Abstract
This section reviews the current literature on medicinal plants including extracts, fractions, isolated compounds and natural products that have been demonstrated to have wound healing properties. Various electronic databases such as PubMed, Science Direct, SciFinder and Google Scholar were employed to search for plants, natural plant constituents and natural products that have been scientifically demonstrated to have wound healing activity using in vivo and in vitro wound models. Parameters used in the evaluation of an agent with wound healing properties include rate of wound contraction, tensile strength, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, hydroxyproline content assay and histological investigations including re-epithelization, collagen synthesis, granulation, proliferation and differentiation of fibroblasts and keratinocytes in excision and incision wound model studies. Eighty-five medicinal plants belonging to 45 families, phytoconstituents including phenolics, oils and other substances including honey were identified as potential wound healing agents or possess wound healing properties using various wound healing models.
Keywords
- wounds
- wound healing
- medicinal plants
- natural products
- incision
- excision
1. Introduction
Wounds are physical injuries that result in an opening or break of the skin that causes disturbance in the normal skin anatomy and function. They result in the loss of continuity of epithelium with or without the loss of underlying connective tissue [1, 2]. Wounds that are most difficult to heal include delayed acute wounds and chronic wounds. Current estimates indicate that nearly 6 million people suffer from chronic wounds worldwide [3, 4]. Foot and leg ulcer is a common disorder, and approximately 1% of the European population suffers from such chronic and recurrent ulceration [3, 5]. Non-healing or chronic wounds result in enormous health care expenditures, with the total cost estimated at more than $3 billion
Over the last decades, the search for newer and potent agents from nature (plants, marine environment, fungi and other microorganisms) to manage chronic wounds especially, in patients with underlying metabolic disorders has increased immensely. This is mainly due to the high risk of loss of function, loss of mobility, amputations and huge financial cost as well as death in some cases associated with chronic wounds [6, 7]. The situation is also compounded by the increase in the number of non-communicable diseases such as diabetes and ulcers and longer life expectancy in most developed countries where the prevalence and impact of chronic wounds are on the increase [8].
Most chronic wounds are ulcers that are associated with ischemia, diabetes mellitus, venous stasis disease, or pressure. Between 70% and 80% of people living in the developing countries especially in Africa and Asia depend on herbal medicine for their health needs including wounds, infectious and metabolic diseases [5]. For some time now, there have been increased use of herbal and natural products for the management and treatment of various disease conditions among people in the developed countries including the United States, Europe and Japan.
With respect to the use of medicinal plants and natural products for the treatment of various diseases including metabolic and infectious diseases, specific diagnoses using various modern tools and equipment are not normally made but the treatment is based on the signs and symptoms of the diseases with which these products have been used for over a long period of time with successful treatment outcomes.
This section highlights the importance of medicinal plants and natural products as a major source of wound healing agents with the potential to be developed into phytotherapeutic agents to treat and/or manage wounds and their associated complications. This will also provide a starting point for future studies aimed at isolation, purification, and characterization of bioactive compounds present in these plants as well as exploring the underlying pharmacological mechanisms of action and potential niche market of these medicinal plants and natural products.
2. Properties of a good wound healing agent from herbal or natural product
Wound healing agents are agents that can stimulate fibroblast proliferation, induce keratinocytes proliferation and differentiation, increase collagen formation, exhibit antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In most cases, for an agent from medicinal plants or natural product to be classified as a good wound healing agent, it should possess two or more of the above properties [9, 10].
