fullName:"Murat Helvaci"}],corrections:null},{id:"75974",title:"Fruit Flies (Drosophila spp.) Collection, Handling, and Maintenance: Field to Laboratory",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97014",slug:"fruit-flies-em-drosophila-spp-em-collection-handling-and-maintenance-field-to-laboratory",totalDownloads:370,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As drosophilids are versatile, low maintenance and non-harming model organisms, they can be easily used in all fields of life sciences like Genetics, Biotechnology, Cancer biology, Genomics, Reproductive biology, Developmental biology, Micro chemical studies, ecology and much more. For using such a model organism, we need to learn capturing, rearing and culturing their progeny along with basic identification and differentiation between males and females. This chapter is being emphasized on techniques of capturing these flies with different and effective techniques. Along with it, most species-specific baits are discussed to catch more yield. Culture food media, a set measurement of different ingredients is used to rear the collected sample. The reasons for using each ingredient are also discussed in this chapter. At last, this chapter highlights the basic clues to identify different species in the field and lab along with learning distinguishing characteristics of males and females easily and effectively.",signatures:"Pragya Topal, Divita Garg and Rajendra S. Fartyal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75974",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75974",authors:[{id:"336156",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Rajendra S.",surname:"Fartyal",slug:"rajendra-s.-fartyal",fullName:"Rajendra S. Fartyal"},{id:"336657",title:"Ms.",name:"Pragya",surname:"Topal",slug:"pragya-topal",fullName:"Pragya Topal"},{id:"344407",title:"Ms.",name:"Divita",surname:"Garg",slug:"divita-garg",fullName:"Divita Garg"}],corrections:null},{id:"75382",title:"Diversity of Tephritidae and Agromyzidae (Diptera: Brachycera) in Flower Heads of Asteraceae in the Chaco",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96352",slug:"diversity-of-tephritidae-and-agromyzidae-diptera-brachycera-in-flower-heads-of-asteraceae-in-the-cha",totalDownloads:124,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The Chaco is an international biome, connecting four countries: Paraguay (230,000 km2), Bolivia (90,000 km2), Argentina (520,000 km2), and Brazil (Mato Grosso do Sul state (MS), with around 9,000 km2 and in the middle of South America. Brazilian Chaco is restricted to Porto Murtinho region, MS. The daisies (Asteraceae) with near 24,000 species worldwide is characterized by herbs and shrubs that coevolved with several taxa of endophagous insects: dipterans Agromyzidae, Ceciidomyidae and Tephritidae; Coleoptera (Apionidae), Hemiptera (Miridae), Lepidoptera (Blastobasidae, Gelechiidae, Pterophoridae, Pyralidae, and Tortricidae) and the parasitoids of this endophagous insects, which found in the daisies’s flower heads ideal conditions for food, breeding site and shelter. The Neotropical florivorous flies are the Agromyzinae (Agromyzidae), and Tephritinae (Tephritidae), which in their larval stage feed on Asteraceae inflorescences. To report the species of florivore flies, their host plants and parasitoids in flower heads of Asteraceae from the Brazilian Chaco, we sampled inflorescences of 25 species (± 500 flower heads/species) that were kept in containers to the emergence of the florivorous flies or their parasitoids sampled in the three phytophysiognomies. The adult insects after 48 hours of their emergence were fixed in 80% ethanol for later identification. A total 25 species of Asteraceae were evaluated in the Brazilian Chaco, being collected 17,000 flower heads. Nine tribes of two Asteraceae subfamilies were sampled, from which 15 species of florivorous flies were recovered. We found 5 genera with 9 of Tephritinae (Tephritidae), 6 species of Melanagromyza (Agromyzinae, Agromyzidae), and 104 parasitoids (Hymenoptera) of the florivorous flies.",signatures:"Manoel A. Uchoa, Anderson S. Fernandes and Jimi N. Nakajima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75382",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75382",authors:[{id:"87919",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoel",surname:"Uchoa",slug:"manoel-uchoa",fullName:"Manoel Uchoa"},{id:"346550",title:"Dr.",name:"Jimi N.",surname:"Nakajima",slug:"jimi-n.-nakajima",fullName:"Jimi N. Nakajima"},{id:"346551",title:"Dr.",name:"Anderson S.",surname:"Fernandes",slug:"anderson-s.-fernandes",fullName:"Anderson S. Fernandes"}],corrections:null},{id:"75428",title:"Feeding by Florivorous Flies (Tephritidae and Agromyzidae) in Flower Heads of Neotropical Asteraceae (Asterales) from Central Brazil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96412",slug:"feeding-by-florivorous-flies-tephritidae-and-agromyzidae-in-flower-heads-of-neotropical-asteraceae-a",totalDownloads:176,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The four following Diptera families are peculiar because they are predominantly phytophagous: Cecidomyiidae, Agromyzidae, Lonchaeidae and Tephritidae; which is uncommon for dipterans. Tephritine’s larvae, depending on the species, consumes leaves, stems, flowers or roots of their host plants. Some tephritines feeds on flower heads of weed Asteraceae and can act in population suppression of invasive species in cultivated areas. In Mid-West of Brazil, we investigate Tephritinae and Agromyzinae flies in flower heads of Asteraceae species in three different phytophisiognomies in Dourados region, state of Mato Grosso do Sul. Here, 12 florivore fly species (9 Tephritinae, and 3 Melanagromyza spp., Agromizinae, Agromyzidae) are reported for the first time in Mid-West Brazil. We stablish the species of Asteraceae host for Tephritinae (Tephritidae) and for some species of Melanagromyza (Agromyzinae) in environments of Cerrado, Semideciduous Forest, and agroecosystem at Dourados-MS region. The inflorescences of Asteraceae species (± 500 capitula/species) were kept in containers to the emergence of the florivorous flies or their parasitoids. The adult insects after 48 hours were fixed in 80% ethanol for later identification. A total 36 species of Asteraceae were evaluated in the three regions of Dourados-MS, Brazil. Were obtained 120,031 flower heads of Astereceae, emerging 2,698 adults of insects: 833 Tephritinae (Tephritidae), belonging to 7 genera and 9 species; 1,089 Melanagromyza spp. (Agromyzidae) and 776 parasitoids (Hymenoptera) from the tephritines and agromyzines. We found that some florivore fly species needs to be better studied to employ in suppression programs of invasive Asteraceae population in the Neotropical Region.",signatures:"Manoel A. Uchoa, Morgana F. Wachter-Serapião and Nádia Roque",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75428",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75428",authors:[{id:"87919",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoel",surname:"Uchoa",slug:"manoel-uchoa",fullName:"Manoel Uchoa"},{id:"346548",title:"Dr.",name:"Nádia",surname:"Roque",slug:"nadia-roque",fullName:"Nádia Roque"},{id:"346549",title:"Dr.",name:"Morgana F.",surname:"Wachter-Serapião",slug:"morgana-f.-wachter-serapiao",fullName:"Morgana F. Wachter-Serapião"}],corrections:null},{id:"74836",title:"Chironomidae: Biology, Ecology and Systematics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95577",slug:"chironomidae-biology-ecology-and-systematics",totalDownloads:427,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The family of Chironomidae is a group of Diptera insects belonging to the suborder of Nematocera, commonly called “non-biting midges” in the adult stage and “bloodworms” in the larval stage. The Chironomidae are often the most abundant group of macroinvertebrates, in number of species and individuals, encountered in all aquatic environments of freshwater, brackish, terrestrial and even the sea. Likewise, Chironomidae occur in all the continents. The Chironomidae family is divided into 11 sub-families that have diffrent ecological statues. Despite the wealth of data on Chironomidae in the Holarctic region, other parts of the world are poorly studied and few guides to identifying Chironomidae have been produced. This chapter includes a theoretical synthesis on the Chironomidae, it deals with the Biology (life cycle and description of different stages), description of all subfamilies and the ecology of this important family of Diptera.",signatures:"Zerguine Karima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74836",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74836",authors:[{id:"334825",title:"Dr.",name:"Karima",surname:"Zerguine",slug:"karima-zerguine",fullName:"Karima Zerguine"}],corrections:null},{id:"74320",title:"Ecological Aspects of Tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae) in a Gabonese Cattle Ranch",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95062",slug:"ecological-aspects-of-tabanids-diptera-tabanidae-in-a-gabonese-cattle-ranch",totalDownloads:145,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To embark on an anti-vectorial fight against mechanical vectors of animal trypanosomosis, investigations were undertaken in order to determine the abundance, species diversity and daily activity of tabanids in a cattle ranch in Gabon. The nzi and vavoua traps were used to catch tabanids in three divisions of this ranch. In this study, 616 tabanids were captured: 349 (56.66%) in Division 1, 226 (36.69%) in Division 2 and 41 (6.66%) in Division 3. In the first Division, T. taeniola was the most abundant species with an Apparent Density (ADT) of 2.2, followed by H. pluvialis (ADT = 1.05). In the second Division, H. pluvialis was most abundant with ADT of 1.6, followed by T. taeniola (ADT = 0.38). In the last Division, the most abundant species was H. pluvialis (ADT = 0.15). Comparing the relative abundance of catches with sites (Divisions), we realized that there was no statistically significant difference in catches with trapping sites. It was noticed that Division 3 recorded the highest diversity index values. We realized that the nzi trap recorded higher tabanid catches than the vavoua trap. The diurnal activity rhythm of the most frequent species encountered slightly differed with prospection sites.",signatures:"Ovono Mélodie Audrey Prisca, Mounioko Franck, Zinga Koumba Christophe Roland, Koumba Aubin Armel, Sevidzem Silas Lendzele, Maroundou Audrey Pamela, Acapovi-Yao Géneviève Lydie, Tamesse Joseph Lebel, Simo Gustave, M’batchi Bertrand and Mavoungou Jacques François",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74320",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74320",authors:[{id:"243979",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sevidzem",surname:"Lendzele",slug:"sevidzem-lendzele",fullName:"Sevidzem Lendzele"},{id:"340184",title:"Dr.",name:"Ovono Mélodie",surname:"Audrey Prisca",slug:"ovono-melodie-audrey-prisca",fullName:"Ovono Mélodie Audrey Prisca"},{id:"340185",title:"Dr.",name:"Mounioko",surname:"Franck",slug:"mounioko-franck",fullName:"Mounioko Franck"},{id:"340186",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinga Koumba Christophe",surname:"Roland",slug:"zinga-koumba-christophe-roland",fullName:"Zinga Koumba Christophe Roland"},{id:"340187",title:"Dr.",name:"Maroundou Audrey",surname:"Pamela",slug:"maroundou-audrey-pamela",fullName:"Maroundou Audrey Pamela"},{id:"340188",title:"Dr.",name:"Acapovi-Yao Géneviève",surname:"Lydie",slug:"acapovi-yao-genevieve-lydie",fullName:"Acapovi-Yao Géneviève Lydie"},{id:"340190",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamesse Joseph",surname:"Lebel",slug:"tamesse-joseph-lebel",fullName:"Tamesse Joseph Lebel"},{id:"340191",title:"Dr.",name:"Simo",surname:"Gustave",slug:"simo-gustave",fullName:"Simo Gustave"},{id:"340192",title:"Dr.",name:"M’batchi",surname:"Bertrand",slug:"m'batchi-bertrand",fullName:"M’batchi Bertrand"},{id:"340193",title:"Dr.",name:"Mavoungou Jacques",surname:"François",slug:"mavoungou-jacques-francois",fullName:"Mavoungou Jacques François"}],corrections:null},{id:"75790",title:"Morphological Keys for the Identification of Tunisian Culicoides Biting Midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96656",slug:"morphological-keys-for-the-identification-of-tunisian-em-culicoides-em-biting-midges-diptera-ceratop",totalDownloads:132,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Culicoides biting midges are tiny blood-feeding insects of several diseases with veterinary and public health significance, including Bluetongue in ruminants, African horse sickness in equids and filarial diseases like Onchocercosis and Mansonellosis affecting various species such as humans. Their identification depends basically on the microscope examination of key morphological characters. Consequently, identification keys are important to any non experiment working with these biting midges. The Tunisian fauna of Culicoides biting midges consists of 35 species, whose morphological delineation may be troublesome for non-taxonomists. In response to this situation, and for the first time a key to the adult Culicoides species in Tunisia was prepared.",signatures:"Darine Slama, Emna Chaker and Hamouda Babba",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75790",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75790",authors:[{id:"192246",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Darine",surname:"Slama",slug:"darine-slama",fullName:"Darine Slama"},{id:"195408",title:"Prof.",name:"Hamouda",surname:"Babba",slug:"hamouda-babba",fullName:"Hamouda Babba"},{id:"195409",title:"Prof.",name:"Emna",surname:"Chaker",slug:"emna-chaker",fullName:"Emna Chaker"}],corrections:null},{id:"75244",title:"Control Strategy for Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus, 1762) Population",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96088",slug:"control-strategy-for-em-aedes-aegypti-em-linnaeus-1762-population",totalDownloads:211,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The mosquito Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae), is adapted to different environments, mainly urban ones. They have a high degree of vectorial competence for viral diseases, especially Dengue, the arbovirus with the highest number of cases in the world. The adaptive ability of this insect and the abundance of breeding sites have undermined attempts at population’s control, resulting in a high degree of infestation in many regions of the world, resulting in a Dengue endemic. It is important to understand the different nuances of the insect in order to understand the adaptive capacity of this vector, through the knowledge of his behavior, to propose new strategies and engagement of population in proactive actions that allow the population control of this vector, especially in periods of greater proliferation. This chapter discusses population control strategies, in different scenarios and carried out by different researchers, mainly in Brazil.",signatures:"Taiana Gabriela Barbosa de Souza, Eduardo José de Arruda, Raphael Antônio Borges Gomes, Alex Martins Machado and Antônio Pancrácio de Souza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75244",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75244",authors:[{id:"301356",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Arruda",slug:"eduardo-arruda",fullName:"Eduardo Arruda"},{id:"308803",title:"Dr.",name:"António",surname:"Souza",slug:"antonio-souza",fullName:"António Souza"},{id:"343503",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",surname:"Martins Machado",slug:"alex-martins-machado",fullName:"Alex Martins Machado"},{id:"343509",title:"BSc.",name:"Taiana",surname:"Gabriela Barbosa De Souza",slug:"taiana-gabriela-barbosa-de-souza",fullName:"Taiana Gabriela Barbosa De Souza"},{id:"346904",title:"Dr.",name:"Raphael Antônio",surname:"Borges Gomes",slug:"raphael-antonio-borges-gomes",fullName:"Raphael Antônio Borges Gomes"}],corrections:null},{id:"76977",title:"Environmental Manipulation: A Potential Tool for Mosquito Vector Control",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95924",slug:"environmental-manipulation-a-potential-tool-for-mosquito-vector-control",totalDownloads:239,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mosquito borne diseases have continued to ravage man and his animals despite efforts to curb its spread. The use of chemicals has been the main thrust for control of all life stages of mosquitoes. Increased resistance to commonly used insecticides has called for renewed effort for vector control. Environmental management for vector control is one of the new strategies developed to tackle the menace of vectors. Manipulation of abiotic factors has widely gained acceptance due to laboratory and semi-field trials and findings. In this chapter, we reviewed literatures on some critical abiotic factors and their effects on bionomics and biological fitness of immature and adult life stages of mosquito species. 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1. Introduction
RoCKIn@Work is a competition that aims at bringing together the benefits of scientific benchmarking with the economic potential of innovative robot applications for industry, which call for robots capable of working interactively with humans and requiring reduced initial programming.
The following user story is the basis on which the RoCKIn@Work competition is built: RoCKIn@Work is set in the RoCKIn‘N‘RoLLIn factory—a medium‐sized factory that is trying to optimize its production process to meet the increasing number of unique demands from its customers. RoCKIn‘N’RoLLIn specializes in the production of small‐ to medium‐sized lots of mechanical parts and assembled mechatronic products. Furthermore, the RoCKIn‘N’RoLLIn production line integrates incoming shipments of damaged or unwanted products and raw materials. A key requirement to ensure the competitiveness of European industry is greater automation in a wide range of application domains which include flexible production processes that can easily be adapted to customer demands.
In RoCKIn@Work, robots will assist with the assembly of a drive axle—a key component of the robot itself and therefore a step towards self‐replicating robots. Tasks include locating, transporting and assembling necessary parts, checking their quality and preparing them for other machines and workers. By combining the versatility of human workers and the accuracy, reliability and robustness of mobile robot assistants, the entire production process is able to be optimized.
RoCKIn@Work is looking to make these innovative and flexible manufacturing systems, such as that required by the RoCKIn‘N’RoLLIn factory, a reality. This is the inspiration behind the challenge and the following scenario description.
Section 2 gives an oversight of the RoCKIn‘N’RoLLIn factory and introduces all hardware and software elements that were used. Section 3 gives a detailed description of the task benchmarks, the way they have to be executed and the way they are scored. It further gives an explanation on the decisions that were taken to create the task benchmarks and how they differ from other benchmarks. Section 4 does the same for the functional benchmarks. The last section of this chapter gives a short summary and details some of the impressions from RoCKIn camps and competitions.
2. The RoCKIn@Work environment
This section introduces all hardware and software elements that are needed for the RoCKIn‘N’RoLLIn factory to come to life. The description focuses on the elements themselves. A more detailed overview, especially on the software infrastructure, is given in Ref. [1].
