\r\n\tGlobalization does not represent a pure and generous process for humanity or other species, but rather it implies social exclusion and also provokes situations of vulnerability in groups of people, forced exclusion, and apartheid: poor job opportunities, lack of access to education, worse socio-sanitary conditions. Specifically, it can be said that social segregation entails the apartheid of social groups of different ages, genders, and ethnicities; these groups live a reality manifested through the deepening of poverty, in terms of increased vulnerability of the poor and groups with little economic, social, cultural, labor and health stability.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to talk about some topics that are neglected in the discourses of academic communities and political elites. The inequality process is deeply rooted among humans and is part of many people's lives in the form of modern apartheid, gender segregation, lack of health access, and cultural gap. All those structural inequality processes are the product of the biopower perpetuated and produced in the macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem. For many people from the academy, the information-consuming public, and the society in general, it is a problem to talk about these processes, since they have either lost interest or have normalized the structural and social inequity. For this reason, we see it as transcendental to explain how this situation occurs from the most internal fibers to the most evident processes, intending to make it more visible and thus expose the situation for possible solutions.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-406-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-405-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-407-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"cefab077e403fd1695fb2946e7914942",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11473.jpg",keywords:"Wage Gap, Gender Segregation, Fundamental Human Rights, Health Access, Social Inequity Processes, Modern Apartheid, Resilience, Cultural Gaps, Globalization, Geopolitics of Social Inequality, Public Policies, Social Vulnerability",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 29th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Bykbaev is a member of the UNESCO Chair of Politecnica Salesiana University. 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Accounting was recognized as a phenomenon that operated in contexts that forms, functioning, and consequences were interdependent with; now, it is recognized as a practice whose outcomes are mediated by the human and social contexts in which it operates [1]. It deals with the attitude and behavior of people when they are encountered with an accounting phenomenon which determines the behavior that they will show in decision‐making [2].
\nThe definition of
Behavioral accounting attempts to correct and enrich traditional approaches to accounting theory where preparer and user perceptions, attitudes, values, and behaviors are underemphasized [4]. Belkaoui defines it as “the application of behavioral science to accounting, with its basic objective being the explanation and prediction of human behavior in all possible accounting contexts” (p. 438).
\n“Not only does accounting summarize huge quantities of behavioral interactions, accounting measurements can become the object of behavior. Accountants account for behavior and accounting measurements can be the objective of behavior and so long as accountants make assumptions about human behavior in accounting, accountants should reexamine their behavioral assumptions be a greater understanding of and involvement in the behavioral sciences” [3] (p. 136).
\nBehavioral aspect of accounting is that segment of accounting which attends to develop an understanding of both cognitive (perceived) and affective (emotional) elements of human behavior that influence the decision‐making process in all accounting contexts and settings. This special area of accounting addresses such aspects as human information‐processing behavior, judgment quality, accounting problems that are created by users and providers of accounting information, and accounting information users’ and producers’ decision‐making skills [5]. It was assumed that the decision‐maker behaved basically as a profit maximizer in handling accounting problems; but today it is accepted that the individual exhibits psychological behavior also in accounting [6].
\nA well‐known definition of behavioral accounting research appeared in Ref. [7] (p. 43) and was used in several studies such as in Refs. [8] and [9]: “The study of behavior of accountants or the behavior of non‐accountants as they are influenced by accounting functions and reports.” Behavioral accounting research contains the judgment of accountants and auditors, the influence of the accounting function and auditing function on behavior, and the influence of accounting information on judgment and decision‐making of users [9].
\nBehavioral research tries to find out how individuals make decisions and interact and influence other individuals, organizations, markets, and society. Behavioral researchers who primarily study human actions in a variety of settings are behavioral economists and accountants, two groups of interest for this attempt. Laboratory experimentation, examination of naturally occurring (archival) data, verbal protocols, and theoretical models are from the methodologies employed [10].
\nThe scope of behavioral accounting research has been heard from 1960s, the academic community began to examine the implications that accounting statements and information had upon decision‐makers [8]. By the end of 1960s, interest in investigating the behavioral influences that accounting information on individuals and organizations grew rapidly and caused an increase in the number of published studies. In 1970s, the quality of the research was better and recognition of the behavior paradigm by the profession increased significantly [11]. In 1960s, the focus was on managerial accounting which was dealt with the accounting function on behavior; in 1970s, the focus on managerial accounting remained, but the emphasis changed to information processing by decision‐makers [9]. Researchers examined judgment and decision‐making and the research mainly focused on the auditors, their judgment, and the use of information. User characteristics, decision models, alternatives for communicating accounting information to users, and accounting policy‐makers’ behavior are also examined [12]. By the 1980s, the research was regarding all subject areas of accounting [9]. By 1997, a number of faculties taught and conducted research in behavioral paradigm, and identified their interest with the area of research application [11].
\nBehavioral accounting concept is examined in terms of the influence of accounting information on behavior, managerial control, auditing, and ethics in this chapter.
\n“Accounting systems are often the most important formal sources of information in industrial organizations. They are designed to provide all levels of management with timely and reasonably accurate information to help them make decisions which
According to Macharzina [6] (p. 5) “the process of influencing behavior through accounting information is conceived of as an interaction process, in the course of which an individual (accountant) attempts influence the behavior of one or more other individuals (focal persons) with the aid of appropriate reported information in order, as far as possible, to realize the reporter’s or management’s behavioral expectation.”