3. In vivo models for assessing wound healing activity
4. In vitro models for assessing wound healing activity
5. Methods used for pinpointing herbal materials and natural products with wound healing property
Electronic databases such as PubMed, Scifinder® and Google Scholar were used to search medicinal plants that have been evaluated for wound healing. All filtered articles were appraised to determine whether they contain any validated
6. Medicinal plants used in wound care
6.1. Acanthaceae
6.2. Amaranthaceae
6.3. Anacardiaceae
6.4. Apiaceae
6.5. Apocyanaceae
6.6. Asclepiadaceae
6.7. Asteraceae
6.8. Bignoniaceae
6.9. Boraginaceae
6.10. Cactaceae
6.11. Caricaceae
6.12. Cecropiaceae
6.13. Combretaceae
6.14. Crassulaceae
6.15. Curcubitaceae
6.16. Cyperaceae
6.17. Euphorbiacea
Arabinogalactan protein (JC) from
6.18. Fabaceae
6.19. Fagaceae
6.20. Flacourtiaceae
6.21. Gentianaceae
6.22. Ginkgoaceae
6.23. Hypericaceae
6.24. Lamiaceae
6.25. Liliaceae
6.26. Lythraceae
6.27. Malvaceae
6.28. Meliaceae
6.29. Moraceae
6.30. Moringaceae
6.31. Musaceae
6.32. Myrsinaceae
6.33. Oleaceae
6.34. Papaveraceae
6.35. Pedaliaceae
6.36. Piperaceae
6.37. Potulacaceae
6.38. Phyllanthaceae
6.39. Rubiaceae
6.40. Rutaceae
6.41. Sapotaceae
6.42. Solanaceae
6.43. Vitaceae
6.44. Verbenaceae
6.45. Zingiberaceae
6.46. Zygophyllaceae
7. Phenolic compounds with wound healing properties
Though many crude plant extracts have been scientifically demonstrated to have wound healing activities, enriched fractions and isolated compounds from some of these plants have also been shown to possess specific promising wound healing properties. The commonly known effects of the active constituents of plant extracts towards wound healing are known to be through blood clotting, antimicrobial, antioxidant, mitogenic activities and also enhancing the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor thereby improving angiogenesis and blood flow as the tissue repair process advances [179, 186–188]. In chronic wounds, agents inducing differentiation of keratinocytes play an important role.
Plant polyphenols are among the most abundant phytochemicals present in the human diet, and they range from simple molecules such as phenolic acids to highly polymerized compounds, such as condensed tannins [189]. Several plants extracts used in wound healing contain phenolics in the form of procyanidins, flavonoids and phenolic acids [187] as their active ingredients. Tannins and procyanidins are known to actively facilitate wound healing [190].
Resveratrol is a natural polyphenol found predominantly in the skin of red grapes that has been studied extensively for its potential health benefits [191]. Resveratrol is a popular nutritional supplement and ingredient in over-the-counter skin care products. In humans, resveratrol was shown to protect against sun damage to the skin, enhance moisture and elasticity, reduce wrinkle depth and intensity of age spots, and protected keratinocytes from nitrous oxide-induced death [191, 192]. Its positive effect on keratinocytes has beneficial effect on wound healing. Resveratrol administration significantly increased the tensile strength of the abdominal fascia, and increased the hydroxyproline 1 levels
7.1. Tannins
Tannins are natural polyphenols and in many cases the active constituents in plants in which they are found. Tannins have a wide range of pharmacological activities including antimicrobial, wound healing, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. The physical and chemical properties of tannins suggest that they may act by virtue of their complexation, astringent, antioxidant and radical scavenging activities, and their ability to form complex with proteins [194].
7.2. Ellagitannins
Ellagitannins, namely geraniin and furosin isolated from
7.3. Flavanols and proanthocyanidins
Flavanols are a sub-family of flavonoids which are present in plants as aglycones, as oligomers, or esterified with gallic acid and the most common oligomers of procyanidins present in edible plants are derived from epicatechin [189].
Flavanols and procyanidins are chemically able to prevent oxidation, and their administration has been associated with a decrease in oxidative stress markers in humans with improve blood supply to the wounded area to accelerate wound healing. They have been shown to exert a wide range of biological activities including wound healing property. The known biological activities of proanthocyanidins include antioxidant activity, anti-inflammatory activity, antimicrobial activities and wound healing activities [92, 189, 195].
A redox-active grape seed proanthocyanidin extract has been shown to up regulate oxidant and tumor necrosis factor-α inducible VEGF expression in human keratinocytes. Furthermore this grape seed proanthocyanidin extract was shown to accelerate wound contraction and closure
Wound healing property of
Similarly, a fraction of the methanol extract of
A study conducted on a proanthocyanidins rich fraction from
A study of the wound healing activities of the hydrolyzable tannins from the hydro-alcoholic stem bark extract of
Epicatechin also blocks radiation-induced apoptosis via down-regulation Jun N-terminal kinase and p-38 in the HaCaT cells [201]. Epicatechin and procyanidins dimers are known to inhibit NADPH-oxidase and the subsequent superoxide production by directly binding to the enzyme or regulating calcium influx, or potentially inhibiting the binding of ligands that trigger NADPH-oxidase activation to their receptors (e.g. TNF-α). These functions are means by which epicatechin may provide cytoprotection to the cell. Both epicatechin and the respective procyanidin dimers can interact with the DNA-binding site of the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) proteins, preventing the interaction of NF-κB with κB sites in gene promoters, thus inhibiting gene transcription [189]. The reduced NF-κB activation results in the suppression of inflammatory cytokines [200].