2.1. The RoCKIn@Work testbed
The testbed for RoCKIn@Work, explained in detail in Ref. [2], consists of the environment in which the competition took place, including all the objects and artefacts in the environment, and the equipment brought into the environment for benchmarking purposes. An aspect that was comparatively new in robot competitions is that RoCKIn@Work is, to the best of our knowledge, the first industry‐oriented robot competition targeting an environment with ambient intelligence, i.e. the environment is equipped with networked electronic devices the robot can communicate and interact with, which allow the robot to exert control on certain environment artefacts like conveyor belts or machines. Figures 1a and b show the testbed as it was used during the RoCKIn@Work competition 2015 in Lisbon.
Figure 1.
The RoCKIn@Work testbed. (a) Planned setup of the testbed and (b) Actual testbed at RoCKIn competition 2015.
2.2. Environment elements
To create an environment that closely resembles a real factory shop floor, a lot of different elements are necessary. In the case of RoCKIn@Work, the following elements are used:
A set of shelves
A force fitting workstation
A drilling workstation
A conveyor belt with a quality control camera mounted to it
An assembly workstation
A set of objects to be manipulated
Figure 2 shows an overview of the testbed elements.
Figure 2.
Elements of the RoCKIn@Work testbed.
Shelves are used to place objects. These objects range from a single object, e.g. a bearing, to containers storing multiple objects at once. The containers are so‐called small load carriers. They are standardized containers in industry, originally meant to optimize the logistics chain of the automotive industry and their suppliers. The set of shelves area in RoCKIn@Work is a set of connected shelves and each shelf has two levels (upper level and lower level, see also Figure 2, lower right corner). The robot takes and/or delivers objects from the shelves (through the containers or directly onto shelves). The shelves are built from metal profiles and wooden panels, also something common on every factory floor. To make transportation and set‐up easy, the construction of the shelves follows a modular design. Set‐up and dismantling of all components can be done using a single Allen key. All components of the testbed fit on a single euro pallet after dismantling.
The force fitting workstation consists of a table for temporarily storing handled parts. The table itself is part of the force fitting machine, which can be operated by a robot or human worker. For this purpose, a drive was fixed to its structure. The drive is connected to a control board, which is attached to a Raspberry Pi microcontroller board running the necessary software to control the drive. On one side of the force fitting workstation, an assembly aid tray rack is placed. This assembly aid tray rack can be used to attach filled or unfilled aid trays, 3D-printed containers that can hold up to two bearing boxes, or finished assemblies. A more detailed description is given later in this section.
The drilling workstation consists of a storage area to store file card boxes and the drilling machine. The drilling machine is a simple model that can be purchased at a hardware store. Like for the force fitting machine, a drive with control board and a Raspberry Pi board were fixed to it so that the upwards/downwards motion can be controlled by a computer. Next to it, a conveyor belt is placed.
The conveyor belt transports parts from outside of the arena into the area. At the end of the conveyor belt, a quality control camera (QCC) was mounted. The camera is connected to the testbed’s network and able to communicate with the robot through the Central Factory Hub (CFH; detailed below). Parts delivered into the arena fall down through guiders on an exit ramp in a predefined position where they can be taken by the robot.
The assembly workstation consists of a table, where a human worker can perform assembly of parts. The table features predefined areas where the robot can put boxes with supplies and pick up boxes with finished parts that had already been processed by the worker and need to be delivered elsewhere [3].
The objects present in the testbed can be subdivided into three classes as follows:
Mechanical parts that have to be recognized and manipulated.
Objects in the environment that have to be recognized and manipulated.
Objects in the environment that have to be recognized only (because they are fixed to the environment, too heavy for the robot to lift or not relevant for the task).
Figure 3 shows the objects available in the testbed.
Figure 3.
Objects in the RoCKIn@Work testbed.
2.3. Central Factory Hub (CFH)
The main idea of the RoCKIn@Work testbed software infrastructure is to have a central server‐like hub (the RoCKIn@Work Central Factory Hub) that serves all the services that are needed for executing and scoring tasks and successfully realizing the competition. This hub was derived from software systems, which are well known in industrial business (e.g. SAP). It provides the robots with information regarding the specific tasks and tracks the production process as well as stock and logistics information of the RoCKIn‘N’RoLLIn factory. It uses a plug‐in software architecture. Each plug‐in is responsible for a specific task, for benchmarking or for other functionalities. A detailed description of the CFH and how it is utilized during RoCKIn and other robot competitions is given in Ref. [1].
2.4. Networked devices in the environment
The four networked devices described previously are used during execution of task benchmarks. This paragraph provides an overview on the capabilities of each networked device and its role in the related task. All networked devices can be operated through their connection to the Central Factory Hub. The software interface allows control either by the robot or through a graphical user interface by a human operator.
The force fitting machine is used for the insertion of a bearing into a bearing box. The force fitting process is performed by first inserting a bearing box with bearing on top of the bearing box. The placement process is executed with the help of an assembly aid tray. After the bearing box and bearing are properly placed, the force fitting machine is instructed to move down. Finally, the force fitting machine is instructed to move up again to make pick up of the processed item possible. The force fitting machine is used in the Prepare Assembly Aid Tray for Force Fitting task.
The drilling machine is used for drilling a cone sink in a cover plate. It is equipped with a customized fixture for the plates. Like for the force fitting machine, the drilling machine can be operated through its network interface with the CFH. The robot first has to insert the cover plate into the fixture of the drilling machine. After that, the robot signals to the CFH to move the drill head down. Finally, the drill is moved up again and the drilled cover plate can be picked up. The drilling machine is used in the Plate Drilling task, specifically for the correction of a faulty cover plate.
The conveyor belt is used for delivering parts into the RoCKIn@Work testbed. At its end, it has a quality control camera to detect defects on the parts which are being delivered. The conveyor belt can be commanded, by the quality control camera, to move in both directions and to start/stop. It is not possible for the robot to directly interface with it. The conveyor belt is used in the Plate Drilling task.
The quality control camera or QCC is mounted above the conveyor belt and is used to acquire information about the quality of incoming cover plates delivered through the conveyor belt. The QCC also has the responsibility to deliver only a single cover plate through the conveyor belt (until the cover plate reaches the exit ramp of the conveyor belt) for each received command. After receiving a command, the QCC activates the conveyor belt until a cover plate is within the viewing range of the QCC. At this point, the QCC detects any defects of the cover plate. The conveyor belt keeps moving until it is being stopped by the QCC when the cover plate reaches the exit ramp of the conveyor belt. The QCC is used for the Plate Drilling task.
2.5. Benchmarking equipment in the environment
RoCKIn benchmarking is based on the processing of data collected in two ways as follows [3]:
Internal benchmarking data: collected by the robot system under test.
External benchmarking data: collected by the equipment embedded into the testbed.
External benchmarking data are generated by the RoCKIn testbed using a multitude of methods, depending on the nature of the data. One type of external benchmarking data used by RoCKIn is pose data about robots and/or their constituent parts. To acquire these, RoCKIn uses a camera‐based commercial motion capture system (MCS) composed of dedicated hardware and software. Benchmarking data have the form of a time series of poses of rigid elements of the robot (such as the base or the wrist). Once generated by the MCS, pose data is acquired and logged by a customized external software system based on Robot Operating System (ROS). More precisely, logged data is saved as bagfiles created with the rosbag utility provided by ROS. Pose data is especially relevant because it is used for multiple benchmarks. There are other types of external benchmarking data that RoCKIn acquired. However, these are usually collected using devices specific to the benchmark. Finally, equipment to collect external benchmarking data includes any server which is part of the testbed and which the robot subjected to a benchmark has to access as part of the benchmark. Communication between servers and robot is performed via the testbeds’ own wireless network. An extensive analysis on evaluation criteria and metrics for benchmarking is given in Ref. [4].
3. Task benchmarks
The concept of task benchmarks has already been introduced in Chapter 1. This section therefore describes details concerning rules, procedures, as well as scoring and benchmarking methods, which are common to all task benchmarks in the RoCKIn@Work competition.
To make repeatability and reproducibility of the task benchmarks possible, teams have to follow a set of rules which are meant to lead to a more scientific benchmarking approach [5] instead of simply ‘hacking’ to get around a problem. To ensure a safe competition both for teams as well as the audience, every run of each of the task benchmarks has been preceded by a safety check. This is a very important aspect that often, especially with younger students, does not get sufficient attention. Much more often, a quick solution to a problem is found, but at the risk of injury. To avoid potential damage to the testbed or injury to participants, the team members must ensure and inform at least one of the organizing committee (OC) members present during the execution of the task that they have an emergency stop button on the robot which is fully functional. Any member of the OC can ask the team to stop their robot at any time, and such requests must be honoured immediately and swiftly. The OC member present during the execution of the task also makes sure that the robot is compliant with all safety‐related rules and robot specifications defined in the rulebook. All teams are required to perform each task according to the steps mentioned in the ‘Rules and Procedures’ subsections for the tasks. During the competition, all teams are required to repeat a task benchmark multiple times. Each benchmark run is limited by a specified period of time.
During RoCKIn, benchmarking is of great importance. To gather as much information as possible and process the information later without error, guidelines on data storage had to be followed. This list presents the guidelines that are common to all task benchmarks. Specific information that has to be logged, but that only occurred during a single benchmark, is given later on in the description of the specific task benchmark.
Calibration parameters: The calibration parameters for cameras have to be saved. This must also be done for other sensors that require calibration (e.g. Kinect), if a calibration procedure is applied instead of using the default values (e.g. those provided by OpenNI).
Notes on data storage: The specific data that the robot has to save are described in the benchmark section. In general, some data streams (those with the highest bitrates) have to be logged only at time intervals when they are actually used by the robot to perform the activities required by the benchmark [3]. Thereby, system load and data bulk can be minimized. For instance, whenever a benchmark includes object recognition activities, video and point cloud data have to be logged by the robot only at times when performing object recognition.
Use of data: The logged data is not used during the competition, in particular, it is not used for scoring. RoCKIn processed the data after the end of the competition. It was used for in‐depth analysis and/or to produce datasets, published online, as given in ref. [3], for the benefit of the robotics community.
Where and when to store logged data: Robots are required to store logged data in a specified format on an USB stick. The USB stick is given to the team immediately before the start of the benchmark by one of the RoCKIn partners and has to be returned (with the required data on it) at the end of the benchmark. All files produced by the robot that are associated with the execution of the benchmark have to be handed over.
Since benchmarking and data logging during robot competitions was a new concept, most teams were unaware of the implications this had on their system. To make sure that the data gathered lead to accurate results, teams were trained during the RoCKIn Camps and the RoCKIn Field Exercise on the principles of data logging. The camp and the field exercise usually took place early in the competition year, whereas the competition was held during the end of a year. The hands‐on experience and help by the RoCKIn experts during the camp/field exercise led to most teams being able to correctly log the required data. Overall team performance was increased a lot and problems with the use of the software infrastructure provided by RoCKIn were minimized.
During the competitions, evaluation of the performance of a robot according to its task benchmark description is based on performance equivalence classes and they are related to whether the robot has performed the required task or not. The criterion determining the performance equivalence class of a robot is based on the concept of tasks requiring achievements, while the ranking of robots within each equivalence class is obtained by looking at the performance criteria. Specifically, the performance of a robot belonging to performance class N is considered better than the performance of a robot belonging to performance class M whenever M < N. In case, two robots fall into the same performance class, then a penalization criterion is used (penalties are defined according to task performance criteria) and the performance of the robot which received fewer penalizations is considered better. Finally, if two robots received the same number of penalizations, the performance of the robot which finished the task more quickly is considered better (unless not being able to reach a given achievement within a given time was already explicitly considered as a penalty). Thus, performance equivalence classes and in‐class ranking of the robots are determined according to three sets as follows [3]:
A set A of achievements, i.e. things that should happen (what the robot was expected to do).
A set PB of penalized behaviours, i.e. robot behaviours that are penalized, if they happen, (e.g. bumping into the testbed).
A set DB of disqualifying behaviours, i.e. robot behaviours that absolutely must not happen (e.g. hitting people).
Scoring was implemented with the following three‐step sorting algorithm:
If one or more of the elements of set DB occurred during task execution, the robot gets disqualified (i.e. assigned to the lowest possible performance class, called class 0), and no further scoring procedures are performed.
Performance equivalence class X is assigned to the robot, when X corresponds to the number of achievements in set A that the robot accomplished.
Whenever an element of set PB occurred, a penalty is assigned to the robot (without changing its performance class).
One key property of this scoring system is that a robot that executed the required task completely is always placed into a higher performance class than a robot that executed the task only partially. Moreover, penalties do not cause a change of class (also in the case of incomplete task execution).
3.1. Prepare assembly aid tray for force fitting
This task serves as an example for collecting and assembling parts from different locations. Additionally, teams can show their robot’s capability in loading and unloading machines (a well‐known industrial task). At the side of the aid tray—a container specifically built to hold two bearing boxes—unique identifiers are attached to uniquely identify the object. This task links to the concept of human robot collaboration (HRC), an idea that becomes more and more import in future factory environments. In this scenario, robots are not meant to take over human workers’ jobs, but to support them and assist them with repetitive tasks or possibly unhealthy activities. This will be increasingly important in the future to react to increasing demand for customized products and to meet market demands.
3.1.1. Task description
The robot’s task is to collect bearing boxes from stock (shelves) and to insert them into specialized aid trays. It is expected that the robot moves to the central station and registers with the Central Factory Hub. After receiving the task of Assembly Aid Tray for Force Fitting, the robot should locate the assembly aid tray in the shelf and proceed with identifying the identifiers on the assembly aid tray. The identifier encodes information like the assembly aid tray’s serial number and the type of bearing box which can be fitted. Based on the examination of the assembly aid tray, the robot needs to find the correct bearing boxes in the shelves area. After finding the right bearing boxes, the robot has to record the identifiers of their containers, collect the bearing boxes and place them into the assembly aid tray. It can choose whether to deliver the bearing boxes collectively or individually based on its own reasoning. Once the assembly aid tray is filled with the bearing boxes, the trays can be loaded onto a force fitting machine, where the bearings are force fitted into the bearing boxes (see Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Force fitting of bearing into bearing box.
When these steps of the process are completed, the robot gets a confirmation from the Central Factory Hub and has to perform a final examination of the finished product before its delivery. By scanning the identifiers as part of the task, the robot ensures continuous tracking of the production process and the parts involved. To make the challenge more realistic, some feature variation is possible. For example, the bearing boxes may come in different shapes. This variation is motivated by the modular concept of the final product, where the bearing box has to be inserted in different chassis. The robots are allowed to collect and insert the bearing boxes in the assembly aid tray individually or collectively.
3.1.2. Procedures and rules
Teams are provided with the following information:
Description of the set of possible assembly aid trays and bearing boxes.
Description and location(s) of the container(s) used for the bearing boxes.
During the task execution, the robot should perform the task autonomously and without any additional input. The task benchmark has to be carried out following these steps:
The robot is provided with multiple assembly aid trays and information about where the bearing boxes are stored.
Based on the identifier provided to the teams beforehand, the robot has to identify the appropriate bearing boxes it needs to put on the tray.
From the storage area, the robot has to pick the bearing boxes identified in Step 2 and insert them into the provided assembly aid tray.
The robot has to deliver the assembly aid tray to the force fitting workstation to be processed further.
Teams also have to be aware that an additional robot may be randomly moving in the arena which must be avoided by the participating robot. Although this randomizing element had been a possible feature variation, it was never actually applied in past competitions, because the dynamics of this feature could have had a negative impact on the repeatability and reproducibility of this benchmark.
3.1.3. Scoring and ranking
The performance equivalence classes used to evaluate the performance of a robot in this task benchmark are defined in relation to four different task elements. The first class is based on whether the robot correctly identified the assembly aid tray or not. The second class is defined by the robot correctly identifying the container or not. Class three uses the number of bearing boxes successfully inserted into the aid tray, and class four rewards the successful execution of the force fitting procedure. The fourth class encourages teams to try and solve the complete task instead of focusing on scoring only through pick‐and‐place actions.
The complete set A of achievements in this task included
Correct identification of the assembly aid trays identifier
Correct identification of the containers identifier
Correct grasp of the assembly aid tray
Correct grasp of the first bearing box
Correct grasp of the second bearing box
Correct insertion of the first bearing box into the aid tray
Correct insertion of the second bearing box into the aid tray
Correct delivery of the tray to the force fitting station
Completely processing a part (from identifying to delivering)
Cooperating with the CFH and networked devices throughout the task
At the end of the task benchmark, the team has to deliver the benchmarking data logged on a USB stick to one of the RoCKIn partners. If delivered appropriately and according to the guidelines, the team can score an additional achievement.
During the run, the robot should not bump into obstacles in the testbed, drop any object previously grasped or stop working. These behaviours are considered as behaviours that need to be penalized, and hence they are added to set PB of penalized behaviours.
The robot can demonstrate various behaviours that can lead to its disqualification. This includes, for instance, (a) if it damages or destroys the objects to be manipulated or the testbed; (b) if it shows extremely risky or dangerous behaviour; or (c) its emergency stop button is dysfunctional. Such disqualifying behaviours are added to the set DB.
3.2. Plate drilling
This task simulates handling of incomplete or faulty parts received from an external component supplier. The factory has to quickly react in such cases and create a process to correct the faulty parts. In principle, this task very closely corresponds to a real‐world application. Not being able to manufacture components due to faulty incoming supplies can very quickly cost a lot of money. Especially, in times of ‘just‐in‐time‐manufacturing’, where only small numbers of components are in stock, a faulty delivery can lead to a standstill of large parts of the production line. Being able to react fast and solve smaller issues yourself is crucial for manufacturing.