\nBehavioral issues mainly appear through the communication process, not through the more traditional accounting issues such as data‐processing methods. One of the domains of behavioral accounting research is the behavior of the recipient of accounting information and how variations in the information influence the behavior, because accounting communications are designed as the basis for behavior [7].
\nAccounting information influences decision‐making mainly [15]. There are three decision‐makers that decide by using accounting information:
\nDecision‐makers who decide concerning both activities and accounting system that prepares financial reports of the firm. This group is top management who is responsible for the preparation and presentation of financial reports and also any change in accounting system.
Decision‐makers who decide concerning activities, but do not decide concerning preparation of financial reports. They cannot change the content of accounting information, but use it about the decisions of other activities; the result of their decisions may influence accounting system indirectly.
People who are outside of the firm and influence the environment and activities of the firm, but who do not have direct control on the activities and works of the firm.
The behavioral research in this area examined information systems’ structure, the influence of individual behavioral characteristics on the information usage and process, and the relationship between characteristics of decision task and information systems, in 1970s and 1980s [12].
\nAccounting information can be classified into two categories as financial information and nonfinancial information. Financial information is quantitative in nature, while nonfinancial information includes both quantitative and qualitative information. According to the managers’ backgrounds and the nature of the decisions and problems they are facing, different types of accounting information are used in decision‐making processes. Managers may also use financial and nonfinancial information simultaneously [16]. Financial information plays a key role in structural decision problems such as the evaluation of organizational performance, whereas nonfinancial information is considered to be more useful for unstructured decision problems like the identification of new business opportunities.
\nAccounting information can carry out two roles within decision‐making: As decision‐facilitating information and decision‐influencing information [17]. Decision‐facilitating information reduces decision‐makers’ pre‐decision uncertainty and, thereby, enhance the probability to making better decisions with respect to the desired objectives. So, it is a direct input in decision‐making and is supposed to improve the knowledge and anticipation to make decisions. Decision‐influencing information, whose function is important only in multi‐person contexts, affects (other) persons’ behavior and influences managerial decision‐making in the management context. Decision‐influencing information enfolds its effects via behavior observation, performance measurement, and evaluation and rewarding or penalizing performance.
\nTwo distinctive styles of information usage, namely diagnostic and interactive, are identified by prior studies [16]. A diagnostic use of the accounting information emphasizes the use of this for “diagnosis,” for example, the observation of deviations of organizational processes from a preset norm which reflects a management style that relies on standard setting, measuring, comparing, and taking corrective actions, and which emphasizes monitoring, top‐down control, and the pursuit of efficiency [18]. Interactive use of the accounting information emphasizes its role to engage in “interaction” with organizational participants which reflects a management style in which higher level managers involve themselves regularly and personally in the decision activities of subordinates. Managers should be experienced or trained in the use of nonfinancial accounting information in an interactive and participative style. Managers should be experienced in the typical “administrative” ways of dealing with the accounting information if they implement cost‐reduction policies control.
\nManagers with a dominant administrative background tend to use accounting information more diagnostically than interactively, and seem to emphasize performance evaluation and prefer to use financial information for decision‐making process [18]. By contrast, managers who adopt an interactive style of information usage tend to use nonfinancial information more than financial information in decision‐making. Managers who have a balanced background may be most effective to resist pressures toward both cost reduction and quality enhancement. Different styles of information usage have direct implications on the behavior of managers. Senior managers who adopt a diagnostic style of information usage pay attention toward the achievement of planned outcomes [16]. They direct less attention to the tools adopted by lower level managers for achieving the outcomes. Most discussions on organizational outcomes are in formal reviews form and are conducted at the end of set operating periods. Within operating periods, exchanges of accounting information are limited. Continuous exchanges of information occur between organizational members when an interactive style of information usage is adopted by managers. Discussions on organizational outcomes tend to be less formal and can be held at any time.
\nThe suitability of the styles of information usage to managers changes according to the types of decision problems they face; a diagnostic style of information usage is suitable for addressing routine, structural decision problems like organizational performance evaluation and the determination of rewards of the subordinates whereas an interactive style of information usage is more suitable for addressing unstructured decision problems [16].
\nAccounting information users’ personal characteristics and their influence on decision‐making should be well known by accounting information preparers and presenters [15]. Users’ cognitive process and perceptions will influence the usage and interpretation of accounting information; it is supposed that decisions are influenced by prejudice of perceptions of decision‐makers. Trust on decisions and information demand significantly link with the tolerance of uncertainty.
\nBehavior of accounting information producers depends on four major factors of quality of financial information [5]:
\nRelevance: It means that accounting information should be relevant to decision‐making.
Faithful representation: Information should be complete, confirmable, and neutral.
Comparability: It should enable that similarities in and differences between two sets of economic phenomena would be identified by the users.
Understandability: It means that users with reasonable knowledge of business and economic activities or financial accounting should be able to realize the meaning of the information.
Many forms of empirical research have been taken and many topics analyzed over the years in management accounting research such as to what extent managers probably succeed with their management accounting and control systems in various settings [19]. The behavioral research in this area analyzed the impact of budgetary control on individual performance and how people affect budgets by analyzing individual differences, motivation, and risk aversion and helped us to understand the variability and complexity of people about work and performance. Since 1970s and 1980s, the objective of management accounting seemed to encourage and assist managers in making desirable decisions in organizations and motivating others to perform the results of the decisions [12]. The benefit of behavioral accounting research may be more probable to be seen in the managerial area than in any other aspect of accounting due to the direct and observable relationships between management accounting and behavior in organizations.