Procyanidins are known to induce the differentiation of keratinocytes. It has been reported that epigallocatechin-3-gallate induces differentiation of human epidermal keratinocytes [202]. In comparison to epigallocatechin-3-gallate, procyanidin B2 is more inductive to differentiation at lower concentrations [92].
Procyanidin B2 is also known to have beneficial effects in pathologies with pro-inflammatory components by inhibiting NF-κB-driven gene expression, including various cytokines and anti-apoptotic prote [203, 204]. It has been reported that several selective protein kinase C inhibitors, including procyanidin B-2, promote hair epithelial cell growth [205]. This presupposes that procyanidin B2 could be useful for aesthetic purposes during wound healing by stimulating the regrowth of skin appendages in the wounded area.
Procyanidin C1 inhibits nitric oxide production and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6 and TNF-α). Additionally, the potent anti-inflammatory effect of procyanidin C1 occurs through inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase and NF-κB signaling pathways. These two factors play a major role in controlling inflammation in the wounds [206]. In wound healing, procyanidin C1 activity presents a novel and effective means of inflammation control. Procyanidin dimers and trimers extracted from grape seeds are also known to exhibit higher growth-promoting activity than the monomer on hair epithelial cells
7.4. Flavonoids
Flavonoids are a chemically defined group of polyphenols that have a basic structure of two aromatic rings (A and B) linked through three carbons that usually form an oxygenated heterocycle (C ring). The chemical characteristics of the C ring define the various subgroups of flavonoids by providing different arrangements of hydroxy, methoxy, and glycosidic groups, and the bonding with other monomers [208].
An important effect of flavonoids is the scavenging of oxygen-derived free radicals, reduction of liquid peroxidation, anti-inflammatory and wound healing activities. A drug that inhibits lipid peroxidation is believed to increase the viability and strength of collagen fibers and prevents cell damage by promoting DNA synthesis Flavonoids prevent or delay the onset of cell necrosis and also improve vascularity to the wounded area [179].
Several flavonoids, including quercetin, result in a reduction in ischemia-reperfusion injury through the activity of constitutive nitric-oxide synthase which is important in maintaining the dilation of blood vessels [209]. Quercetin, in particular, inhibits both cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase activities, thus diminishing the formation of their inflammatory metabolites [210, 211].
Certain flavonoids, notably diosmin and hesperidin, have been used routinely in Europe for many years to treat varicose veins, hemorrhoids, and the edema that accompanies chronic venous insufficiency. These flavonoids have now been employed in the treatment of wounds. Purified micronized flavonoid fraction, comprising 90% diosmin and 10% hesperidin, is basically used as a phelebotonic and vasculoprotector agent. It also has anti-inflammatory and anti-edematous actions. In a clinical study, groups with infected wounds that were orally and topically treatment, accelerated wound healing when compared to the untreated control group. This was confirmed with surface area measurements and histopathological evaluation. This study showed that oral or topical administration of micronized flavonoid fraction in infected wounds is beneficial [212].
A flavonoid rich fraction of
Flavonoids from
8. Fats and oils with wound healing properties
Several unsaturated fatty acids such as oleic, linoleic, eicosapentanoic and arachidonic acids are among the natural ligands for perosisome proliferative activator receptors (PPAR) which are involved in wound healing. These PPAR are nuclear hormone receptors and are up regulated in keratinocytes after injury and have been found to be important regulators of re-epithelialization [217, 218]. Also ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) affect the synthesis and activity of proinflammatory cytokines which to a large extent initiate the inflammatory stage of wound healing [219, 220]. It can therefore be said that the presence of these fatty acids in plant extracts and other compounds could contribute to the survival and differentiation of keratinocytes through the activation of PPAR. Also they may promote the recovery of the epidermal barrier, skin homeostasis and anti-inflammatory activity to the skin during the wound healing process.