3.2.1. Task description
The cover plate of the bearing box has eight holes for connecting the motor with the bearing box. The four central holes need to have a cone sink. There are two possible defects of a cover plate which need to be accommodated in this task. The first case is where the supplier forgot to drill one of the cone sinks which results in a faulty cover plate. The faulty cover plates can be corrected by drilling the cone sink with the drilling machine available in the factory. The second case is where the cover plate is unusable and needs to be returned to the supplier for replacement. Examples of perfect, faulty and unusable cover plates are shown in Figure 3. The benchmark starts when the robot receives the task from the CFH. While performing the task, the robot has control over the QCC which allows it to regulate the flow of incoming cover plates. The robot has to send a command to the CFH to operate the QCC. Once the QCC receives a command from the CFH, the QCC activates the conveyor belt until a cover plate is placed on the exit ramp of the conveyor belt. During this process, the QCC detects the type of cover plate which is being delivered (either faulty or unusable) and sends this information to the CFH. Finally, the CFH broadcasts this information so that the robot knows that a faulty or an unusable cover plate was placed on the exit ramp of the conveyor belt. For each cover plate that arrives in the conveyor belt exit ramp, the robot needs to process them according to their fault status. An unusable cover plate needs to be delivered to the trash container box in the factory. For a faulty cover plate, the robot needs to perform correction by delivering it to the drilling machine (see Figure 5), operating the drilling machine to fix the missing cone sink, and placing the corrected plate in the file card box.
Figure 5.
Retainer for faulty cover plate placement.
This benchmark also provides some possibilities for feature variation. For example, the sequence of faulty, unusable and perfect cover plates flowing over the conveyor belt is not fixed. This becomes relevant for the way a robot has to pick up cover plates from the exit ramp. If the robot needs to place the cover plate in the drilling machine for rework, specific positioning of its gripper may be required, while grip position is less important for the unusable plates, which end up in the trash container. The same holds for the orientation of the cover plate on the conveyor belt. In the first competition, it was planned that plate orientation is random, which would have led to more possibilities of grasping the plate from the exit ramp. For the second competition, this variation was not permitted in the spirit of repeatability. This is also true for the last variation. The number of plates delivered in each category (faulty, unusable and perfect) should have been randomized in each benchmark run, but it was decided that all teams should be able to execute exactly the same test. Furthermore, the solutions can vary depending on the sequence of activities being performed by the robot. The robot can choose to collect all cover plates from the conveyor belt first and process them collectively or perform the task for one cover plate at a time before collecting the next cover plate from the conveyor belt. The many variations possible through the robot’s own reasoning and performance make the task benchmark challenging enough that none of the other variations were actually applied so far. The focus was instead set on repeatability, reproducibility and fairness between benchmark runs and teams.
3.2.2. Procedures and rules
Teams are provided with the following information:
3D CAD‐textured models of the plates.
Description of three different states of the plate (faulty, unusable and perfect).
Location of objects related to the task.
Commands for operating the QCC and the drilling machine.
During execution of the task, the robot should perform the task autonomously and without any additional input. The task benchmark is carried out by executing the following steps:
The robot controls the QCC until it receives feedback that a cover plate has arrived in the exit ramp of the conveyor belt.
The robot should pick up the cover plate and proceed with processing the cover plate as described in the next step.
According to the three possible fault types of the cover plate received, there are three possible (sequences of) actions to be executed by the robot as follows:
If the cover plate is perfect, the robot should place it in the file card box.
If the cover plate is unusable, the robot should drop it into the trash container box.
If the cover plate is faulty, the robot should place the cover plate into the drilling machine, then perform the correction of the cover plate using the drilling machine, and finally place the corrected cover plate in the file card box.
In this benchmark, similar to the Prepare Assembly Aid Tray for Force Fitting, teams also have to be aware that an additional robot may be randomly moving in the arena. For the same reasons as mentioned in the preceding benchmark, this variation element was not yet applied during the benchmarking exercises and competitions.
3.2.3. Scoring and ranking
The performance equivalence classes used to evaluate the performance of a robot in this task benchmark are defined in dependence to three different categories. The first category is based on the number and percentage of correctly processed faulty cover plates. The second class refers to the number and percentage of correctly processed unusable cover plates. The third class uses only the execution time as measure (if less than the maximum time allowed for the benchmark was used by the robot). To encourage teams to try and solve the complete task in the Plate Drilling benchmark, it is also possible to score ‘extra’ achievements for the completion of a whole task (from request to delivery of a cover plate).
The complete set A of possible achievements in this task includes successful execution of
Communication with the CFH throughout the test.
Picking up a cover plate from the conveyor belt exit ramp.
Placing an unusable cover plate in the trash container box.
Complete handling an unusable cover plate (picking up an unusable cover plate from the conveyor belt exit ramp and placing it in the trash container box).
Placing a faulty cover plate into the drilling machine.
Performing the drilling of a faulty cover plate using the drilling machine.
Complete handling a faulty cover plate (picking up a faulty cover plate from the conveyor belt exit ramp, placing it into the drilling machine, and performing the drilling of the faulty plate using the drilling machine).
Picking up a corrected cover plate from the drilling machine.
Placing a corrected cover plate into the file card box.
Complete handling of a corrected cover plate (picking up a corrected cover plate from the drilling machine and placing it into the file card box).
At the end of the task benchmark, the team has to deliver the benchmarking data logged on a USB stick to one of the RoCKIn partners. If delivered appropriately and according to the guidelines, the team can score an additional achievement.
During the run, the robot should not bump into obstacles in the testbed, drop any object previously grasped or stop working. These behaviours are considered as behaviours that need to be penalized, and hence they are added to set PB of penalized behaviours.
The same disqualifying behaviours as in task benchmark Plate Drilling do apply for this task benchmark.
3.3. Fill a box with parts for manual assembly
This task benchmark reflects one of the primary requirements for a mobile robotic service assistant working together with humans. It is one of the most common tasks in industry: transporting parts from stock to the shop floor or to a human worker is very time consuming and requires well‐planned logistics processes. For a human, it is cumbersome to check during his tour, if anything has changed or if he could pick up additional parts on his way. An automatic system has the advantage of direct communication to the shop floor management system and it can quickly respond and replan, if anything changes during production. The human worker can focus on his assembly task instead of worrying about parts arriving on time. This summarizes the idea behind this benchmark. The goal is to assist humans at a manual assembly workstation by delivering parts from different shelves to a common target location.
3.3.1. Task description
The robot has to fill boxes with parts for the final manual assembly of a drive axle. The task execution is triggered by the robot receiving a list of parts required for the assembly process from the CFH. It then proceeds by first collecting an empty box from the shelves, then collecting the requested parts (individually or collectively). When the parts have been placed in the box (see Figure 6), the robot delivers the box to the assembly workstation and provides the human worker with a list of parts in the box and a list of missing parts, if any. The boxes have no specific subdivisions; they may have foam material at the bottom to guarantee the safe transport. Thus, the robot has to plan the order of collecting the parts so that they can be easily arranged next to each other.
Figure 6.
Placing an assembly aid tray into small load container.
Feature variation in this task is kept to a minimum. Since it is a common task in industry, possible variations include different boxes, different parts and different locations for the parts. The planning and scheduling to best process the order is left to the teams. The benchmark itself aims for teams to show a good performance. All functional components of a robot system have to be used to solve the task, including navigation, object recognition, planning and manipulation. The benchmark still allows for more errors than the other benchmarks, e.g. position and orientation accuracy during navigation.
3.3.2. Procedures and rules
Teams are provided with the following information:
The list of possible parts used in the task.
Description of the box used for collecting the parts.
Location of the parts in the arena.
During the execution of the task, the robot should perform the task autonomously and without any additional input. The task benchmark is carried out by executing the following steps:
The robot receives an order for a final assembly step of a product from the CFH containing a list of objects to be collected and delivered.
The robot plans the best path to the designated workstation, passing through each storage area where the required objects can be found.
The robot must move along the above path, collect the objects and deliver them to the designated area for final product assembly.
The Steps 2 and 3 above have to be performed for all the products in the list given in Step 1. Also, the robot has to follow, as much as possible, the priorities imposed by the philosophy of first‐in/first‐out when executing Steps 2 and 3.
There may be multiple obstacles present in the scene that may block the direct path planned by the competing robot. If this is the case, the robot has to avoid all the obstacles or other robots during the execution of its task. To keep the benchmark repeatable and fair, new obstacles introduced to the testbed were positioned in the same place for all teams.
3.3.3. Scoring and ranking
The performance equivalence classes used to evaluate the performance of a robot in this task benchmark are defined in dependence to two different categories. The first class relates to the number of parts actually provided by the robot to the human worker, and the second class is based on how well the order of arrival corresponds to the desired one.
The complete set A of possible achievements in this task includes
Communication with the CFH throughout the test.
Picking up a required object (also the container) from its storage location.
Placing the required objects into the container.
Delivering a correctly filled container to the designated workstation.
At the end of the task benchmark, the team has to deliver the benchmarking data logged on a USB stick to one of the RoCKIn partners. If delivered appropriately and according to the guidelines, the team can score an additional achievement.
During the run, the robot should not bump into obstacles in the testbed, drop any object previously grasped or stop working. These behaviours are considered as behaviours that need to be penalized, and hence they are added to the set PB of penalized behaviours.
In this task benchmark the same disqualifying behaviours as in the previously mentioned task benchmarks are considered.
4. Functionality benchmarks
The concept of functionality benchmarks has already been introduced in Chapter 1. This section therefore describes details concerning rules, procedures, as well as scoring and benchmarking methods, which were common to all functional benchmarks in the RoCKIn@Work competition.
The basic execution and data logging guidelines as explained in Section 3 are also applied for functional benchmarks. Since communication with the CFH is of more importance in the functional than in the task benchmarks, teams need to follow additional rules. The easiest rule for the robot is to send a BeaconSignal message at least every second. This ensures that the CFH can detect whether a robot is still working or not. This also makes it possible to track when and how long a robot may have lost the connection to the CFH, for example, due to problems with the wireless network set‐up. The second rule requests the robot to wait for a BenchmarkState message. It is supposed to start with testing the functionality as soon as the state received equals RUNNING. This allows the RoCKIn partners to set‐up any elements necessary for the benchmark, without the possibility for a team to change anything during benchmark execution. The necessity to change elements during the run will be explained for each benchmark in the following sections. Other than in the task benchmarks, the third rule requires the robot to send the benchmarking data online to the CFH as soon as it is available. Specifically, the robot must send a message of type BenchmarkFeedback with the required data to the CFH. The robot should do this until the state variable of the BenchmarkState messages changes from RUNNING to STOPPED. The functionality benchmark ends when the state variable of the BenchmarkState message changes to FINISHED. The strong focus on online communication through the CFH guarantees a fair execution of the benchmark and less chance for error, e.g. as caused by human benchmark operators failing to switch parts in time.
4.1. Object perception
This functionality benchmark has the objective of assessing the capabilities of a robot in processing sensor data to extract information about observed objects. Objects presented to the robot in this functionality benchmark are chosen to be representative for the type of factory scenario that RoCKIn@Work is based on. Teams are provided with a list of individual objects (object instances), subdivided into object classes as described in Ref. [3]. The benchmark requires the robot, upon presentation of objects from such a list, to detect their presence and to estimate their class, identity and location. For example, when presented a segment of a T‐section metal profile, the robot has to detect that it sees a profile (class), with a T‐shaped section (instance) and its position with respect to the known benchmark set‐up reference frame.
4.1.1. Functionality description
The objects that the robot is required to perceive are positioned, one at the time, on a table located directly in front of the robot. Depending on the set‐up, this table can either be a separate table outside of the testbed or a workstation within the testbed. The poses of the objects presented to the robot are unknown until they are actually set on the table. For each object presented to the robot, it has to show performance in three distinctive areas as follows:
Object detection
Object recognition
Object localization
The object detection part tests the robot’s ability to perceive the presence of an object on the table and associate it to one of the object classes. Object recognition tests the ability to associate the perceived object with a particular object instance within the selected object class. Object localization tests the ability to estimate the 3D pose of the perceived object with respect to the surface of the table. Figure 7 shows different objects mounted on small wooden plates which fit to the plate in the foreground in only one way. This allows to easily capture the ground truth data.
Figure 7.
Objects used during the benchmark. The plate in the foreground is used to aquire the ground truth data.
Feature variation for this functionality benchmark consists only of the variations given by the test itself: The variation space for object features is defined by the (known) set of objects the robot may be exposed to, and the variation space for object locations is defined by the surface of the benchmarking area where objects are to be located.
4.1.2. Procedures and rules
The concrete set of objects presented to the robot during the execution of the functionality benchmark is a subset of a larger set of available objects (object instances). Object instances are categorized into classes of objects that have one or more properties in common (object classes). Objects of the same class share one or more properties, not necessarily related to their geometry (for instance, a class may include objects that share their application domain). Each object instance and each object class are assigned a unique ID. All object instances and classes are known to the teams before the benchmark, but a team does not know which particular object instance will be presented to the robot during the benchmark. More precisely, a team is provided with the following information:
Descriptions/models of all the object instances in the form of 3D textured models.
Categorization of the object instances into object classes (for instance: profiles, screws and joints)
Reference systems associated with the table surface and each object instance (for expressing object poses)
Object descriptions are expressed according to widely accepted representations and well in advance of competitions.
During the execution of the task, the robot should perform the task autonomously and without any additional input. The functionality benchmark is carried out by performing the following steps:
An object of unknown class and unknown instance is placed in front of the robot.
The robot determines the object’s class, the instance within that class, and the 3D pose of the object, saving it in the required format.
The preceding steps are repeated until time runs out or 10 objects have been processed.
Since this test does not include a dynamic set‐up and only a single functionality is tested, teams do not have to consider possible changes in the environment, e.g. a second robot presenting an obstacle for robot motion or changes of the lighting conditions.
4.1.3. Scoring and ranking
Evaluation of a robot’s performance in this functionality benchmark is based on
The number and percentage of correctly classified objects.
The number and percentage of correctly identified objects.
Pose errors for correctly identified objects as measured by the ground truth system.
Execution time (if less than the maximum allowed for the benchmark).
As this functionality benchmark focuses on object recognition, the previous criteria are applied in order of importance. The first criterion is applied first and teams are scored according to their accuracy. Ties are broken by the second criterion, which still applies accuracy metrics. Finally, position error is evaluated as well. Since the position error is highly affected by the precision of the ground truth system, a set of distance classes is used. Remaining cases of ties are resolved by execution time.
4.2. Manipulation
This functionality benchmark assesses the robot’s ability to grasp different objects. An object from a known set of objects is presented to the robot. After identifying the object, the robot needs to perform the grasping motion, lift the object and notify the CFH that it has grasped the object.
4.2.1. Functionality description
The robot is placed in front of the test area, a planar surface. A single object is placed in the test area and the robot has to identify the object and move its end effector on top of it. Then the robot should perform the grasping motion and notify that it has grasped the object. The task is repeated with different objects. So far, the following list of classes and instances of objects was used in the manipulation functionality benchmark:
Containers
Assembly aid tray
File card box
Cover plates
Bearing boxes
Bearing box type A
Bearing box type B
Transmission parts
Bearing
Motor with gearbox
Axis
The objects used in the benchmark are selected from the complete set of parts used in the competition. The precise position of the objects differs in each test (examples are shown in Figure 8), which is necessary to avoid that grasping motions can be pre‐planned by the teams and to ensure that the grasping motion really depends on the object presented. This test extends the object perception test by a manipulation part.
Figure 8.
Object placement for the manipulation functionality benchmark.
4.2.2. Procedures and rules
Teams are provided with the following information:
The list of objects used in the functionality benchmark.
Possible placements for each object used in the functionality benchmark.
During execution of the task, the robot should perform the task autonomously and without any additional input. The functionality benchmark is carried out by performing the following steps:
An object of unknown class and unknown instance is placed in the test area in front of the robot.
The robot determines the correct object class and object instance.
The robot grasps and lifts the object, then notifies the CFH that grasping has been performed.
The robot keeps the grip for a given time while the referee verifies the lifting.
The preceding steps are repeated with different objects.
For each object presented, the robot has to produce the result data consisting of the object’s class name and instance name.
As this functionality benchmark does not foresee a dynamic set‐up and only a single functionality is tested, teams do not have to consider possible changes in the environment, e.g. a second robot crossing its path or changes of the lighting conditions.
4.2.3. Scoring and ranking
Evaluation of a robot’s performance in this functionality benchmark is based on
The number and percentage of correctly identified objects.
The number and percentage of correctly grasped objects; a grasp is considered successful when the object has no contact with the table any more.
Execution time (if less than the maximum allowed for the benchmark).
Since this functionality benchmark focuses on manipulation, scoring of teams is based on the number of correctly grasped objects. A correct grasp is defined as the object being lifted from the table such that it is possible for the judge to pass his hand below it. For a grasp to be correct, the position has to be kept for at least 5 seconds from the time the judge has passed the hand below the object. The time the judge needs to verify the lifting of the object takes up to 10 seconds. In case of ties, the overall execution time is considered.
4.3. Control
This functionality benchmark assesses the robot’s ability to control the manipulator motion and, if necessary, also the mobile platform motion, in a continuous path control problem. The ability to perform this functionality is essential in practice for precise object placement or for following a given trajectory in common industrial applications like welding or gluing. A path (or even a trajectory) is given to the robot. The robot has to follow this path with an end effector on its manipulator (examples shown in Figure 9).