\nA significant portion of BAR also focuses on noneconomic dimensions such as trusting behavior, cooperation, and the expectation of a fair share of any rewards that influence decision‐makers in directions at odds with the self‐interest and wealth‐maximizing assumptions These can lead to greater monetary returns to the decision‐maker in certain settings, but they also can expose the decision‐maker to greater risk. Other characteristics of the work environment including the national culture can also influence the expectations and behavior of the decision‐maker [20].
\nBudgets and standards direct people to a certain target and motivate them and also create a criterion for performance evaluation. The extent to which budgets and standards have an influence on behavior depends on the difficulty level of budget targets and if these targets are prepared by the participation of decision‐makers. Objectives, budgets, and standards affect human behavior, and the degree of this influence depends on the accessibility of the objectives [15].
\nOne of the reasons that superiors decide to rely heavily on budget targets to evaluate their subordinates is the positive outcome which means that employee job satisfaction and performance are improved when a high budget emphasis evaluative style is accompanied by a high budgetary participation [21]. According to the prior studies, an evaluative style will probably be associated with favorable behavioral outcomes if it emphasizes the importance of budget targets used together with high budgetary participation. Brownell [22] referred that “superiors who exhibit a budget‐constrained style and place primary emphasis in their evaluation of subordinates on budget achievement, will provide appropriate reinforcement only for those individuals who are heavy involved and influential in the budget‐setting process” [21, 22]. This indicates that budgetary participation isn’t independent of an evaluative style which emphasizes meeting budget targets, but rather it is a consequence of this type of evaluative style [21]. Budgetary participation moderates the impact of supervisory evaluative style on performance; it has a positive effect on performance [22].
\nAnother reason that superiors decide to rely heavily on budget targets to evaluate their subordinates which is associated with high budgetary participation is based on the suggestion that it is fair [21]. If superiors choose a high emphasis on budget targets as an evaluation style, they will also choose high budgetary participation because of a forceful need. In this evaluative style, the level of budget targets is important to the subordinates because their performance will be assessed against these targets which may have important effects on the interest of subordinates; so it is only fair that they have a role in determining the levels of realistic and attainable budget targets. Generally, superiors care about to be seen as being fair among their subordinates; therefore, superiors who adopt an evaluative style that has a high emphasis on budget targets will decide to allow their subordinates high budgetary participation to be perceived as fairer.
\nThe main purpose of subordinates’ participation in the budgeting process, in superior’s side, is to gain information from the subordinate that is useful to plan and coordinate production, reduce uncertainty, and thereby increase profitability [23]. Budgetary slack is “the result of employees misrepresenting their productive capabilities while participating in their budget setting process” [24]. This could result in overstatement of costs and understatement of revenues and profits and could be harmful for the financial well‐being of the organization.
\nPerformance evaluation is important to employees as their evaluations may be closely linked to their wages and promotions, so they are likely to be concerned with the fairness of the performance measures used [25]. Organizations are facing deep pressure to remain competitive and therefore adapt customer‐driven strategies aimed at ensuring high levels of quality and innovation. So organizations expect from employees to perform and show success in possibly many diverse and complex roles. Nonfinancial performance measures such as defect rate, customer satisfaction rate, and number of new products launched may be suited to such contemporary situations as they are not linked to the annual reporting circles and need not be expressed in monetary terms. They may measure progressions in product quality and innovation necessary to maintain and improve customer satisfaction and retention.
\nNonfinancial measures that are able to capture the long‐term performance of employees’ actions are suggested to be used in performance evaluations as they are more flexible, comprehensive, and therefore easier for the employees to associate with; by using them, employees may more likely to realize a long‐term perspective of the position in the organization [26].
\nEmployees are measured on the quality of their work, the initiatives they undertake, and in areas in which they have control and they are therefore likely to perceive the use of nonfinancial measures as a fair evaluation of their performance [25]. So, the use of nonfinancial performance measures is likely to be positively related to employee role clarity as it is a means of providing the necessary information to express the role of employees so that they are aware of what is expected of them.
\nNonfinancial measures can be seen as a communication tool; the adoption of them as performance evaluation criteria will promote trust within the superior‐subordinate relationship [25]. Procedural fairness perceptions are influenced by the trust in superior‐subordinate relationships; subordinates are likely to believe that their supervisor will appraise their performance fairly, so the trust the employees have for their supervisors will likely be translated into faith in the performance evaluation system. However, if trust is not established between them, this would cause subordinates to suspect that their superiors may be deceptive and selfish and may lead to a perception that the performance evaluation procedures are unfair.
\nLeadership, as a social influence process, only really works when people have faith that the manager is directing them toward a worthwhile goal and allow themselves to be led to achieve an organizational goal, which can be summed up in the concept of trust [27]. “Leadership involves activating and engaging the head, heart, hands, and spirit of employees for a purpose that is greater than the individual manager or any one employee that means developing behaviors that favorably impact tasks, build relationships, and bring about transformations” (p. 174).