Figure 9.
Example paths the robot had to follow.
The path is displayed on the table including a reference system. The external ground truth system measures the deviation of the path planned and executed by the robot from the given path by tracking a set of markers attached to the end effector.
4.3.1. Functionality description
The robot is placed in front of the test area, a planar surface. It first places its end effector on the top of a calibration point, then on the starting point with a fixed offset from the calibration point. At each of the two points, a manual calibration is performed by adjusting the position of the printed path (the table or sheet of paper). In order to synchronize the reference frames of the robot and the ground truth system, the robot detects the reference and starting point and then notifies the ground truth system about the positions of those points. The robot starts to follow the path and reports this to the CFH. After it finishes the movement, it has to signal this to the CFH.
Possible feature variations are the different paths the robot has to follow. In the second competition, where this benchmark was introduced first, the path was a simple line and sine. In future competitions, the path could be extended to become a general spline and it could be specified as trajectory including required velocity and acceleration vectors. The path is currently limited to the manipulator workspace, but can be extended well beyond this workspace in future competitions to force the mobile platform to move as well.
4.3.2. Procedures and rules
Teams are provided with the following information:
A mathematical description of a line in two‐dimensional (2D) space.
A mathematical description of a sine in 2D space.
A list of generated points for both line and sine.
Just before a competition run, the selection of the line or the sine for each run is published.
The path is provided including a starting point and a reference point next to it to enable calibration and synchronization with the ground truth system. Note that this task is not executed with a feedback from any vision sensor from the team, but only tests a pre‐planned path and the online continuous path control ability of the robot!
During the execution of the task, the robot should perform the task autonomously and without any additional input. The functionality benchmark is carried out by executing the following steps:
The robot/team is provided with the selection of the specific path in advance.
The robot moves to the defined reference point within his coordinate system. Manual adjustment is then performed by a referee: the paper with the printed path is placed under the actual position of the robot’s end effector. (This is mainly important for the audience to get a visual feedback and to see the predefined path).
The robot moves to the defined starting point of the path, which is defined a few centimetres away with respect to the reference point. Another manual adjustment of the paper is then performed.
The CFH tells the robot when to start moving.
The robot moves its end effector along the path until the end point of the path is reached and reports the termination of path execution to the CFH.
4.3.3. Scoring and ranking
Evaluation of a robot’s performance in this functionality benchmark is based on
The overall deviation of the executed from the given path, measured in terms of the areas summing‐up between the given and the executed path (constant deviations are eliminated).
The number of completely executed path movements.
Execution time (if less than the maximum allowed for the benchmark).
As this functionality benchmark focuses on control, the scoring of teams is based on the size of the area describing the deviation from given and executed path. In case of ties, the overall execution time is considered.
5. Summary
This chapter provides detailed information on the RoCKIn@Work competition. First, the competition, the concepts that build its foundation, and the intentions behind it are explained. After that, elements for building an open domain testbed for a robot competition set in the industrial domain are introduced and the most important aspects of benchmarking in competitions are outlined. The main part of this chapter covers in detail the three task benchmarks, Prepare Assembly Aid Tray for Force Fitting, Plate Drilling and Fill a Box with Parts for Manual Assembly, as well as the three functionality benchmarks, Object Perception, Manipulation and Control.
\n',keywords:"robotics, robot competitions, benchmarking, domestic robots, industrial robots",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/56009.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/56009.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56009",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56009",totalDownloads:1585,totalViews:131,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:36,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 1st 2017",dateReviewed:"June 2nd 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 9th 2017",dateFinished:"June 28th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"RoCKIn@Work was focused on benchmarks in the domain of industrial robots. Both task and functionality benchmarks were derived from real world applications. All of them were part of a bigger user story painting the picture of a scaled down real world factory scenario. Elements used to build the testbed were chosen from common materials in modern manufacturing environments. Networked devices, machines controllable through a central software component, were also part of the testbed and introduced a dynamic component to the task benchmarks. Strict guidelines on data logging were imposed on participating teams to ensure gathered data could be automatically evaluated. This also had the positive effect that teams were made aware of the importance of data logging, not only during a competition but also during research as useful utility in their own laboratory. Tasks and functionality benchmarks are explained in detail, starting with their use case in industry, further detailing their execution and providing information on scoring and ranking mechanisms for the specific benchmark.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/56009",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/56009",book:{id:"6279",slug:"rockin-benchmarking-through-robot-competitions"},signatures:"Rainer Bischoff, Tim Friedrich, Gerhard K. Kraetzschmar, Sven\nSchneider and Nico Hochgeschwender",authors:[{id:"213507",title:"Mr.",name:"Tim",middleName:null,surname:"Friedrich",fullName:"Tim Friedrich",slug:"tim-friedrich",email:"timfri@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The RoCKIn@Work environment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. The RoCKIn@Work testbed",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Environment elements",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Central Factory Hub (CFH)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Networked devices in the environment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5. Benchmarking equipment in the environment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Task benchmarks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.1. Prepare assembly aid tray for force fitting",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.1.1. Task description",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.1.2. Procedures and rules",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.1.3. Scoring and ranking",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.2. Plate drilling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.2.1. Task description",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"3.2.2. Procedures and rules",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"3.2.3. Scoring and ranking",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"3.3. Fill a box with parts for manual assembly",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"3.3.1. Task description",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"3.3.2. Procedures and rules",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"3.3.3. Scoring and ranking",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21",title:"4. Functionality benchmarks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"4.1. Object perception",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"4.1.1. Functionality description",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"4.1.2. Procedures and rules",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"4.1.3. Scoring and ranking",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"4.2. Manipulation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"4.2.1. Functionality description",level:"3"},{id:"sec_26_3",title:"4.2.2. Procedures and rules",level:"3"},{id:"sec_27_3",title:"4.2.3. Scoring and ranking",level:"3"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"4.3. Control",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29_3",title:"4.3.1. Functionality description",level:"3"},{id:"sec_30_3",title:"4.3.2. Procedures and rules",level:"3"},{id:"sec_31_3",title:"4.3.3. Scoring and ranking",level:"3"},{id:"sec_34",title:"5. Summary",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Niemueller T, Zug S, Schneider S, Karras U. Ubbo Visser, Gerald Steinbauer, Alexander Ferrein. Knowledge‐based instrumentation and control for competitive industry‐inspired robotic domains. In: Künstliche Intelligenz. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 30th ed. 2016. pp. 289-299'},{id:"B2",body:'Schneider S, Hegger F, Hochgeschwender N, Dwiputra R, Moriarty A, Berghofer J, Kraetzschmar G. Design and development of a benchmarking testbed for the factory of the future. In: IEEE International Conference on Emerging Technologies and Factory Automation (ETFA): Special Session on Mobile Robotics in the Factory of the Future; 8-11 September 2015; Luxembourg. IEEE; 2015'},{id:"B3",body:'RoCKIn Project. Project Website [Internet]. 2014. Available from: http://rockinrobotchallenge.eu/ [Accessed: 26 May 2017]'},{id:"B4",body:'Ahmad A, Awaad I, Amigoni F, Berghofer J, Bischoff R, Bonarini A, Dwiputra R, Fontana G, Hegger F, Hochgeschwender N, Iocchi L, Kraetzschmar G, Lima PU, Matteucci M, Nardi D, Schiaffionati V, Schneider S. RoCKIn Project D1.2 “General Evaluation Criteria, Modules and Metrics for Benchmarking through Competitions”. 2014. Available from: http://rockinrobotchallenge.eu/rockin_d1.2.pdf [Accessed: 26 May 2017]'},{id:"B5",body:'Amigoni F, Bonarini A, Fontana G, Matteucci M, Schaffionati V. To what extent are competitions experiments? A critical view. In: Workshop on Epistemological Issues in Robotics Research and Research Result Evaluation; Hong Kong. ICRA 2014. 05 June 2014. http://rockinrobotchallenge.eu/publications.php'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Rainer Bischoff",address:null,affiliation:'
Bonn‐Rhein‐Sieg University of Applied Sciences, Germany
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6279",type:"book",title:"RoCKIn",subtitle:"Benchmarking Through Robot Competitions",fullTitle:"RoCKIn - Benchmarking Through Robot Competitions",slug:"rockin-benchmarking-through-robot-competitions",publishedDate:"August 9th 2017",bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6279.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Authored by",isbn:"978-953-51-3374-2",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3373-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4712-1",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:null,equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1278"}],productType:{id:"3",title:"Monograph",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"},chapters:[{id:"56412",type:"chapter",title:"Foreword: The Impact of RoCKIn on Robotics",slug:"foreword-the-impact-of-rockin-on-robotics",totalDownloads:1189,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Alessandro Saffiotti and Tijn van der Zant",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"152268",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro",middleName:null,surname:"Saffiotti",fullName:"Alessandro Saffiotti",slug:"alessandro-saffiotti"}]},{id:"56203",type:"chapter",title:"The RoCKIn Project",slug:"the-rockin-project",totalDownloads:1254,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Pedro U. 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Tar",authors:[null]},{id:"10649",title:"MFR (Multi-purpose Field Robot) Based on Human-Robot Cooperative Manipulation for Handling Building Materials",slug:"mfr-multi-purpose-field-robot-based-on-human-robot-cooperative-manipulation-for-handling-building-ma",signatures:"Seungyeol Lee",authors:[null]},{id:"10631",title:"A Sensor Classification Strategy for Robotic Manipulators",slug:"a-sensor-classification-strategy-for-robotic-manipulators",signatures:"Miguel F. M. Lima, J. A. Tenreiro Machado and Antonio Ferrolho",authors:[null]},{id:"10625",title:"Passivity-based Visual Force Feedback Control for Eye-to-Hand Systems",slug:"passivity-based-visual-force-feedback-control-for-eye-to-hand-systems",signatures:"Hiroyuki Kawai, Toshiyuki Murao and Masayuki Fujita",authors:[null]},{id:"10629",title:"Kinematic Analysis of 3-UCR Parallel Robot Leg",slug:"kinematic-analysis-of-3-ucr-parallel-robot-leg",signatures:"Cheng Gang and Ge Shi-rong",authors:[null]},{id:"10653",title:"Digital Control of Free Floating Space Robot Manipulators Using Transpose of Generalized Jacobian Matrix",slug:"digital-control-of-free-floating-space-robot-manipulators-using-transpose-of-generalized-jacobian-ma",signatures:"Shinichi Sagara and Yuichiro Taira",authors:[null]},{id:"10630",title:"Kinematics, Singularity and Dexterity Analysis of Planar Parallel Manipulators Based on DH Method",slug:"kinematics-singularity-and-dexterity-analysis-of-planar-parallel-manipulators-based-on-dh-method",signatures:"Serdar Kucuk",authors:[null]},{id:"10626",title:"Robot Manipulator Probabilistic Workspace Applied to Robotic Assistance",slug:"robot-manipulator-probabilistic-workspace-applied-to-robotic-assistance",signatures:"Fernando A. Auat Cheein, Fernando di Sciascio, Juan Marcos Toibero and Ricardo Carelli",authors:[null]},{id:"10628",title:"On the Design of Human-Safe Robot Manipulators",slug:"on-the-design-of-human-safe-robot-manipulators",signatures:"Vincent Duchaine, Nicolas Lauzier and Clement Gosselin",authors:[null]},{id:"10647",title:"Vibration Based Control for Flexible Link Manipulator",slug:"vibration-based-control-for-flexible-link-manipulator",signatures:"Tamer Mansour, Atsushi Konno and Masaru Uchiyama",authors:[null]},{id:"10642",title:"Control of Robotic Systems with Flexible Components Using Hermite Polynomial-Based Neural Networks",slug:"control-of-robotic-systems-with-flexible-components-using-hermite-polynomial-based-neural-networks",signatures:"Gerasimos G. 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1. Introduction
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The overwhelming global effects of climate change and its implications subtle changes in the earth’s orbit belongs long term and immediate impacts. The impacts on atmosphere, ecosystem and sea as a consequences of human activities, warming globe, raising air and sea temperature dropping by 0.01 °C every 100 years for the last 7,000 years and since 1970 the temperature has been rising at an alarming rate of 1.7 °C per century. Consequently, IPCC efforts recommended limit global temperatures below 1.5 °C to avoid the more severe impacts of global warming [1]. The warmer temperature due to climate change increases frequency of ground level ozone, lethal air pollutants, and smog components [2]. Both the immediate impacts of climate change regards extreme weather, heat waves, storms, and flooding, forest fire, compromised safety, economic challenges and long-term effects likewise on human health, ecosystem, threats on water and food resources, altitudinal and tree line shifting are the consequences of climatic change issues today. The pragmatic climate change effects sensed on environment globally comprises shrinking glaciers, shifted plants and animals ranges and sooner tree flowering, loss of sea ice, enhanced sea level rise, penetrating heat waves affecting our dependency upon water, energy, terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, agriculture, and human health. The future prediction of climate change has great challenge to preserve existing ecosystem and biodiversity. The projections showed 10% approximate species to be an increasingly high risk of extinction for every 1 °C rise in global mean temperature, within the range of future scenarios modelled in impacts assessments (typically <5 °C global temperature rise) as per IPCC AR4. The vulnerable ecosystems are freshwater habitat and wetlands, arctic and alpine ecosystems, cloud forests, mangroves, coral reefs to the impacts of climate change.
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The impacts of climate change has extremely affected human societies and the natural environment. The most vulnerable to climate change impacts on an ecosystems area associated with the shifting alpine ecosystem to higher elevations and shrink in area, modification on tropical and subtropical rainforests, affected coastal wetlands by sea-level rise and saline intrusion, affected inland ecosystems by changed rainfall patterns and affected tropical savannahs by changes in the frequency and severity of bushfires. According to Dolling et al. [3]; Giambelluca et al. [4]; Frazier et al. [5]; increased drought stress of native plants and fire occurrence is due to decreasing rainfall and increasing temperatures. According to the IPCC 5th Assessment (IPCC 2013) [6], ocean surface temperature and combined land and warming globally was around 0.85 [0.65 to 1.06] °C, over the period 1880 to 2012. The issue of climate change have created by human activities is about 1 °C of global warming above pre-industrial levels with range of 0.8° to 1.2 °C [7]. The large influence on forest and agricultural systems due to increases in temperature, changes in precipitation patterns, and changes in the occurrence of floods and droughts has predicted by the Álvaro-Fuentes et al. [8]; Anaya-Romero et al. [9]; Conant et al. [10]; Lal [11]; Muñoz-Rojas et al. [12].
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As an important environmental factor, climate influence ecosystems and biodiversity several ways whereas climate change affects habitats of species and existing food chain interacting other human stressors like development. The stressors cause minor and major affects including dramatic ecological changes some of their cumulative impacts [13]. Due to changes in the timing of seasonal life cycle, many species influences their migration, blooming and reproduction including reduced their growth and survival [14, 15]. The habitat range of the species both terrestrial and aquatic environment shift to higher elevations due to increased temperatures including changes in vegetative biomes [16] and expanding into areas of river and streams previously inhabited by Coldwater species [17]. Similarly, particular species can ripple through a food web and affect a wide range of other organisms as the loss of sea ice affected entire food web, from algae and plankton to fish to mammals [18]. The extreme events like wildfires, flooding, and drought serves ecosystems as natural buffers and human modification restrict ecosystems’ aptitude to temper the impacts of extreme conditions which increases vulnerability to damage. Likewise, the main stressors of climate change like habitat destruction and pollution subsidize to species extinction and spread of pathogens, parasites, and diseases, with potentially serious effects on human health, agriculture, and fisheries. Thus, the species extinction rate globally is exceeding the observed natural rate of extinction [19].
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In Nepal, the major driving force to degrade biodiversity and ecosystem is development of infrastructures such as construction of road, hydropower, irrigation canal, railway, transmission line, tourism industry and airport. The accelerated impacts of these activities allies with deforestation and degradation of natural forests, habitat fragmentation, infrastructure development on protected areas, encroachment of forest and forest land, destruction of natural habitats both terrestrial and aquatic species. The urbanization and population growth leads to unplanned infrastructure development ultimately has increased demand of natural products, and pressure on biological resources threatening natural ecosystem and biodiversity.
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The rainfall patterns and temperature regimes altered by the climate change and its impacts on water, agriculture and biological resources are crucial issues in Nepal. The policy of the government in biodiversity conservation and economic development is ineffective for implementation integrating the development actions. An effective implementation of regulatory framework and strategy to protect biological resources including protected, endangered, threatened, rare and endemic species can support to conserve the biodiversity and ecosystem. Thus, the chapter assisted overall climate change scenario describing impacts and implications, focusing on ecosystem and biodiversity, including impacts of developmental projects, adoption of national mitigation strategy and use of assessment tools with Nepal’s perspective.
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2. Material and methods
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2.1 Study area
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A landlocked country Nepal situated between 80°and 88° E longitude and from 26° to 31° N latitude which covers an area of 147,181 Sq.km measuring 880 kilometers (547 mi) along its Himalayan axis by 150 to 250 kilometers (93 to 155 mi) across. The new map showing Kalapani, Limpiyadhura and Lipulekh as Nepali territories, Government of Nepal has further declared as an extended area of 147, 516km2 (56,956 sq. mi) [20]. Nepal resembles five physiographic zones and seven bio-climatic zones identified by Dobremez [21] extending from East to West, including the High Himal, High Mountains, Middle Mountains (or Middle Hills), Siwalik (or Chure), and Terai [22] (Figure 1). The genetic, species and ecosystem level biodiversity of Nepal spreads over tropical forests from Terai (67-1000 masl), mid hill (1000-2000 masl) subtropical and temperate regions (2000–3000 masl) to Himalayas sub-alpine and alpine pastures and snow-covered peaks of the Himalayas (> 3000 masl). As shown in Figure 1, land cover in Nepal includes different types of forests (broadleaf, needle leaf, mixed), agriculture, shrub lands, grasslands, bare lands, river and lakes, and glacier/snow [23, 24].