\nIn transactional leadership, managers create and maintain high‐quality interactions with employees to meet the organizational goals by using rewards, power, and authorization. Transactional leadership isn’t sufficient to engage and motivate most employees in the long term. Transformational leadership is about motivation of the employees by orienting them to a greater organizational goal beyond any individual short‐term goals by creating a tough vision, enabling them to turn the vision into a personal reality, and empowering them to maintain the transformation. Transformational leadership can encourage the growth of a learning organization. An integrated approach is required for an effective management; managers will always make sure that employees receive rewards and recognitions in a transactional meaning, but leadership also requires the skill to provide employees looking beyond their current situation and focus on greater purpose.
\nSenior executives realize that organization’s measurement system affects the managers’ and employees’ behavior; in the 1990s, the traditional financial measure‐oriented performance evaluation system was challenged by managers and academic researchers [28, 29]. Kaplan and Norton [30] claimed that financial measures were inadequate for the evaluation of the nonfinancial aspects of management performance, and managers may stress short‐term financial goals rather than their organization’s long‐term interests in the case of exclusive use of financial measures in performance evaluations [29, 30]. They promoted using the balanced scorecard (BSC) to evaluate all aspects of managerial performance. A typical BSC has four measurement categories, including financial, customer, internal business process, and employee learning and growth perspectives; generally, the majority of the last three are made up of nonfinancial measures. Balanced scorecard uses both financial and nonfinancial measures with emphasizing nonfinancial measures; therefore, it is important for organizations to understand how the various performance measures can influence the behavior of employees by identifying the essential factors required for the success of performance evaluation systems [26].
\nIf the top management uses both financial and nonfinancial measures in their performance evaluations when they evaluate the performance of middle‐level managers, the middle‐level managers are more likely to use both financial and nonfinancial measures in their subordinates’ evaluation [29]. On the contrary, if the top management uses just financial measures and ignores nonfinancial measures in the evaluation of their middle‐level managers’ performance, their prejudice will spread to the next level of management via the contagion effect, who may put excessive emphasis on financial measures in performance evaluations as well (p. 104). As a result, top managers should use an evaluative style where all measures in the BSC are reflected in evaluating performance.
\nAccounting information users need reliable and sufficient information for decision‐making; it’s the duty of the business management to provide this information [31]. But there may be a possibility that the information isn’t reliable because of work load and sophistication in accounting transactions, distance of the users from business, and the tendency of the information providers. So the necessity arises to present audited financial statements to the users to decrease the risk of unreliable information. Some of the users may wish to invest, willing to loan money, or wish to merge; therefore, there must be a procedure to verify the accuracy of the company’s financial status [32]. The independent auditor’s task begins at this point.
\n“Auditing is an investigative and information‐processing activity, which evolved in response to the need for independently verified stewardship reports” [33] (p. 89). Audit activity includes financial report data examination followed by an audit opinion on the report mainly compliance audit, internal audit, and operational audit. Our main focus will be on independent auditor who is responsible to examine and report the financial statements.
\nThe auditor collects and evaluates relevant and reliable information, and applies professional judgment in choosing among alternatives also by consultation with other professionals who are knowledgeable in the area. The auditor should use critical‐thinking skills in the development of a solution or an opinion on the financial statements. Conducting a proper audit requires professional judgment. Relevant knowledge and experience application to the facts and circumstances are essential for interpreting the relevant ethical requirements and GAAS and the informal decisions required during the audit process [34].
\nIndependent auditors offer services to their clients and get payment from the clients for their services, but they may face conflicting loyalties because of the opposing interests between the public and clients; their main responsibility is to guarantee the interest of public [32]. “The auditor’s obligations are to certify that public reports depicting a corporation’s financial status fairly present its financial position and operations; shortly their fiduciary responsibility is to the public trust and “independence” from the client is fundamental in order for that trust to be honoured” (p. 118). The AICPA Code of Professional Conduct mentions two kinds of independence: Member who provides auditing and other attestation services should be independent in fact and appearance [32, 35].
\nFinancial statements are a product of auditor‐client negotiations that is an important link between the audit and the quality of financial statement [36]. Unaudited financial statements of the clients are the first move of starting of negotiations. The first move is a key factor of the other side’s actions and often estimates the first mover’s attitude during the negotiation process, where client’s signal becomes clear as negotiations progress. A client who refuses to post an adjustment proposed by the author may be viewed as being contentious or a client who willingly concedes on an issue after the initial proposal of an auditor may be viewed as concessionary by the author. These contentiousness and concession acts from both the auditor and client are viewed as tactics in a negotiation setting.
\nIt is found that the negotiations are often influenced by negotiators who use tactics [36]. Many research about the use of concessionary tactics found that both auditors and clients reciprocate to concessionary negotiation tactics, such as a first move concession of an unreasonable item made by client may result as auditors probably waive material adjustment or to influence clients to be more likely to record adjusting entries, auditors may use concessions during negotiations. Findings of researches about the usage of contentious tactics show that clients indicated that they would use contentious position during a negotiation with an auditor, whereas auditors will be less likely to waive adjustments as responding to a client who was contentious in the past.