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Figure 1.
Landuse pattern of Nepal.
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3. Methods
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Relevant literatures reviewed, summarized current estimates of the impacts of climate change as per IPCC and The World Bank data, and explained how those estimates assembled in order to identify the main sources of uncertainty and approximately affecting them. In addition, discussed scenarios of development actions and impacts, uncertainty influences and mitigation measures adopted through legal instruments and policymaker’s decisions. The reviewed national and international policies, plan, strategies, Act and regulations were incorporated with the relevancy and implications in ecosystem and biodiversity and other thematic areas. AcrGIS_10.4.1 was used to delineate land use pattern and forest cover together with identification of Physio geographic zones of Nepal with reference of GoN/MoFSC, 2018 [25] and national scale forest resource assessment carried out over the period of 2010–2014 [26]. In the decision making process, EIA legislation and its process subjected to an environmental assessment during preparation, and before adoption. Similarly, integration of EbA approach into policies and plans for facilitating EbA technology, synthesis and packaging of information and planning tools was carried out to found alternative scenario for climate change adaption with resilience ecosystem. Impacts and implication of developmental projects, legal provisions to conduct environmental assessments and mitigation strategy were identified through review pertinent documents and study of infrastructure projects such as hydropower, roads and other sectoral projects.
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4. Impacts and implications
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4.1 Ecosystem and biodiversity
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The increasing impacts of climate change on biodiversity become a progressively more significant threat in the coming decades as projected. The pressure of ocean acidification, resulting from higher concentrations atmospheric CO2 and loss of Arctic sea ice threatens biodiversity across an entire biome and beyond. The frequent extreme weather events with changing pattern of rainfall and drought, warming temperatures as projected there are significant impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem [27]. According to IPBES the three major challenges like land degradation, biodiversity loss and climate change increasingly dangerous impact on the health of our natural environment degrading land, pollution and overexploitation to land-use change and habitat loss threat to wildlife globally. As per the IPCC [28] AR4 projection 10% of species assessed approximately are in high risk of extinction for every 1 °C rise in global mean temperature, within the range of future scenarios modelled in impacts assessments (typically <5 °C global temperature rise). In particular, aquatic freshwater habitats and wetlands, mangroves, coral reefs, arctic and alpine ecosystems, and cloud forests are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.
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Nepal is rich for globally significant biodiversity with 118 major ecosystems and 75 vegetation types harboring important flora and fauna occupying 39.6% (5,830,360 ha) forest area. Currently, out of total area of the country, 44.74% (6.61 million ha) is covered by the forests land including 17.32% Protected Areas (PAs) and 82.68% by other forest management regimes [29]. Nepal has established 20 protected areas with the goal of nature conservation covering 23.39% (34419.75 sq.km.) land area with2 12 National Parks, 1 Wildlife Reserve, 1 Hunting Reserve, 6 Conservation Areas, and 13 Buffer Zones extending from lowlands of Terai to high mountains.
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Globally, Nepal occupies about 0.1% of global landmass harboring 3.2% flora and 1.1% fauna of the world’s biodiversity including 5.2% of mammals, 9.5% birds, 5.1% gymnosperms and 8.2% bryophytes [30]. Similarly, Nepal government has declared 27 mammals, nine birds, 3 reptiles [31] under protection category. Among 208 mammal species recorded in Nepal, regionally 8 of them critically Endangered, 26 Endangered, 14 Vulnerable and 7 species nearly Threatened. Out of 886 bird species found in Nepal, 42 of them are globally threatened [32]. The species of flora and flora of Nepal listed in CITIES includes, 50 mammals, 108 birds, 29 Reptiles, 2 amphibians and 476 species of plants [33]. The updated checklist of CITES flora after CoP 17 includes, 154 species with 1 species in Appendix I, 149 species in Appendix II and 4 species in Appendix III [34].
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The use of resources like grazing, fodder and fuelwood collection, timber extraction, collection of herbs, medicinal and aromatic plants, poaching, hunting and fishing are major threats for conserve biodiversity conservation. Among the 700 species medicinal plants in Nepal, more than hundred species exploited for commercial purposes. Loss and fragmentation of natural terrestrial and aquatic habitats and restricted mobility of migrant species due to habitat fragmentation is crucial problem. Poaching of rare species such as the tiger, rhino, bear (Selenarctos thibatenus), musk deer, snow leopard, gharial, and others is also critical problems. Nepal were to lose its remaining humid tropical forests, 10 species of highly valuable timber, six species of fiber, six species of edible fruit trees, four species of traditional medicinal herbs, and some 50 species of litde known trees and shrubs would be lost forever. Likewise, severely affected wildlife habitats are 200 species of birds, 40 species of mammals, and 20 species reptiles and amphibians [35].
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The loss of biodiversity and vegetation leads to the changing pattern of natural environmental conditions occurring from numerous fundamental systems and decreasing number of species biodiversity due to modified environment and increased pressure on forest and vegetation [36]. The major impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems are loss of habitat due to encroachment of forest areas, expansion of agriculture and settlement in forest area, development of infrastructure within the forest area, planned priority projects within forestland to uplift economic development. Other major problem also leads to degradation of habitat due to overharvesting of biological resources, overgrazing and uncontrolled forest fire. Similarly, poaching and illegal wildlife trade, human-wildlife conflict, invasion by alien plant species, stone, gravel and sand mining threats ecosystem and biodiversity of the country. Nepal lost forest area by 2.1 percent and 1.4 percent during 1990–2000 and 2000–2005, respectively [37]. Nepal’s forest area heavily degraded with loss of important biodiversity imposing landslides, and soil erosion, felling of trees for building materials and over lopping for fodder and fuel wood [38]. The unplanned infrastructure development such as schools, hospitals, temples, water storage tanks and other infrastructure within the forest area, particularly in the Tarai and Siwalik, 82,934 hectares forestland was reported under illegal occupation [39].
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The major identified climate change impacts on forest and biodiversity in Nepal resembles; (a) increased temperature and rainfall variability, (b) changes in phenological cycles of tree species and shifting of tree line in the Himalaya, (c) shifts in agro-ecological zones, prolonged dry spells, and higher incidences of pests and diseases, (d) increased emergence and quickened spread of invasive alien plant species, (e) increased incidence of forest fire in recent years, (f) depletion of wetlands [40, 41]. The large scale development is a hallmark of the modern world, providing society with things humans’ value but at an environmental cost [42, 43]. The major impacts on terrestrial or aquatic ecosystem associated with the developmental projects are:
habitat degradation through overgrazing practices wetland drainage for agricultural, industrial or urban development practices;
habitat loss, with attendant consequences on fish and wildlife because of excessive deforestation practices;
changes in habitat and associated fish and wildlife species due to the construction and operation of hydropower projects;
loss of critical habitat for endangered or threatened species as result or timber harvesting, recreational developments, and or military training activities;
multiple aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem effects from acid rain formed as a consequence of SO2 emissions from coal-fired power plants; and
potential toxic effects to plants and or animals as a result of air-or water pollutant discharges or of waste disposal activities of industries and municipalities.
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4.2 Infrastructures and development
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The major infrastructures like road, hydropower, irrigation, water supply, housing, tourism and communication are associated with socioeconomic development of the developing country. Monsoon floods, landslides, and siltation-damaged infrastructures impede the developmental activities and affects transportation facility, electricity supply, industry, business, markets, and other allied activities. Furthermore, more extreme events associated with climate change forebodes great threat on infrastructures with increased instances of drainage congestion, scouring, inundation, slope instability, land subsidence, erosion, and collapse of structures. The existing roads, bridges, water supply and sanitation, settlement, hydropower and irrigation are affecting seasonally due to flooding, landslides, and debris deposits cause large impacts on socioeconomic development of the country. The degradation of key natural resources land, water, and forests and impacts on agriculture and livestock farming, agricultural production, transportation, infrastructure, forest-based industries, and hydropower, are associated with intensifies disasters such as landslides, floods, soil erosion drought and storms.
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4.3 Hydropower development
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Nepal is rich for water resources comprising 6,000 rivers with 220 billion cum annually run off spreading length of over 45,000 km. [44]. An estimated potential for hydropower to be around 83,000 MW whereas 4300 MW to be technically feasible [45]. The major river basins in Nepal are Sapta Koshi, Karnali, Sapta Gandaki, Mahakali, and the Southern rivers [46]. In Nepal, with total installed capacity of 1,332,858 KW, 14 major hydropower stations, 17 small hydropower plants, 23 Small Hydropower Plant (isolated), Two Thermal Plants and Solar plants are currently in operation generating 56315KW, 577394KW, 4536KW, 53410 KW, and 1350KW energy respectively. Similarly, eight Hydroelectricity Project (HEP) with installed capacity of 943100KW are under construction and nine with installed capacity of 3219200KW are planned and proposed. Hydropower construction is growing development in Nepal due to rapid increment demand of electricity by about 10% every year (NEA) and projected demand for year 2020/2021 to be around 2,203 MW [47]. The hydropower development considerably cause high impacts on construction phase rather than its operation along with cumulative and long-term impacts can harass to sustain ecosystem and biodiversity. As location of the project, size and type of the project, socioeconomic condition the environmental situation, beneficial and harmful impacts of hydropower are considered manifold [48, 49].
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Nepal in progress of installation of renewable source of energy such as mini and micro hydropower, solar energy, biomass energy and biogas targeting access public to provide clean, reliable and affordable renewable energy solutions by 2030. As different Nations agreed in Paris in 2015, limit the global average temperature rise to as close as possible to a maximum 2 °C reducing energy-related CO2 emissions by more than 70% by 2050 which can only be achieved with the massive deployment of renewable forms of energy such as wind, solar and hydro, combined with energy efficiency [50]. NEA is responsible to generate electricity, transmission, and distribution but inadequate planning, policy, regulation and inadequate capacity with poor governance leading to underinvestment and difficulty in sustaining the growth of the Hydropower and Economic Growth in Nepal [51].
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To institutionalize hydropower sector, Government of Nepal endorsed Water Resources Act, 1992, Water Resources Regulation, 1993, Electricity Act, 1992, Electricity Regulation, 1993 and Hydropower Development Policy, 1992, Hydropower Development Policy, 2001, Water Resources Strategy, 2002 and National Water Plan, 2005. GoN has also prioritized development of hydropower including contemplation of Environment Protection Act, 2019 and Environment Protection Rules, 2020. The perennial nature of Nepalese rivers and the steep gradient flows from Himalayas and high mountains towards the plain of the Terai has largest hydropower potential for hydroelectric projects in Nepal whereas challenges remaining to protection towards ongoing potential impacts on natural environment. Although, hydropower plants provide cost efficient and environment friendly power supply to improve energy services a displacing imported fossil fuels but most of the hydropower constructing in Mountains, Mid hills and Siwalik regions of the country are great threats to biodiversity and ecosystems of the region. Landslide dam outburst floods (LDOFs) is one of the major challenges for hydropower development in Nepal due to its rugged topography, susceptible to landslides, very high relief, and intense precipitation during the monsoon period. Thus, there is a high need to protect the ecosystem together with the hydropower development by improving resilient hydropower infrastructure through good planning, design and sitting, construction, operation and maintenance, contingency planning, and restoring ecofriendly environment [52]. As per nature, extent, magnitude and duration of all observed adverse environmental issues/impacts on cultural and physical, chemical, biological and socio-economic during construction and operation phases of hydropower projects are highlighted in the Table 1 below.
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\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Construction phase
\n
Operation phase
\n
\n\n\n
\n
\nPhysical environment\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Changes in site geomorphology, topography and land use patterns due to project structures
Construction access road and labour camps
Stockpiling of Construction Materials
Operation of quarry sites, crusher plant (noise and vibration, spoils from crusher, land instability)
Change in river morphology and drainage pattern
Landslide and soil erosion, and sedimentation due to excavation works
Generation of solid waste and spoil disposal
Leakage of oil, grease and other chemicals
Increase level of noise and vibration, change in air and water quality
Pollution to surface water due to siltation, inadvertent disposal of waste oils, wastewater, and solid wastes into the river
Contamination of groundwater springs, aquifers and hydrogeological conditions due leakage of chemicals
Slope destabilization and loss of top soil
Landslide Outburst Flood (LDOF)
\n
\n
\n
Changes in hydrology and sedimentation
Drainage disruption
Noise and vibration in powerhouse area
Change in water quality due to reduced flow and reservoir flushing
Leakage of oil, grease and other chemicals
Change in microclimate
Cumulative impacts
Landslide, flooding, LDOF
Generation of greenhouse gas
Change in river morphology and hydrological flow regime
Sediment flushing on dewatered section or reduced in-stream
Alternation of geomorphology upstream and downstream of the dam and the powerhouse
Generation of greenhouse gas
Generation of waste oil and used chemicals
Reduction downstream flow on riparian zone
\n
\n
\n
\n
\nBiological Environment\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Loss of forest land, loss of forest and vegetation cover due to site clearance
Increase collection of firewood, timber, NTFPs and medicinal Plants
Habitat fragmentation and wildlife disturbance
Illegal hunting and poaching
Loss of aquatic species due to diversion of river
Increase fishing activity
Loss of biodiversity
Possible forest fire
Loss of or encroachment on critical habitats, protected areas, wetlands, and forestlands
Reduction of terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity
Impact on endangered, threatened species, protected and their habitats
Disturbance to aquatic habitat
Disturbance and/or removal of riparian vegetation
\n
\n
\n
Disturbance to fish migration, loss of spawning area, loss of habitat
Decrease aquatic flora and fauna in dewatered zone
Destruction wildlife habitat and wildlife movement
Forest encroachment and easy access to forest
Illegal hunting and poaching
Impact on terrestrial and aquatic ecology
Sudden release of water in downstream and reduction in river flow in the dewatered zone
loss of biodiversity and important species and introduction of invasive species
Inundation of flora and fauna
Forest fire inducement
Electrocution effects to wildlife
Impacts on protected species
\n
\n
\n
\n
\nSocioeconomic and cultural Environment\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Land acquisition and private property
Impacts on livelihoods of affected families
Loss of standing crops
Physical and economic displacement of PAF
Occupational health and safety hazard
Increase in pressure on local health and sanitation facilities
Economic flux
Pressure on community infrastructures, social service facilities and resources
Impacts on social, cultural and religious rights
Impacts on gender and disadvantage groups
Impacts on springs and drinking water sources
Generation of solid and liquid waste
Increase demand on energy sources, firewood & timber
Demographic changes to the area and communities
Loss of livelihoods and loss of access to natural resources and cultural heritage
\n
\n
\n
Decrease or withdrawal in economic activities
Occupational, health and safety hazards, navigation risks
Reduction of agricultural land and food security
Sudden release of water downstream in the dewatered stretch impacts people and livestock
Headrace alignment and penstock crossing and project structures on springs and water sources
Dislocation/disturbance to foot trails along penstock alignment
increase in tourism activity and its associated pressure on local resources
Water use right and loss of cultural rights
Generation of solid and Liquid waste
Impacts of visitor and tourists
Impacts on use of community service facilities
Contamination of water sources HHs liquid and solid waste, sewage disposal
\n
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Potential Adverse Impacts of Hydropower.
\n
The climate change impacts significantly higher to water resources and hydropower sector like rising temperatures retreat glacier that in turn causes greater variability (and eventual reduction) in streamflow, and glacial lake outburst floods posing significant risk to hydropower facilities, infrastructure and human settlements. The climate induced risks to water resources and hydropower facilities related to flooding, landslides, and sedimentation, intense precipitation events, flow variation in dry season. Resiliency of hydropower assets is essential to face of increased frequency of extreme weather events and rapid changes in hydrological patterns to reduce the risk of climate-related disruptions as hydropower contributes significant reduction of GHG emissions. Hydropower plants prevents the emission of about 3 GT CO2 per year (9% of global emissions) compared with conventional coal power plants [53].
\n
\n
\n
4.4 Roads and transportation
\n
The majority of the population in Nepal does not have reliable and adequate access on transportation services (Figure 2). Thus, the development of physical infrastructure services like roadways, railways, waterways, subways, flyovers and ropeways, transport (Air Transport) and transit management and its operation and implementation are rapidly growing. As per data, about 29031 km of roads (53 percent paved roads) and 1952 bridges in the country are in operation [54].
\n
Figure 2.
Temporary Means for Access on Mahakali River, Darchula Nepal.
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The availability of road infrastructure as per road density, Nepal stands at 139 km per 1000 km2 [55], where 60% or more road network are concentrated in the lowland (Terai) areas. However, Nepal’s 20% population residing in urban areas but Nepal considered fastest urbanizing country with annual growth rate of 5% on an average since 1970s [56]. The Global Competitiveness Report 2016 ranks, Nepal 130 of 138 in infrastructure [57]. Government of Nepal step-up to capital expenditure in infrastructure, in particular, sectors like water, communication, transportation and electricity from 2009 to 2016 received greater priorities [58].