\nAuditors are required to exercise professional skepticism when making judgments based on audit evidence without being influenced by clients [37, 38]. But there are some evidences that clients may influence auditor judgment through ingratiation which can influence the judgment of the target in many settings [37]. Prior research stated that affect toward the client can influence auditor judgment; as an example, inexperienced auditors who felt negative affect toward the client assess a higher risk of inventory obsolescence than who did not experience affect toward the client. When the auditor likes the client, his/her fraud‐risk assessments are lower than when he/she dislikes the client. Ingratiation is indicated as a successful influence tactic by many researches. When persuasiveness of ingratiation is examined, it can be said that sources with high incentive to influence the target have less influence on the target and are less persuasive than sources with low incentive. “When the client ingratiates, auditors are more likely to comply with the requests of clients with low incentive to influence the auditor than with requests of clients with high incentive. This result indicates that ingratiation magnifies the effect of client incentive on auditor judgment” (p. 70).
\nOne of the most important parts of auditing contains decision‐making and judgment which are the daily work role of auditors [33]. The ability to make judgments requires education, experience, and expertise, and a measure of auditor’s judgmental quality is the degree of accuracy of his/her decisions. One of the factors that impact the auditor’s decision‐making may be firm size which is found by some researches that accounting disclosure decisions differed between auditors employed at large‐size or small‐size firms. Another factor that impacts the decision‐making may be the auditor’s psychological make‐up such as tolerance to ambiguity which is closely linked to auditor decision‐making. The authors who are tolerant of ambiguity may decide quickly and have more confidence in their decisions.
\n“When people make decisions in situations which are ‘normatively ambiguous’ their decision processes and decisions are influenced by knowing whether or not they are going to be accountable to another and suggests that the known view of the person they will be accountable to will influence their decision” [39].
\nWhen the judgment performance of experienced auditors versus inexperienced auditors is concerned, experienced auditors will outperform inexperienced auditors because of their domain‐specific knowledge, if task and experience levels are properly matched [9].
\nA strong tone at the top that consists of the culture of control consciousness, integrity, and ethical values from upper level management affects ethical decision‐making of mid‐ and lower level employees [40]. In organizations, upper level management is critical to establishing an ethical tone, but it is seen that ethical decision‐making of the staff is also equally impacted by the ethical tones set by lower level supervisors. “The low ethical tone of supervisors at the top and/or bottom may cause entry level staff auditors to construe unethical situations as devoid of ethical implications, such that entry level staff auditors may act more unethically if either of their supervisors exhibit a low ethical tone” (p. 80). It is anticipated that entry‐level staff auditors will follow their senior’s tone rather than their partners tone as individuals will be more influenced by close in‐group members who are similar to them than by out‐group members who are dissimilar to them.
\n“Ethics is a philosophical discipline that aims to apply actions and rules in keeping with the concepts of right and wrong. This notion is widely related to legitimacy, which is defined as the quality of legal, justice or equity. The legal bases, whether ethical or moral, are the root of legitimacy which is based on authority” [41].
\nAccounting uses ethics to provide the appropriate behavior of accountants who must adopt certain ethical values and expected to be honest, modest, just, dignified, prudent, zealous, responsible, loyal, innovative, respectful, tolerant, and independent [41]. Accountants must become ethically involved when they are aware that their figures have an effect; they cannot absolve themselves of the responsibility of effecting behavior [7].
\nEthical decision‐making abilities and ethical behavior of accountants have been researched and found that the recognition of individual of his/her role as a moral agent is an important factor in ethical judgment and actions. “If a decision isn’t recognized as ethical in nature, moral schemata will not be used to address the issue; this ability to recognize the ethical nature of a decision is referred to as ethical sensitivity” [42].
\nSeveral cognitive‐based models of ethical decision‐making have been borrowed mainly from psychology and extended into business and accounting paradigms. The foundation of these models is that Rest’s (1986) four‐stage model is the basis of these models which specifies four distinct sequential processes that individuals must take to involve an ethical dimension in their decisions, and behaviors are described below [43, 44, 45]:
\n“Researchers have found that the other people that an individual encounters in a professional environment influence ethical behavior significantly irrespective whether their behavior is consistent with the individual’s ethics or not” [42]. The effect level may be influenced by the organizational distance between the parties and by their relative authority.
\nAccounting professionals’ perceptions of the ethical environment of their firm may be influenced by their own ethical orientation which is driven by two characteristics: idealism and relativism [42, 45]. Idealism reflects the extent to which individuals attribute to universal moral rules and believes that desirable consequences can be generated without violating moral guidelines; by contrast, relativism reflects the degree to which individuals view moral decisions as a function of the particular situation and rejects absolute moral rules to guide behavior.
\nA direct link between ethical orientation and moral judgments was not present every time according to many researches, but significant relationships are found between ethical orientation and personal feelings about decisions and individual characteristics [45]. Results of some researches indicate that, subsequent to a moral violation, individuals low in relativism feel much more negatively about themselves than individuals high in relativism. Also, highly idealistic individuals feel much more positive about themselves than individuals low in idealism subsequent to a moral violation resulting in positive consequences for others.
\nThe duty of the accountant within the firm is to portray the firm’s financial situation correctly and truthfully. But sometimes, there may be misstatements. Managers may use some rationalizations as a guide to justify suspect behavior and to warn against misrepresentation of financial statements [31]:
\nThe first rationalization for unethical behavior may be the belief that an activity is within reasonable ethical and legal limits; in other words, it is (may) not actually illegal or immoral (p. 140). If there is a hesitation to perform the activity, it means there may be doubts about its accuracy; in this situation, the best way may be not to do it.