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An immense facility and services provides by the infrastructure development accessing agriculture, market, commerce, industry, and social sectors including education, health, communication, livelihood and quality of life but construction and maintenance works adversely affects natural environment. Nepal’s young and fragile geology, poverty, vulnerable communities, construction of infrastructures brings significant impacts to the local and regional environmental settings. The major impacts associated with such developmental activities comprises; slop instability and slope failures, landslides and soil erosion, impacts on national parks, conservation areas and wildlife reserves, national forests and agricultural lands and interference with water courses, loss of terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity, river regime change, extraction of sand/gravel, irrigation facilities, run off and sedimentation, occupational health and safety, land acquisition, damages on cultural properties and effects on the unique life of ethnic and minorities communities.
\n
\n
\n
4.5 Climate change and its consequences
\n
The water, food, health, land, environment, infrastructures are vulnerable affecting by severe consequences of global climate change with irreversible loss of many species around the world. The increasing in extreme weather events damages infrastructures by natural disasters, storms and flooding. According to IPCC 2007, climate has been getting warmer since 1960 and this will continue. Global temperature will be increased at the end of the 21st Century in relative to the end of the 20th Century ranges from 0.6 to 4 °C and 3.3 °C in South Asia with the min-max range as 2.7–4.7 °C. Climate change projections for 1961–1990, in East Asia shows relative to the average for mean temperatures will be 1.9°–2.6 °C higher across the region in 2050, and 3.8°–5.2 ° C higher in 2090 [59]. The increasing pressure on natural resources in Asia associated with the rapid urbanization, industrialization, and economic development bringing challenges to protect the degrading environment. Asia comprises 51 countries/regions with land and territories, divided into six sub regions based on geographical position and coastal peripheries. Forest carbon pools affected by the Climate change in some countries of the region and observed annual mean temperatures over South Asia in the past is increasing significantly about 0.75 °C per century. The physiology, phenology and distribution of plant and animal affecting by the climate change and also increase the risk of mortality and injury from wind storms, flash floods, coastal flooding and expected numbers of vector-borne diseases in the near future.
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According to the 2020 edition of Germanwatch’s Climate Risk Index, Nepal is ninth hardest-hit nation by climate calamities during the period 1999 to 2018, as one of the most vulnerable countries to the climate change effects [60]. The average annual maximum temperature has been increasing by 0.056 °C per year from 1971 to 2014 [61] and extremely increasing precipitation [62]. Similarly, more than 80% property had lost due to water disasters like floods, landslides and glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) [63].
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Biodiversity is essential for Earths functioning ecosystem but growing human population, habitat loss and over exploitation of resources is the main factors to loss of biodiversity. According to IPBES, more than 1 million IUCN red list threatened species are risk of disappearing which includes 41% of amphibians, 25% of mammals, 34% of conifers, 13% of birds, 31% of sharks and rays, 33% of reef-building corals, and 27% of crustaceans [64]. The issue of global warming is concerned with the raising temperature by trapping earth’s emissions in the atmosphere due to exposure of greenhouse gas emissions like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, ozone, and water vapor and burning of fossil fuels. Increased lake and stream temperatures have significant implications affecting frequencies of disease in fish species and their altered growth, increased energy expenditures, thermal barriers on adult and juvenile migration, delayed and reduced spawner survival, altered egg and juvenile development, changes in biological productivity and altered species distribution [65].
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The living components of ecosystems like plants, herbivores, carnivores, and soil organisms influences by the climate change in their functional ecosystem and characteristics in regards of energy and chemicals flow altering ecosystems properties and species distributions. The major resilience biodiversity in its ecosystems with variation of life on the earth interdepending webs of living organisms and physical environment provides us clean air, fresh water, food, resources and medicine. The humankind activities like air and water pollution, habitat destruction and fragmentation, and the introduction of invasive species likely to be exacerbated ecosystems. The valuable goods and services provided to the human societies by the ecosystem threaten to jeopardize the numerous economic and social values due to climate change effects [66]. The detrimental effects can be mitigated through preserving and maintaining habitat and species to maintaining overall ecosystem structure and species composition together with adapting biodiversity conservation strategy by reducing fragmentation and degradation of habitats, increasing connectivity among habitat blocks and fragments, and reducing external anthropogenic environmental stresses.
\n
Nepal’s water resources, public health and terrestrial ecosystems are most vulnerable sectors [67] with associated issues of food security, poverty reduction and environmental degradation. Adaptation of appropriate technology for changing cropping patterns, enhancing mitigation for emerging pests and disease and protection of changing landscapes of Nepal can cope with changing climatic pattern. Nepal’s changing climatic pattern as experienced in temperature and mean precipitation, data on temperature trends from 1975 to 2005 showed 0.060 C rise in temperature annually with significantly decrease in mean rainfall on an average of 3.7 mm (−3.2%) per month per decade. The mean annual temperatures under various climate change scenarios for Nepal has projected to increase between 1.3–3.8 °C by the 2060s and 1.8–5.8 °C by the 2090s with reduction of annual precipitation to be in a range of 10 to 20% across the country [68]. The increased number of glacial lakes in Nepal exceeds by 11% on an average by 38 km2 per year and 29% about 129 km3 ice reserve has estimated between the period of 1977 and 2010. Nepal is one of the most vulnerable countries to disasters and warming trends of Nepal is increasing as country’s averaged mean temperature increases of 1.2 °C and 3 °C projected by 2050 and 2100 [69]. Glacier retreat and significant increases in the size and volume of glacial lakes of Nepal Himalayas making them more prone to Glacial Lake Outburst Flooding (GLOF). Climate change enhance more disaster’s like landslides and soil erosion on excavation slopes, drainage disruption, flooding in roads, bridges and airport runways, drinking water sources and infrastructures of lowland areas so that roads, bridges, tunnels and other infrastructures are vulnerable to increased precipitation, groundwater levels, temperatures and winds. Transportation sector is affected by climate change and it contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. The mountain ecosystem and topography is highly affected by the climate events like high rainfall, accelerate surface run-off, increase flows in gullies, drainage channels, streams and rivers expose landslides and flooding, which instable road sections, bridges, and other infrastructures as well as inundations in lowland areas. Design and construction of climate resilient and environmental friendly infrastructures can support to reduce climate change impacts. Local microclimate can adapt through rod site plantation, bioengineering and climate resilient transportation system to reduce GHG level in atmosphere. The GHG emission of Nepal is around 0.027% of total global emissions and increasing GHG trend is from energy sector [70]. As Nepal is a party of UNFCCC supporting to limit temperature rise to well below 2 °C leading to 1.5 °C above pre- industrial levels in order to reduce the risks and adverse impacts of climate change.
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Climate change and risks associated towards adverse impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity, water resources, food production, and infrastructure with global warming correlates to adapt reducing or avoiding adverse impacts and maximize positive consequences towards the risks. The adaptation process is complex towards risks posed by climate change and variability as Moser & Ekstrom 2010, stated adaptation process is constant of awareness and understanding, planning, implementation and monitoring and review [71]. To mitigate or avoid the projected impacts of climate change, adaptation urgently needed towards extreme changes and impacts that may occur [72]. According to Article of UNFCCC, evaluation of risk associate with climate change refers “dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system”.
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Although, Climate change affects biodiversity and ecosystem services that are not all negative, with some species either thriving or adapting. Climate change and associate impacts is an integrated and integral portion of the major developmental sectors of the nation that can be mitigated through effective implementation of mitigation tools. Environmental assessment a planning application for the development activities mainly propose mitigation measures as obligations within the legal framework for implementation but not fulfilled legal requirement seriously for monitor and implementation. Hence, the assessment strategy to address the likely environmental impacts of the planned sectoral projects is limited on fulfillment of the legal requirement.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Mitigation of environmental risks and climate change adaptation
\n
\n
5.1 Policy and legal instruments
\n
Since 1980, Nepal has integrated environmental management related policies and strategies to address major consequences of developmental projects enunciating environment conservation related policies in the seventh plan [73]. In order to enforce policy and legal instruments for environmental protection from the project formulation stages for development strategy has considered avoiding or minimizing adverse effects on the ecological system. For this, EIA as a tool has adopted emphasizing emerging environmental and ecological issues envisioned from developmental projects such as industry, tourism, water resources, transportation, agriculture, forest and other developmental projects. To institutionalize EIA system in Nepal, eighth plan period [74] has remarkable contribution adopting and implementation of National EIA Guidelines of 1993 [75] and enforcement of Environment Protection Act, 1997 and the Environment Protection Rules, 1997 [76]. Nepal has enacted a number of regulatory measures for the consideration of the environmental aspects in the development project and programme, however still inadequate mainstreaming of biodiversity into national development plan and programmes. Generally, EIA implementation in developing countries appears to work best if legal and institutional arrangements have evolved gradually through an “organic” process, rather than one “imposed” from the outside [77]. The main Plan, Policy, Act, and Regulations related to sectoral projects, those addressed major environmental issues are outlined below:
National Environment Policy 2019 aims to control pollution, manage wastes and promote greenery so as to ensure citizens‟ right to live in a fair and healthy environment. The policy was framed to guide the implementation of environment related laws and other thematic laws, realize international commitment and enable collaboration between all concerned government agencies and other sectors on environmental management actions. This policy aims to lessen and prevent all types of environment pollutions, manage wastes emanated from all sectors including home, industry and service, expand parks and greenery in urban area and ensure environment justice to the pollution-affected population. In order to meet the policy goals and objectives, the policy has specified special measures, including setup of effective systems for checking and reducing pollution of all types, encouragement for the use of environment-friendly technology in industry, hospital and vehicles, regulation of harmful pesticides in production and protection of human health from unauthorized food intake.
Government of Nepal enacted Environmental Protection Act 2019 replacing previous EPA 1997 new amendments. The EPA 2019 empowers environmental protections; preserve right to clean and healthy environment of the society, maintain adaptation between environment and development, reduce adverse impacts on natural environment and biodiversity and climate change adaptation. According to the act, permission will be granted to such projects to use part of national forest if there are no other alternatives and it does not cause significant adverse impact on the environment. As such, it calls for such projects to go through environmental assessment procedure adhering with the prevailing act to ensure that it has clear provisions for compensating the forestland acquired and trees felled by such projects. Provisions relating to forest conservation area and its management, ecosystem service and payment for ecosystem service and establishment of forest development fund are some new highlights of this act. This act provides for establishment of a forest development fund to implement the objectives of this act, conserve and enhance forest. The provisions relating to management of forest as government managed, community, leasehold and religious forest are retained in this act.
\n\n
Considering previous Environment Protection Regulation (EPR), 1997 and its amendments, EPR endorsed EPR 2020 under the provisions of the EPA 2020. The EPR adopts the environmental assessment criteria mentioned in the National Impact Assessment Guideline 1993. However, the EPR establishes the administrative framework for assessing, exhibition and determination of EIA/IEE, in terms of issues needing to be addressed and the format/layout of the EIA/IEE document. Schedule 1, 2 and 3 listed proposal to be conducted Brief Environmental Study, Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies of sectoral projects respectively. The criteria for screening sectoral projects to conduct environmental studies before commencement of the projects has included Forest Sector, Industrial, Mine and Minerals, Road, Residential, Buildings, settlement development and Urban development areas, Water Resource and industry, Tourism, Drinking Water, Solid Waste Management, Agriculture, Health and Education Sectors. Besides these provisions, Section 4 Climate Change, Rule 25 has defined preparation of National Report by the Ministry regarding climate change situation, impacts and risks in every 5 years period. Rule 26 of same section provisioned Ministry should prepare National Adaptation Plan for each 10 years period and Rule 27 provisioned implementation of Mitigation Plan. The detailed framework of EPR 2020 shown in the Figure 3.
The Nepal Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) 2014–2020 envision a conserved biodiversity contributing for sound and resilient ecosystems and national prosperity.
The Forest Rules 1995, enforced as per the Forest Act 1993, has categorized number of medicinal herbs and non-timber plants or the timber species with timber use parts for legal trade. Forty-three species are listed to be licensed for their root collection; 20 species for bark; 31 species for leaves; 24 species for flower and fruits; 65 species for fruit and seeds; 12 species for whole plants; 10 species for resin, gums and lac; and other 29 herbs for whole or parts of the plants.
Nepal became a contracting party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITIES) 1973 on June 18, 1975. That aims to control the trade of certain wildlife species to prevent further endangered species of their survival. CITIES classified species according to the following three criteria-Species threatened with extinction; Species, which could become endangered, and Species that are protected. As Nepal is a signatory to the convention related to species conservation, attention should be given to evaluate the impacts of the project activities on meeting their obligation. It is relevant to environmental assessment studies that species protection list could also be used to evaluate the significance of the identified and predicted impacts for practical mitigation. Plant and species of wildlife under legal protection provides a basis to purpose EMPs for their conservation and for least damaging them during project implementation.
National Climate Change Policy (NCCP) 2019 underlined thematic areas towards developing a resilient society by reducing the risk of climate change impacts. The policy has integrated sectoral polices and strategies on agriculture and food security, forest, biodiversity and watershed conservation, water resource and energy, rural and urban habitants, industry, transport and physical infrastructure, tourism and natural and cultural heritage, health, drinking water and sanitation, disaster risk reduction and management, gender equality and social inclusion, livelihoods and good governance, awareness raising and capacity development, research, technology development and expansion and climate finance management.
Hydropower Development Policy 2001 outlines the overall objectives and strategies for hydropower development in Nepal. In addition, National Transport Policy 2001/2002 highlights transport infrastructure development through environment-friendly green road.
National Forest Policy 2018 defines Nepal’s economic, social, and cultural prosperity through a well-managed forest and a balanced environment including production and value addition of forest-based products and services and equitable distribution of the benefits from sustainable and participatory management of the forest, protected areas, watershed, biodiversity and wildlife.
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Figure 3.
Legislative framework for environmental assessment process, EPR 2020.
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\n
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5.2 Mitigation strategy and adaptation
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Climate change and risks associated towards adverse impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity, water resources, food production and infrastructure with global warming correlates to adapt reducing or avoiding adverse impacts and maximize positive consequences towards the risks. The adaptation process is complex towards risks posed by climate change and variability as Moser & Ekstrom 2010, stated adaptation process is constant of awareness and understanding, planning, implementation, and monitoring and review [71]. The main services provided by the forests is carbon removal from the atmosphere (carbon sequestration) and the long-term storage of this carbon in biomass, dead organic matter, and soil carbon pools. An estimated 55% (471 Pg C) stored in tropical forests out of the global forest carbon stocks of which more than half is stored in biomass [78]. To mitigate or avoid the projected impacts of climate change adaptation, urgently needed towards extreme changes and impacts that may occur [72].
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According to Article of UNFCCC, evaluation of risk associate with climate change refers “dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system” [79]. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has defined ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) in 2009 as use of biodiversity and ecosystem services as part of an overall strategy to help people adapt to the adverse effects of climate change and EbA projects have proliferated in 2015. As the EBA uses a range of opportunities for the sustainable management, conservation, and restoration of ecosystems to provide services that enable people to adapt to the impacts of climate change, Nepal had adopted Ecosystem-Based Approach (EBA) for priority ecosystems of major ecological regions. To build resilience using an ecosystem management approach in vulnerable developing countries by increasing institutional capacity, mobilizing knowledge and transferring appropriate best-practice adaptation technologies (Figure 4).
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Figure 4.
Schematic diagram of ecosystem based adaptation.
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The developmental activities are the main drivers of biodiversity loss, proper implementation of appropriate sustainable mitigation measure against adverse impacts can support to maintain ecosystems and biodiversity loss. Although, Climate change influences on biodiversity and ecosystem services but not all are negative, with some species either thriving or adapting. Although, environmental assessment a planning application for the development activities generally propose mitigation measures as obligations within the legal framework for implementation. However, the assess¬ment strategy to address the likely environmental impacts and mitigation of the planned sectoral projects is limited including an effective implementation of EMP. The major mitigation measures for developmental projects are presented in the Table 2.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Likely impacts
\n
Mitigation measures
\n
\n\n\n
\n
\nAir Quality\n
\n
\n
\n
Depletion of ozone layer and climatic change due to emission of some gases (SO2, CO2, NO2, Fluoride, CO, CFCS etc.) to the Atmosphere
\n
\n
Control the emission of SOx, NOx, Co and other applicable chemicals by scrubbing with water or alkaline solutions, incineration or absorption by other catalytic processes
Recycle wastes to reduce the amount of pollutants released to the atmosphere choose environmentally friendly processes, technologies, or raw materials
Treat effluent gases to reduce the amount of pollutants.
establish treatment plant
\n
\n
\n
\n
Reduction of air quality due to dust
\n
\n
Control particular matters by scrubbers, fabric filter collectors or electrostatic precipitators
choice of environmentally friendly processes, technologies or raw materials reduce the amount and significance of pollutants watering of the area form which dust is generated
\n
\n
\n
\n
\nEcosystem and Biodiversity\n
\n
\n
\n
Loss of flora and fauna
\n
\n
locate projects far away from sensitive areas
carry out necessary rehabilitation measures when phasing out a project
\n
\n
\n
\n
Habitat Fragmentation -stability and health of an ecosystem
\n
\n
plant with native species in vicinity of a project and adjacent areas to wildlife to provide additional habitats and migration routes/corridors for local animals
fence wildlife areas to avoid people interference
\n
\n
\n
\n
Direct killing of animals like collisions with vehicles
\n
\n
At important areas use of tunnels/bridges reduces interference and collision rates fencing or plant barriers can reduce the interference of human beings and traffics to wildlife
Take measures, like speed break on roads to reduce the speed of vehicles where road crosses protected areas
\n
\n
\n
\n
Disturbance of ecosystem because of extraction of sand, boulders, gravel or rock
\n
\n
Avoid extraction of sand, gravel boulders from riverbed, bottom/water bodies
use alternative site to exploit the resources avoid the use of dynamite/explosive in water bodies
avoid construction materials during breeding seasons in both water and terrestrial ecosystems
\n
\n
\n
\n
Exploitation of natural resources (flora and fauna) because of immigrants to project area
\n
\n
before the establishment of projects, planting appropriate tree species, which can be used for different purposes, to minimize burden on the sitting natural resources
use alternative energy resources and construction materials, use proper waste management technology
Make clear demarcation between the resource and project area.
\n
\n
\n
\n
Flora and fauna in wetlands are affected
\n
\n
avoid the excessive clearance of vegetation from stream banks locate projects as much as far as possible from wetlands
avoid the releaser or minimize the use of hazardous chemicals in the catchments of vulnerable wetlands
If possible, the project should not modify water flow/course use soil and water conservation measures in the catchments to reduce siltation
\n
\n
\n
\n
Introduction of new species or change of cultivation may cause for development of pests, diseases, or weeds.
\n
\n
Research on invasive exotic species should be carried out in enclosed areas
avoid the use of invasive exotic species for landscaping, reforestation or for other purposes
control the importation of uncertified seed or germ plasm to the region to avoid import of plant pests/disease
\n
\n
\n
\n
Direct or indirect killing of aquatic and terrestrial animals spreading of pesticide/insecticide for different purposes.
\n
\n
Use integrated pest management to avoid mass killing of animals the concentration and length of time to chemicals should meet standard criteria
use appropriate and trained man power for application of chemicals avoid the use of very poisonous pesticides in particular, on fields sloping down to watercourses during rain seasons with heavy precipitation apply pesticide, when a number of fauna are at the side
\n
\n
\n
\n
Contamination or use of polluted water may affect wild life and nearby communities to the project area.
\n
\n
use of chemicals or disposal of wastes in a proper way reduce the impact, handling of unused/used poisonous chemicals until they are treated and disposed properly be sure that effluents are treated to the standard before joining water bodies
Avoid the use of very poisonous pesticides in particular on fields sloping down to watercourses during seasons with heavy precipitation
Proper disposal of expired chemicals prevents the potential impacts on flora and fauna
proper disposal of wastes reduces siltation and pollution of water
\n
\n
\n
\n
Improper use of modern biotechnology or introduction of genetically modified varieties to the region may lead to genetic erosion
\n
\n
Regulate/control importation of varieties to avoid genetic erosion
Regulate import of species to avoid the spoiling of the natural means of existence of existing fauna
Avoid the use of invasive exotic species for landscaping, reforestation, research or for other purposes
Care has to be taken in activities related to modern biotechnology to reduce/avoid the impacts on indigenous species or genetic erosion
\n
\n
\n
\n
Change of the living condition of fish when its migration route is blocked by constructions e.g. dams/reservoirs
\n
\n
design carefully diversion wears, dams/reservoirs etc. to allow aquatic species to swim against the current
Use filters not to get away fishes to irrigation canals construct ladders so that the fishes jump and migrate against the flow of the water
\n
\n
\n
\n
Water logging may affect the flora (especially deep-rooted plants) and fauna of the area
\n
\n
digging of canals to lower the water table planting high water consuming species minimizing over irrigation
\n
\n
\n
\n
Exhaustion of resources
\n
\n
restrict or limit the optimum amount to be exploited/harvested according to the management plan done for the specific resource use recycling methods
\n
\n
\n
\n
\nWater Resources/bodies\n
\n
\n
\n
Flooding, channel modification, river canal siltation
\n
\n
leaving sufficient enough buffer zones of undisturbed vegetation between the site of the project and water bodies
use water flow speed reduction measures e.g. soil conservation measures
Plan carefully to avoid the change/modification of the previous channel flow/natural flow of water
\n
\n
\n
\n
Reduction/lowering of surface or groundwater table
\n
\n
locate those water-consuming projects, if possible, in areas where availability of ground or surface water is not a problem
choose the most appropriate techniques to minimize the amount of water consumed ensure that the utilization of groundwater is within the capacity of natural system to replenish itself re-use the recycled wastewater
\n
\n
\n
\n
Excess increment of nutrients in water bodies (eutrophication).
\n
\n
sitting projects far away from susceptible areas to erosion in order to reduce chemical pollution of water bodies
carry out soil conservation measures
leaving sufficient enough buffer zones of undisturbed vegetation between the site of the projects and water bodies
avoid direct waste disposal into or near water bodies
reduce the amount of inlet of both chemical and biological fertilizers to water bodies
\n
\n
\n
\n
Pollution of surface and groundwater through direct or indirect addition of toxic chemicals.
\n
\n
sitting projects far away from susceptible areas to erosion in order to reduce chemical pollution of water bodies
leaving sufficient buffer zones of undisturbed vegetation between the site of the project and water bodies
install silting basins to reduce silt, pollutants and debris from runoff before it is discharged to adjacent water bodies
Monitoring pipeline systems and impoundments for leaks to reduce contamination of groundwater. E.g. Preparing waterproof waste water collectors
monitor sites even after the project has been closed (as necessary)
reclaiming landscapes where devastating activities have been taken place to reduce water pollution
recycling wastes to reduce water pollution
use treatment techniques especially in industrial activities
choice of the most appropriate technique, replacing processing equipment dispose safely/properly expired toxic chemicals
\n
\n
\n
\n
Increment of suspended solids (turbidity) in water bodies through soil erosion or direct release of waste from different activities.
\n
\n
sitting projects far away from susceptible areas to erosion in order to reduce siltation, turbidity and chemical pollution of water bodies carry out soil conservation measures
Separation of buffer zone between project sites and water bodies for undisturbed vegetation
installing silting basins to reduce silt, pollutants and debris from runoff before it is discharged to adjacent water bodies
\n
\n
\n
\n
Increment of the amount of silt/sediment in downstream area including agricultural land, reservoirs, etc.
\n
\n
Minimize the area of ground clearance; provide good vegetative cover or; control the volume and speed of water flows
Careful design/plan of projects can avoid soil erosion; carry out soil conservation measures.
Leaving sufficient buffer zones of undisturbed vegetation between the site of the project and water bodies
\n
\n
\n
\n
\nSoil\n
\n
\n
\n
Soil erosion and loss of nutrients due to different activities
\n
\n
Replanting right species of trees, shrubs and grasses in a right time on disturbed areas. Minimize the area of ground clearance.
Careful design/plan of projects carry out soil conservation and or agro-forestry measures. Reducing harvest removal.
\n
\n
\n
\n
Soil compaction due to mechanization and machineries.
\n
\n
Using appropriate machineries/mechanization in appropriate time. Planting leguminous plants improve soil structure.
improve soil structure by planting species that improve soil structure or by adding organic matter
\n
\n
\n
\n
Salinization due to irrigation with saline water
\n
\n
adding organic matter/neutralizing planting salt tolerant species
\n
\n
\n
\n
Soil acidity
\n
\n
reduce the addition of artificial/organic chemical adding alkaline substance like lime appropriate use/disposal of chemicals
\n
\n
\n
\n
Imbalance of biological activities as a result of contamination of soil with toxic chemicals and loss of organic nutrients due to soil erosion
\n
\n
Appropriate use of wastes/toxic chemicals take any measures that are used to minimize loss of nutrients. Adding organic matter (green maturing, compost).
promote cleaner production (preventing/minimizing waste)
\n
\n
\n
\n
Productive topsoil covered by proposed activities or removal of productive top soil for temporary or permanent purposes
\n
\n
Collect and reuse the excavated top soil to form a superficial layer. Conversions of borrow pits and spoil dumpsites in to scenic lookouts.
Use vertical space than horizontal.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\nHuman Health and Safety\n
\n
\n
\n
Transmission of disease between human and from plants/animals to humans
\n
\n
sanitary or precaution measures can be accomplished through a comprehensive health awareness campaign curative measures should be in place
\n
\n
\n
\n
Fire, explosions, emission of toxic gases, vapors, dust, emission of toxic liquid, radiation and their cumulative effects badly affect human health in and around the project
\n
\n
establishing projects far away from settlements
Curative measures have to be in place if accidents from different activities can happen.
Provide fire proofing of structures, safety buffer zones around the plant boundary, escape routes and others.
Store properly easily flammable/explosive gases or toxic chemicals.
preventive/protective instruments have to be provided
\n
\n
\n
\n
Health effects on workers due to fugitive dust, material handling, and noise, mechanical or chemical contact can be occurred.
\n
\n
Prevent accidents through proper design of projects train responsible personnel how to properly handle chemicals; use protective measure, for example ear/eye masks etc.
\n
\n
\n
\n
Noise and congestion may be created and pedestrian hazards could be aggravated by heavy trucks
\n
\n
Site selection can be taken as preventive measures.
\n
\n
\n
\n
Death and injuries to human beings and damages to property could be happened in factories, roads etc.
\n
\n
facility should implement a safety and health program designed to identify, evaluate, monitor and control health hazards
Site selection can be taken as a preventive measure to minimize risk of accidents especially in road projects.
prevent accidents through proper design of projects use protective measure, for example ear/eye masks etc.
\n
\n
\n
\n
Extraction of sand or gravel may from unnecessary pond, which creates suitable condition for malaria and water vector borne disease
\n
\n
Sanitary or precaution measures can be accomplished through a comprehensive health awareness campaign.
Avoid stagnating water and give consecutive awareness to reduce the occurrence of malaria and other related diseases
\n
\n
\n
\n
In mining activities workers are injured when rocks/soils are collapsed
\n
\n
Proper design has to be done well in such a way that rocks does not collapse.
curative measures have to be in place
\n
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Mitigation measures for some of the environmental impacts.
\n
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusion
\n
The dimensional impacts of climate change threaten species biodiversity and its functional characteristics influencing the ecosystems. This can be mitigated through implementation of mitigation and adaptation plan for actions minimizing climate change induced risks targeting to support biodiversity and entire ecosystem services. Mitigation of greenhouse gases emission through reduction in use of fossil fuel, promotion of clean energy and increase in the rate of carbon uptake through natural ecosystems is the solution. Similarly, implementation of strategic action plans, afforestation/reforestation, agroforestry, land use management, promotion of renewable energy (hydropower, biomass, wind power, solar power etc.) as well as effective implementation of plan, policy and conventions can contribute to address the global climate issue and its impacts. Likewise, minimizing negative consequences and enhancing opportunities adjusting or accommodating to climate change induced impacts can also increase the adaptive capacity of species and ecosystems. This can lead plummeting non-climatic stresses, such as pollution, over-exploitation, habitat loss and fragmentation and invasive alien species, wider adoption of conservation and sustainable use practices including through the strengthening of protected area networks and facilitating adaptive management through strengthening monitoring and evaluation systems.
\n
Nepal has adopted several policies, strategies and EIA tool to address emerging environmental and ecological issues envisioned from developmental projects but threats on ecosystem and biodiversity and degrading rate of natural environment is constant in an alarming rate. The emerging agenda of the country like promotion of renewable energy, enhance capacity of local communities’ adaptation and resilience, widen carbon storage through sustainable forest management, and reduce carbon emissions can support to the consequences of climate change issues.
\n
To conserve biodiversity including terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems, restoration of degraded ecosystems, potential impacts of developmental projects can be avoided, reduced and compensate together with pollution control. This can support restore biodiversity and sustain utilization of ecosystem services however, magnitude of climate change effect difficult to adapt all dimension of ecosystems.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"climate change, ecosystem and biodiversity, development projects, impacts and implications",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75490.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75490.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75490",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75490",totalDownloads:142,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 20th 2020",dateReviewed:"February 5th 2021",datePrePublished:"May 5th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"March 1st 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Climate change impacts and implications towards ecosystems and biodiversity, water resources, food production, and infrastructures can be mitigated through adapting, reducing or avoiding adverse impacts and maximizing positive consequences. It can have numerous effects on the world’s natural ecosystems and their functions. IPCC projections showed approximately 10% of species to be at an increasing high risk of extinction for every 1 °C rise in global mean temperature and recommended to limit global temperatures below 1.5 °C. To identify consequences of climate change, impacts, and implications, data collected from different sources, reviewed, assessed and analyzed, discussing dimensional impacts and mitigation strategies adopted. Nepal’s 118 major ecosystems and 75 vegetation types with 44.74% forestland comprising 0.1% of global landmass harboring 3.2% flora and 1.1% fauna of the world’s biodiversity critically influenced by the regional climate change and intervention of developmental projects. Since 2000, Nepal lost forest area by 2.1% including several endangered and threatened species. Nepal is highly vulnerable towards natural disasters like GLOF, Glacier retreat, flooding, landslide and global warming. Therefore, it is crucial to plan climate resilience infrastructures adopting effective environmental management tools, formulation of strong plan, policy and strategy, mitigation of greenhouse gases, climate resilient adaptation and restoration of degraded ecosystems.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75490",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75490",signatures:"Ramesh Prasad Bhatt",book:{id:"7724",type:"book",title:"Climate Issues in Asia and Africa - Examining Climate, Its Flux, the Consequences, and Society's Responses",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Climate Issues in Asia and Africa - Examining Climate, Its Flux, the Consequences, and Society's Responses",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. John P. Tiefenbacher",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83962-630-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-629-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-631-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",middleName:null,surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. Tiefenbacher"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"192574",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramesh",middleName:"Prasad",surname:"Bhatt",fullName:"Ramesh Bhatt",slug:"ramesh-bhatt",email:"drrameshbhatta@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192574/images/5909_n.jpg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Material and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Study area",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. Impacts and implications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.1 Ecosystem and biodiversity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.2 Infrastructures and development",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.3 Hydropower development",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.4 Roads and transportation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.5 Climate change and its consequences",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Mitigation of environmental risks and climate change adaptation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.1 Policy and legal instruments",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.2 Mitigation strategy and adaptation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nRevi, A., D.E. Satterthwaite, F. Aragón-Durand, J. Corfee-Morlot, R.B.R. Kiunsi, M. Pelling, D.C. Roberts, andW. Solecki:. Urban areas. In: Climate Change\n2014\n: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A:Global and Sectoral Aspects. 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In: "Renewable Hydropower Technologies". s.l. : INTEC, 2017, pp. Chapter 5-pp75-98.\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\n\nThe role of hydropower in climate change mitigation and adaptation: a review. Berga, L. 3, 2016, Engineering, Vol. 2, pp. 313-318.\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nNPC. 14th Three Year Plan (2016/2017-2018/2019) . Approach Paper, National Planning Commission. . 2016.\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\n\nSouth\nAsia\n, Fast Growing Regions _2016-17. UNESCAP. UN Web Site. Retrieved 12 01, 2016, from : s.n., 2016. UN web Site, Retrieved 12 01, 2016, from http://www.unescap.org/announcement/south-asia-expected-world.\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nWB. South Asia Economic Focus: A Review of Economic Developments in South Asian Countries- Creating Fiscal Space through Revenue Mobilization. Washington, D.C : The World Bank, 2012.\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nWEF. The Global Competitiveness Report. Geneva : World Economic Forum., 2016.\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nNPC. Annual Development Programs. Kathmandu : National Planning Commission , 2016.\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nADB. Economics of Climate Change in East Asia Michael Westphal Gordon Hughes Jörn Brömmelhörster (Editors). Philipppins : Asian Development Bank, 2013.\n'},{id:"B60",body:'\n\nGlobal Climate Indix 2020. David Eckstein, Vera Künzel, Laura Schäfer, Maik Winges. Office Bonn : s.n., 2018. Germanwatch e.V.\n'},{id:"B61",body:'\nGoN/DoHM. Observed Climate Trend Analysis of Nepal (1971-2014)" . Kathmandu : Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, 2017.\n'},{id:"B62",body:'\n\nKarki, Ramchandra; Hasson, Shabeh ul; SchickhofRising Precipitation Extremes across Nepal. Karki, Ramchandra, et al. 2017, Climate, p. 5 (1): 4. doi:10.3390/cli5010004.\n'},{id:"B63",body:'\nGoN/MoFE. Nepal\'s National Adaptation Plan (NAP) Process: Reflecting on Lesson Learned and The Way Forward. Kathmandu : Ministry of Forests and Environment, Government of Nepal, 2018.\n'},{id:"B64",body:'\nIPBES. Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. s.l. : IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany. 56 pages, 2019.\n'},{id:"B65",body:'\n\nA Summary of Climate Change Effects on Watershed Hydrology. Pike, R.G., D.L. Spittlehouse, K.E. Bennett, V.N. Egginton, P.J. Tschaplinski, T.Q. Murdock and A.T. Werner. 2008, B.C. Min. For. Range, Res. Br., Victoria, B.C. Exten. Note 87, pp. 3-4.\n'},{id:"B66",body:'\nPitelka, Jay R. Malcolm and Louis F. Ecosystems and Global Climate Change: A review of potential Impacts on U.S. Terrestrial Ecosystems and Biodiversity . s.l. : Arlington, VA : Pew Center on Global Climate Change, pp 34, 2000.\n'},{id:"B67",body:'\nMoPE. Initial National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. s.l. : Ministry of Population and Environment, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, 2004.\n'},{id:"B68",body:'\nWB. Vulnerability, Risk Reduction, and Adaptation to Climate Change Nepal. NW Washington, DC : The World Bank Group, 2011.\n'},{id:"B69",body:'\nAgrawala, S., et al. Development and climate change in Nepal: Focus on water resources and hydropower. s.l. : Environment directorate, Development Co-operation, Directorate, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development., 2003.\n'},{id:"B70",body:'\nMoSTE. Second National Communication Report to UNFCC. Kathmandu : Ministry of Science Techenology and Environment, 2014.\n'},{id:"B71",body:'\n\nA framework to diagnose barriers to climate change adaptation. Moser SC, Ekstrom JA. s.l. : PNAS. http://www.pnas.org/content/107/51/22026., 2010, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010 Dec 21;107(51):22026-31.\n'},{id:"B72",body:'\nWB. Turn down the heat: why a 4oC warmer world must be avoided. s.l. : Washington DC: World Bank, 2012a.\n'},{id:"B73",body:'\nNPC. The Seventh Plan (\n1985-1990\n) . Kathmandu, Nepal : National Planning Commission , 1985.\n'},{id:"B74",body:'\n—. The Eighth Plan (\n1992-1997\n). Nepal : National Planning Commission. Kathmandu,, 1993.\n'},{id:"B75",body:'\nGoN. National Environmental Assessment Guidelines. . s.l. : Nepal Gazette (Rajpatra), 3(5). Kathmandu, Nepal, 1993.\n'},{id:"B76",body:'\nGoN/MoLJPA. Environmental Protection Act 1997 and Environmental Protection Regulation 1997: . s.l. : Ministry of Law, Justice, and Parliamentary Affairs. Law Books Management Board. Kathmandu, Nepal., 1997.\n'},{id:"B77",body:'\n\nEnvironmental impact assessment system and process: A study on policy and legal instruments in Nepal. Bhatt, Ramesh Prasad and Khanal SN. 2010, African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, Vols. 4, 9, pp. 586-594.\n'},{id:"B78",body:'\n\n“A Large and Persistent Carbon Sink in the World’S Forests”. Pan, Y., R.A. Birdsey, J. Fang, R. Houghton, P.E. Kauppi, W.A. Kurz, O.L. Phillips, B. R. Scheffers, et al. 2011, Science Express, 333: 988-993.\n'},{id:"B79",body:'\nUNFCC. "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)". World Health Organization (WHO). 22 22 October 2020.\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ramesh Prasad Bhatt",address:"drrameshbhatta@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