The second to justify unethical behavior may be the belief that an activity is in the best interest of the individual or the company; in other words, to undertake the activity would somehow be expected from the individual (pp. 141–142). The accountant is expected to be loyal to the company and it may require doing things for the interest of the company that he/she would not do as an objective individual. Even he/she must be loyal to the firm first, objectivity and obligation to the public is required by accountant’s code of ethics.
The third rationalization for unethical behavior may be the belief that an activity is safe because it will never be discovered by anyone (p. 143). Doing this activity with that belief is a rationalization, but not a justification and the behavior is wrong.
The final reason to justify unethical behavior may be the belief that the company will condone the activity and even protect the person who attempts it because the activity helps the company (p. 144). This belief depends on the integrity of the leaders of the company; they excuse unethical activity, they will condone the loyalty of the accountant, but this lasts only if the unethical activity remains undiscovered. But being in a culture that expecting unethical behavior means that the integrity is in danger.
Accountants emphasize short‐run measures and may not pay attention to the behavioral consequences because they have been conditioned by their education and organizational experience; this is similar with the focus of top management [12]. Behavioral accounting research is dealt with improving long‐term performance. A major contribution on this point would be to include more variables such as human resource accounting in financial‐reporting practices and less emphasis on short‐run performance. The potential contributions of behavioral research in accounting will not be sufficiently realized until management attitudes change. Behavioral accountants should make great effort to prevail on their academic colleagues to realize the importance of the behavioral implications of accounting.
\nAccounting profession needs ethical professionals with ethical awareness and sensitivity and capable of considering various variables in decision‐making. Various fields in behavioral accounting would improve their perspective [46]. Accounting academicians should consider inclusion behavioral accounting courses in postgraduate curriculum to train potential accounting professionals having a broad perspective.
\nEven Hugo Schiff might not know while publishing his research findings as a scientific communication some 155 years ago that these organic compounds would become an independent area of immense interest not only in chemistry but also in other areas of scientific domains including physical, materials, biological, and engineering [1, 2]. Simply, Schiff bases can be defined as the products of chemical reaction of a primary amine with an aldehyde or a ketone under a given set of conditions. Structurally, oxygen of the carbonyl functionality (C═O) in an aldehyde and/or a ketone is replaced with nitrogen leading to the formation of imine or azomethine or anilino or azimethine (C═N) functionality with the liberation of a water molecule which is characteristic of Schiff bases [3]. There has been a substantial increase to study the coordination of the Schiff bases to the transition metals as well as main group metals and main group organometallics. The aforementioned metallic derivatives of Schiff bases have shown a rich diversity of structural motifs based upon coordinating ability of the ligand under investigation [4, 5, 6, 7].
\nSchiff bases and their metallic derivatives have got outstanding applicability in biological systems acting as antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antitubercular, antitumor, insecticidal, bacteriostatic, in vitro cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic agents [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15].
\nOn the other hand, abiological applications of Schiff bases and their metallic derivatives are also very diverse, for example, in polymer chemistry, mechanochemical treatment often leads to the destruction of polymer under investigation, while very recently, the concept of mechanochemical polymerization has seen remarkable improvements which was initially reported with limited success [16]. Schiff base reaction is responsible for visual process in animals; the process starts with excitation of retinaldehyde leading to the formation of Schiff linkage with lysine and change in the membrane electrical potential with eventual transmission of signal to brain [17]. Schiff bases have been exploited very efficiently to monitor hazardous materials in the environment; for example, Cr3+ and organophosphates in the environmental samples were recognized, quantified, and removed with high accuracy and precision [18]. Electroanalytical techniques are very helpful for studying laboratory, clinical, and environmental samples as these are versatile and economical; Schiff bases have been known as ionophores and when fabricated with organic polymers can be transformed into membranes as ion-selective potentiometric sensors [19]. Schiff base ZnO complexes have been investigated as semiconductors by fabricating field-effect transistors to electronic performance [20]. Azo dye-based Schiff bases have been reported efficient chemosensors for detection and quantification of S2− ions [21]. Photovoltaic characteristics of pyridine Schiff bases have been reported by illumination-dependent current–voltage measurements in solar cell applications [22]. Nickel Schiff base complexes have been studied for molecular docking experiments and their interaction with β-lactamase [23]. Schiff bases have successfully employed in vitro as well as in vivo for probing real-time sensing and analysis of Al3+ in a variety of diseases in human beings [24]. Polymeric Schiff bases strongly influence the electrochemical properties of the fuel cells and subsequent modification leading to an improved maximum power density in comparison to standard materials [25]. Metal–organic coordination polymers are widely used as conducting/semiconducting materials because of their accessible band gap 1–5 eV [26]. Schiff base palladium complexes immobilized on the mesoporous materials have been used as a heterogeneous catalyst for the Heck-Mizoroki coupling reaction and exhibited excellent catalytic activities for a wide range of alkenes [27, 28]. Schiff bases derived from cyclohexanediamine exhibited unusual structures, and these chiral molecules exhibited interesting photoluminescent properties [29].
\nThe following routes are commonly adopted to prepare Schiff bases and their metallic derivatives:
Reaction of aldehydes/ketones with primary amines under acidic/basic conditions [30]
Aldol-like condensation of aldehyde [31]
Oxidative synthesis of imines from alcohols and amines [32]
Addition of organometallic reagents to cyanides [33]
Reaction of phenols and phenol-ethers with nitriles [34]
Reaction of metal amides [35]
Synthesis of ketimines from ketals [36]
Reaction of olefins and tertiary alcohols with hydrazoic acid [37]
Conversion of α-amino acids into imines [38]
Reduction of nitro compounds [39]
Schiff bases tend to isomerize because of the imine group (C=N) to yield two stereoisomers
In the literature, two possible mechanisms can be seen for the reversible photoisomerization of azobenzenes. First, the “inversion mechanism” (Figure 1A), proceeds via a linear transition state in which the N=N double bond remains undamaged, whereas the “rotation mechanism” (Figure 1B) occurs via a twisted transition state in which the N=N π-bond is broken. Extending the discussion, the trans form gets photoexcited, and an electron is excited from its ground state S0 orbital to its first or second singlet-excited state S1 or S2, retaining its spin under an n-π* or a π-π* excitation, respectively. Azo groups (N=N) photoisomerize via two distinct mechanisms: the π-π* transition with an out-of-plane rotation mechanism in which the N=N π bond is ruptured heterolytically or the n-π* electronic transition with an inversion of one
Mechanisms of photoisomerization of azobenzenes.
More recently, thermal
Recently, effect of fluorine atom as substituent at either side of the double bond has also been thoroughly examined in a thermodynamic and kinetic perspective of
UV–Visible spectroscopy is a very useful analytical tool for studying the spectral properties of Schiff bases generally obtained as mixture of geometrical isomers, their sensitivity to the solvent properties, effect of substitution, pH, ambient temperature, etc. Absorbance spectra are generally recorded in the range of 300–450 nm; and the spectra are strongly solvent dependent and the corresponding
Multinuclear (1H and 13C) and multidimensional (HSQC, HMBC, COSY, and NOESY) NMR spectral analyses are helpful to establish absolute configuration of isatin Schiff bases. For example, the chemical shifts were assigned by a combined use of 1-D (1H and 13C proton-decoupled and 2-D NMR experiments COSY, NOESY, HSQC, and HMBC). 2-D NOESY experiments were used assess solution conformation of Schiff bases;
Generally, in physical sciences and especially in chemistry, hydrogen bonding is one of the very important concepts for the deciding properties of the new materials. Intramolecular hydrogen bonds in ortho-hydroxyaryl Schiff bases, in ortho-hydroxyaryl ketones and amides, and in proton sponges and related compounds could be considered as classical objects for the investigation. The geometric and spectroscopic characteristics of the H-bonds that are typical for H-bonds are of medium strength, that is, it is shortened XY contact, elongated XH, directionality trend, change in frequency, and shielding and de-shielding. One of the most prominent aspects is the possibility of delocalization of proton leading to tautomers; and the existence of tautomer’s equilibrium depends on room temperature, nature of solvent, and substitution. Proton delocalization is also observed due to the formation of stronger intramolecular H-bonds with larger proton potentials and due to thermally fluctuating media; either of these phenomena cause influence on the geometry of H-bond. Tautomeric equilibria changed with the change in the intrinsic geometry and spectroscopic properties of contributing tautomers, which further complicated the analysis of the experimental data. Computational work often provides the necessary insight via adiabatic and nonadiabatic PES calculations; and lastly, stabilization is also achieved due to delocalization of electrons in the chelate systems which are defined as resonance-assisted hydrogen bonds (RAHB) [48].
\nSchiff bases are easily supported on polymers and loaded with different metallic ions to check their catalytic action; and these polymer-supported catalysts are consistent in drastic reaction conditions like moisture and high temperature reactions. A careful survey of literature reveals that during the past two decades, several reports were seen on the synthesis of polymer-supported Schiff base complexes catalysts.
\nTransition metal Schiff base complexes are well-recognized homogeneous catalysts for various organic transformations with high homogeneity, good reproducibility, selectivity, and excellent catalytic activity to catalyze reactions under routine conditions. But there are certain drawbacks associated with these catalysts like corrosion, contamination of products, and separation of the catalysts. To address these challenges, heterogeneous catalysis is a good alternative approach; and there are two steps to achieve this task, that is, dispersing metallic ions on porous solid supports categorized as solid supported liquid phase catalyst (SLPC), and second step is the easy separation of the supported species from reaction mixture by filtration. Polystyrene is a well worked out cost-effective support, easily available, mechanically robust, chemically inert, and facile functionalization. When compared with the other supports like alumina or silica, the polymer-supported catalysts furnish the polymer chain flexibility for better microenvironment. Cobalt Schiff base complexes-functionalized polystyrene were effective and excellent catalysts in resolution of racemic mixtures. For the epoxidation of alkenes, early transition metal complexes proved excellent catalysts in combination H2O2; similarly, vanadium Schiff base complexes have been considered as versatile catalyst for oxidation of olefins, allylic alcohols, aromatic compounds, sulfides, and alcohols. There has always been a great need for high-quality pharmaceuticals, insecticides, and perfumes which significantly lead to develop enantioselective catalysts for epoxidation of olefins (Figure 2). More recently, chirally modified Li and Mg t-butyl peroxides have been used successfully in the epoxidation of electron deficient olefins. Henry’s reaction also known as nitroaldol reaction is carbon–carbon bond coupling of carbonyl groups and nitro alkanes to generate organic intermediate natural products, drugs, and dyes. Schiff base Cu complex exhibited a very high enantioselectivity but limited to 2-nitrobenzaldehyde; also, Cu complexes of iminopyridines catalyzed reactions of nitromethane with aliphatic and aromatic aldehydes. Cu complexes of salen Schiff bases improved the chiral induction of Henry’s reaction (yield: 95%); the m- and p-substituted benzaldehydes required lower temperatures and inert conditions [49, 50, 51].