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In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
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Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
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Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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Water is needed in farms to grow crops, firms and manufacturing industry to produce products and services. This chapter examines water resources availability and management in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in climate change perspective using vector auto-regression (VAR) time series analysis. Water is known to be unevenly distributed among countries and continents around the world, particularly in Sub-Sahara Africa; the water availability varies between member countries and regions in the individual country, water supply systems experience enormous pressure to make water accessible to people in both rural and urban communities. Water security remains to be an integral part of the SSA’s effort to achieve food security and supply, halve poverty and eradicate hunger. 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It is noted that the agricultural production in SSA have not improved over time and in fact, it has further decreased due to the move away from rural areas by many farmers.",book:{id:"6184",slug:"applications-in-water-systems-management-and-modeling",title:"Applications in Water Systems Management and Modeling",fullTitle:"Applications in Water Systems Management and Modeling"},signatures:"Omar Moalin Hassan and Gurudeo Anand Tularam",authors:[{id:"148090",title:"Dr.",name:"Gurudeo",middleName:null,surname:"Tularam",slug:"gurudeo-tularam",fullName:"Gurudeo Tularam"},{id:"208956",title:"Mr.",name:"Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Moalin Hassan",slug:"omar-moalin-hassan",fullName:"Omar Moalin Hassan"}]},{id:"60177",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74914",title:"Application of a Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Model for Inland Surface Water Systems",slug:"application-of-a-hydrodynamic-and-water-quality-model-for-inland-surface-water-systems",totalDownloads:1731,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This chapter introduces basic concepts, properties, and principles of different processes in inland surface water and analytical methodologies. The fundamentals of surface water hydrodynamics, including water properties, hydrodynamic processes, Cartesian coordinate-based governing equations, and boundary and initial conditions were reviewed. The fate and transport of contaminants in surface water were introduced. Based on aforementioned theory and principles, two hydrodynamic-water quality models were developed for studying a lake and a river, respectively. A stratified 3D model was used to investigate the circulation and E. coli transport in the nearshore region of Lake Michigan. The modeling results show that stratified phenomenon exists in the near region, and a 3D model is necessary even though a previous 2D model works well for the shallow water environment. A 2D depth-averaged water quality model was developed to estimate the fate and transport of four contaminants in the San Joaquin River of California. The modeling results indicate that it took 20 days for these contaminants to transport from the upstream to the downstream in the research domain. These models can be effectively used for inland surface water restoration and management.",book:{id:"6184",slug:"applications-in-water-systems-management-and-modeling",title:"Applications in Water Systems Management and Modeling",fullTitle:"Applications in Water Systems Management and Modeling"},signatures:"Lubo Liu",authors:[{id:"169118",title:"Dr.",name:"Lubo",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"lubo-liu",fullName:"Lubo Liu"}]},{id:"59309",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73274",title:"Assessing the Hydrodynamic Pattern in Different Lakes of Malaysia",slug:"assessing-the-hydrodynamic-pattern-in-different-lakes-of-malaysia",totalDownloads:940,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Hydrodynamic simulations using three-dimensional numerical model were carried out in three different shallow tropical lakes to understand the characteristics of water movement in the respective water bodies. The models were based on meteorological data from the nearest stations and calibrated with current measurement, temperature, or water-level data. The results show good agreement between measured and simulated velocities and/or temperature at certain depth. This study found that the major driving forces of the hydrodynamic pattern were different in the three lakes. Hydrodynamic simulations showed that Bukit Merah and Durian Tunggal reservoirs were more sensitive to wind-driven motion. Floodplain lakes, such as Bera Lake, are more sensitive to flood inflow by the main river during the monsoon season. Convective motion driven by water temperature gradient was important for Bukit Merah and Bera Lake.",book:{id:"6184",slug:"applications-in-water-systems-management-and-modeling",title:"Applications in Water Systems Management and Modeling",fullTitle:"Applications in Water Systems Management and Modeling"},signatures:"Zati Sharip, Shahirwan Aman Shah, Aminuddin Jamin and Juhaimi\nJusoh",authors:[{id:"186369",title:"Dr.",name:"Zati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharip",slug:"zati-sharip",fullName:"Zati Sharip"},{id:"220302",title:"Mr.",name:"Shahirwan",middleName:null,surname:"Aman Shah",slug:"shahirwan-aman-shah",fullName:"Shahirwan Aman Shah"},{id:"220303",title:"Mr.",name:"Aminuddin",middleName:null,surname:"Jamin",slug:"aminuddin-jamin",fullName:"Aminuddin Jamin"},{id:"220304",title:"Mr.",name:"Juhaimi",middleName:null,surname:"Jusoh",slug:"juhaimi-jusoh",fullName:"Juhaimi Jusoh"}]},{id:"71359",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90652",title:"Effects of Climate Change on Water Resources, Indices, and Related Activities in Colombia",slug:"effects-of-climate-change-on-water-resources-indices-and-related-activities-in-colombia",totalDownloads:713,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"In Colombia, a country with great climatic diversity, the water balance is affected in one way or another by climate change depending on the region. Thus, there may be increases and decreases in precipitation and, in all cases, a huge increase in temperature. This document presents some studies carried out in different areas of the country regarding the effects of climate change on water resources, including its influence on hydroelectric power generation, some changes in the water balance in arid areas, and the opportunity to ensemble climate change scenarios. Likewise, it outlines a possible future water supply-demand relationship, where supply is associated with a change in the water balance and demand with some crops, activities, and sectors that need water to survive. This allows to estimate some future status indices to see the overall picture of climate change in connection with the country’s water resources.",book:{id:"8098",slug:"resources-of-water",title:"Resources of Water",fullTitle:"Resources of Water"},signatures:"Nathaly Güiza-Villa, Carlos Gay-García and Jesús Efren Ospina-Noreña",authors:[{id:"311362",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jesús Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Ospina-Noreña",slug:"jesus-efren-ospina-norena",fullName:"Jesús Efren Ospina-Noreña"},{id:"311363",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gay-García",slug:"carlos-gay-garcia",fullName:"Carlos Gay-García"},{id:"311364",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Nathaly",middleName:null,surname:"Güiza-Villa",slug:"nathaly-guiza-villa",fullName:"Nathaly Güiza-Villa"}]},{id:"65487",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82825",title:"Sustainable and Resilient Water and Energy Futures: From New Ethics and Choices to Urban Nexus Strategies",slug:"sustainable-and-resilient-water-and-energy-futures-from-new-ethics-and-choices-to-urban-nexus-strate",totalDownloads:1380,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"A safe, secure and affordable water future—for life, health, economy—are foundational outcomes from a new form of ethics for water stewardship and energy management. Current business as usual in water and energy systems have not led to sustainable, healthy nor resilient pathways for urban and rural communities alike. Today, an estimated 400 million people live in cities with significant water shortages. This is while 25% of water is currently lost before even used in urban areas (up to 60% in some cities) due to aging infrastructure. In addition, on average, only 10% of wastewater is treated before returning to water bodies in developing countries. By 2040, more than 66% of the world’s populations could suffer from severe water shortages; and by 2050, an 80% increase in urban water demand (over current levels) may result in one billion city dwellers and 36% (one in three) of cities expected to face water crises. A crisis is often a catalyst for innovation and this chapter is a call to cities to enable strategic responses—moving away from legacy ‘siloed’ infrastructures, over-allocated water resources and emerging ethical dilemmas to integrated water- and energy-related urban nexus strategies.",book:{id:"6886",slug:"water-and-sustainability",title:"Water and Sustainability",fullTitle:"Water and Sustainability"},signatures:"Josh Sperling and Will Sarni",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58856",title:"The Effects of Climate Change on Rural-Urban Migration in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)—The Cases of Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya and Niger",slug:"the-effects-of-climate-change-on-rural-urban-migration-in-sub-saharan-africa-ssa-the-cases-of-democr",totalDownloads:1867,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Water is essential for the existence of living organisms including humans. Water is needed in farms to grow crops, firms and manufacturing industry to produce products and services. This chapter examines water resources availability and management in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in climate change perspective using vector auto-regression (VAR) time series analysis. Water is known to be unevenly distributed among countries and continents around the world, particularly in Sub-Sahara Africa; the water availability varies between member countries and regions in the individual country, water supply systems experience enormous pressure to make water accessible to people in both rural and urban communities. Water security remains to be an integral part of the SSA’s effort to achieve food security and supply, halve poverty and eradicate hunger. 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It is noted that the agricultural production in SSA have not improved over time and in fact, it has further decreased due to the move away from rural areas by many farmers.",book:{id:"6184",slug:"applications-in-water-systems-management-and-modeling",title:"Applications in Water Systems Management and Modeling",fullTitle:"Applications in Water Systems Management and Modeling"},signatures:"Omar Moalin Hassan and Gurudeo Anand Tularam",authors:[{id:"148090",title:"Dr.",name:"Gurudeo",middleName:null,surname:"Tularam",slug:"gurudeo-tularam",fullName:"Gurudeo Tularam"},{id:"208956",title:"Mr.",name:"Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Moalin Hassan",slug:"omar-moalin-hassan",fullName:"Omar Moalin Hassan"}]},{id:"73528",title:"Characteristics and Assessment of Groundwater",slug:"characteristics-and-assessment-of-groundwater",totalDownloads:785,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Groundwater system is very vital to humanity and the ecosystem. Aquifers are determined based on the absence or presence of water table positioning, that is, confined, unconfined, leaky aquifers and fractured aquifers. The objective of this chapter is to discuss the characteristic and assessment of groundwater within the scope of vertical distribution of GW, types of the aquifer system, types of SW-GW interface, and SW-GW interaction at both local and regional scales. The properties of the aquifer depend on the physical characteristics of the materials (porosity, permeability, specific yield, specific storage, and hydraulic conductivities) which are determined by techniques like resistivity surveys and pumping tests followed by remote sensing and geographic information system for better information on the groundwater system. Furthermore, understanding the SW-GW interactions through available methods (seepage meter, heat tracer, and environmental tracer) is useful in watershed management, that is, risk management and assessment of the aquifer system.",book:{id:"9981",slug:"groundwater-management-and-resources",title:"Groundwater Management and Resources",fullTitle:"Groundwater Management and Resources"},signatures:"Naseem Akhtar, Muhammad Izzuddin Syakir, Mohd Talha Anees, Abdul Qadir and Mohamad Shaiful Yusuff",authors:[{id:"201647",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohd Talha",middleName:null,surname:"Anees",slug:"mohd-talha-anees",fullName:"Mohd Talha Anees"},{id:"203218",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Izzuddin",middleName:null,surname:"Syakir Ishak",slug:"muhammad-izzuddin-syakir-ishak",fullName:"Muhammad Izzuddin Syakir Ishak"},{id:"324417",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Naseem",middleName:null,surname:"Akhtar",slug:"naseem-akhtar",fullName:"Naseem Akhtar"},{id:"328134",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammad Shaiful",middleName:null,surname:"Yusuff",slug:"mohammad-shaiful-yusuff",fullName:"Mohammad Shaiful Yusuff"},{id:"328135",title:"Mr.",name:"Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Qadir",slug:"abdul-qadir",fullName:"Abdul Qadir"}]},{id:"73757",title:"Groundwater Recharges Technology for Water Resource Management: A Case Study",slug:"groundwater-recharges-technology-for-water-resource-management-a-case-study",totalDownloads:574,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The irregularity in monsoon has severely affected the water availability at surface and sub-surface systems. Diminishing surface and sub-surface availability has not only decreased the water availability, but it additionally affected the ecosystem and increased disastrous situations like floods and droughts, resulting problems of stress on groundwater recharge. Groundwater recharge is a technique by which infiltrated water passes through the unsaturated region of groundwater and joins the water table. It is based upon soil type, land use land cover, geomorphology, geophysical and climate (viz. rainfall, temperature, humidity etc.) characteristics of a region. Over the years, due to variations in weather pattern and overexploitation of aquifers groundwater recharge has decreased and groundwater level has reduced in the most parts of the country. This has led to severe water deficit problems in several parts of the country. This can be solved by different direct and indirect methods of groundwater recharge technology. This technology can reduce the wastage of water and enhance groundwater availability for uses in different sector like irrigation, domestic and industrial uses.",book:{id:"9981",slug:"groundwater-management-and-resources",title:"Groundwater Management and Resources",fullTitle:"Groundwater Management and Resources"},signatures:"Jatoth Veeranna and Pawan Jeet",authors:[{id:"325776",title:"Dr.",name:"Pawan",middleName:null,surname:"Jeet",slug:"pawan-jeet",fullName:"Pawan Jeet"},{id:"328200",title:"Mr.",name:"Jatoth",middleName:null,surname:"Veeranna",slug:"jatoth-veeranna",fullName:"Jatoth Veeranna"}]},{id:"62709",title:"Sustainability of Irrigation in Uzbekistan: Implications for Women Farmers",slug:"sustainability-of-irrigation-in-uzbekistan-implications-for-women-farmers",totalDownloads:1039,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter focuses on a discussion of how global efforts to align local irrigation management with the good governance principles affect the lives of the rural poor, specifically women. Drawing in empirical data collected in post-soviet Uzbekistan, I illuminate unexpected effects of an apparently well-intended irrigation project on those categories of farmers whose connections to state apparatus of agricultural commerce of cotton were weak. Using fieldwork data from a village largely affected by desiccation of Aral Sea, I describe the everyday struggles by these people, who are mostly women, engage to make their living and provide subsistence to their families in situation of economic trauma, environmental disaster, and massive outmigration of male population. This analysis puts forward the local voices of real people whose lives are being restructured by sustainability oriented actions. Such perspective is often missed in scholarly and professional literature. These findings are hoped to assist policy developers in formulating irrigation programs in ways that would embrace sustainability both in terms of environmental and social justice.",book:{id:"6886",slug:"water-and-sustainability",title:"Water and Sustainability",fullTitle:"Water and Sustainability"},signatures:"Elena Kim",authors:null},{id:"71359",title:"Effects of Climate Change on Water Resources, Indices, and Related Activities in Colombia",slug:"effects-of-climate-change-on-water-resources-indices-and-related-activities-in-colombia",totalDownloads:713,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"In Colombia, a country with great climatic diversity, the water balance is affected in one way or another by climate change depending on the region. Thus, there may be increases and decreases in precipitation and, in all cases, a huge increase in temperature. This document presents some studies carried out in different areas of the country regarding the effects of climate change on water resources, including its influence on hydroelectric power generation, some changes in the water balance in arid areas, and the opportunity to ensemble climate change scenarios. Likewise, it outlines a possible future water supply-demand relationship, where supply is associated with a change in the water balance and demand with some crops, activities, and sectors that need water to survive. This allows to estimate some future status indices to see the overall picture of climate change in connection with the country’s water resources.",book:{id:"8098",slug:"resources-of-water",title:"Resources of Water",fullTitle:"Resources of Water"},signatures:"Nathaly Güiza-Villa, Carlos Gay-García and Jesús Efren Ospina-Noreña",authors:[{id:"311362",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jesús Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Ospina-Noreña",slug:"jesus-efren-ospina-norena",fullName:"Jesús Efren Ospina-Noreña"},{id:"311363",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gay-García",slug:"carlos-gay-garcia",fullName:"Carlos Gay-García"},{id:"311364",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Nathaly",middleName:null,surname:"Güiza-Villa",slug:"nathaly-guiza-villa",fullName:"Nathaly Güiza-Villa"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"872",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. 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