\nEpoxidation of olefin using a polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS)-bridged oxo-molybdenum Schiff base complex [
The progress of biological inorganic chemistry has seen a marked interest in Schiff base complexes, as many of these complexes may be considered as models for biologically important species. Co, Ni, Fe, Zn, and UO2 Schiff base complexes of 2-thiophene displayed good antibacterial activity against
Platinum complexes of salicylaldehyde and 2-furaldehyde Schiff base with o- and p-phenylenediamine were screened against
Antibacterial activity and DNA interaction of Schiff bases [
Cu, Ni, and Co complexes of 3-(2-hydroxy-3-ethoxybenzylideneamino)-5-methyl isoxazole and 3-(2-hydroxy-5-nitroben-zylidene amino)-5-methyl isoxazole Schiff bases were screened against
Schiff base metal complexes conjugated with oligonucleotides were used to inhibit antitumor effect; zinc fingers are small protein motifs consisting of finger-like projections with a Zn2+ ion in each lump typically coordinated to two histidines and two cysteinic moieties. Binding with DNA takes place via classical (C2H2)-type zinc finger which regulates metathesis making these exciting targets for cancer therapy, especially breast, lung, liver, and brain cancers. The transition metal ions coordinated to Schiff bases have a very high affinity toward amino acid residues such as histidine and cysteine; their interaction with Zn fingers can, therefore, result in displacing Zn2+ from the Zn-finger and prohibiting the DNA binding with transcription factor. Co3+ Schiff base complexes were also attempted and showed greater specificity toward transcription factor inhibition than either of the precursors, that is, oligonucleotide and/or Co3+ complex, and Co3+ complex was required in >100-fold concentration for transcription factor inhibition, and the interaction with the protein was also non-specific [59, 60, 61, 62, 63].
\nVaccination is a preemptive strategy to counter viral attacks like polio, small pox, chicken pox, etc. Viral attacks are a life-threatening situation for patients with compromised immunity, and a prompt treatment is required. To counter this, therapeutic options for viral infections are limited as antiviral agents in clinical practice are not yet completely effective, due to viral mutation against the drugs, and in addition, they also present several side effects. 1-amino-3-hydroxyguanidine salicylaldehyde Schiff bases are being considered as a good platform for the design of new and effective antiviral agents against mouse hepatitis with 50% growth inhibition at very low concentrations. Recently, abacavir-derived series of new Schiff bases prodrugs have been reported to use to treat human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) under the trade name Ziagen (GlaxoSmithKline) [64].
\nRecently, researchers have focused work in search of metal-based antioxidants to identify the compounds having the potential in scavenging free radicals relevant to diseases associated with oxidative damage caused by reactive oxygen species. Synthetic antioxidants are widely used as effective and low-cost than natural antioxidants. Schiff base metallic derivatives have been reported as effective scavengers of reactive oxygen species acting as antioxidants [65].
\nSensor may be defined as system capable of detecting changes in its surroundings and transferring the information obtained to computer processor. During the past two decades, researchers have shown an increasing interest to develop new molecules/materials for the sensing of chemical species present in the environment. For example, inorganic anions and cations have a very huge impact on biological systems and the environment; these ions affect a wide range of chemical and biological processes in terms of toxicity to environment as well as human health. All the discussed points account for the aforesaid growth in the demand for ion-selective sensors. Anion sensors development is a very challenging task in comparison to cations as anions are larger in size, geometrically very diverse, and more importantly pH dependent. Chemosensors are abiotic molecules which have the selective and reversible binding ability with the analyte; azo Schiff bases have been reported as fluoride chemosensors. On the hand, Schiff base fluorescent sensors are becoming first choice as they exhibit high sensitivity even at very low concentration of analyte under consideration. In analytical chemistry, electrochemical methods are based on two fundamental parts, namely,
Fluoride ion sensing by Schiff bases [
Energy demand is a daunting challenge confronting the world as the quality of life depends largely on the availability of energy as we have burnt major part of fossil fuels. Renewable energy sources like solar light and wind generate larger amounts of energy and could potentially solve our immediate energy demands. Transformation of light into electric power in photovoltaic cells and subsequently light generation are two important interconnected phenomena which focus considerable interest to the researchers. Schiff base Zn2+ and Pt2+ complexes and organometallic compounds can produce, transform, and utilize energy due to their unique electronic setup which can be easily modified varying their chemical structure to develop a suitable material to fit an energy application. Remarkable work has been reported on salicylaldimine Schiff bases complexes with divalent Cu, Ni, Co, Zn, Mn, Fe, and Pt capable of being tailored into materials of applications in photophysics and optoelectronics [68].
\nThe corresponding author on behalf of all the co-authors exclusively declares that there is/are no conflict(s) of interest(s) among authors to be declared.
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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"41",type:"subseries",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"