8.1. Eucalyptus oil (Dinkum oil)
This oil is obtained by steam distillation of fresh leaves of
8.2. Aroeira (Schinus terebinthifoliu ) oil
The aroeira tree (
8.3. Virgin coconut oil
8.4. Vitis vinifera (grape) oil
Oil extracted from the seeds of grapes
8.5. Vaccinium macrocarpon (cranberry) oil
8.6. Melaleuca alternifolia (Tea tree) oil
The essential oil derived from steam distillation of the leaves and terminal branches of
8.7. Vitellaria paradoxa (Shea tree) oil
8.8. Virgin fatty oil of Pistacia lentiscus
9. Miscellaneous substances
9.1. Wound healing properties of honey
Honey is a collection of nectar processed by honey bees [240]. It is rich in nutrients and defined substances such as glucose, fructose, sucrose, minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, amino acids and many other products, which may be responsible for its numerous therapeutic roles and potency [241]. Its therapeutic properties include antimicrobial activity which may be attributed to its osmotic effect, a naturally low pH, and the production of hydrogen peroxide [242, 243]. Honey attacks antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria and prevents bacterial growth even when wounds are heavily infected [244]. Again, honey has been reported to exhibit antioxidant activity [245, 246]. In wound care, honey has been used extensively as wound healing agent for almost all kinds of wounds. It has been assessed for the treatment of venous leg ulcers, burns, chronic leg ulcers, pressure ulcers, as well as diabetic wound [247], with scarless healing in cavity wounds, less edema, fewer polymorphonuclear and mononuclear cell infiltrations, less necrosis, better wound contraction, improved epithelialization, lower glycosaminoglycan and proteoglycan concentrations, increased granulation tissue formation and tissue growth, collagen synthesis and development of new blood vessels in the bed of wounds [241].
10. Conclusion
Most of these medicinal plants and natural products traditionally used for the treatment and management of these various types of wounds had their wound healing properties, including wound contraction, tensile strength, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, hydroxyproline content assay and histological investigations namely re-epithelization, collagen synthesis, granulation, proliferation and differentiation of fibroblasts and keratinocytes, assessed and evaluated through
References
- 1.
Ramzi SC, Vinay K, Stanley R. Pathologic Basis of Diseases, 5th ed., WB Saunders Company, Philadelphia; 1994. p. 86. - 2.
Strodtbeck F. Physiology of wound healing. Newborn Infant Nurs Rev. 2001; 1: 43–45. - 3.
Mathieu D, Linke JC, Wattel F. Non-healing wounds. In: Handbook on hyperbaric medicine, Mathieu DE (ed). Netherlands: Springer; 2006; p. 812. - 4.
Menke NB, Ward KR, Witten TM, Bonchev DG, Diegelmann RF. Impaired wound healing. Clin Dermatol. 2007; 25: 19–25. - 5.
Nelzen O, Bergqvist D, Lindhagen A. The prevalence of chronic lower-limb ulceration has been underestimated: results of a validated population questionnaire. Br J Surg. 1996; 83: 255–258. - 6.
Baranoski S, Ayello EA. Wound dressings: an evolving art and science. Adv Skin Wound Care. 2012; 25: 87–92. - 7.
Benbow M. Debridement: wound bed preparation. J Community Nurs. 2011; 25: 18–23. - 8.
MacDonald J. Global initiative for wounds and lymphedema. J Lymphedema. 2009; 4: 92–95. - 9.
Houghton PJ, Hylands PJ, Mensah AY, Hensel A, Deters A. In vitro tests and ethnopharmacological investigations: wound healing as an example. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005; 100: 100–107. - 10.
Agyare C, Asase A, Lechtenberg M, Niehues M, Deters A, Hensel A. An ethnopharmacological survey and in vitro confirmation of ethnopharmacological use of medicinal plants used for wound healing in Bosomtwi-Atwima-Kwanwoma area, Ghana. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009; 125: 393–403. - 11.
Davidson JM. Animal models for wound repair. Archives Derm Res. 1998; 290: 1–11. - 12.
Dorsett-Martin WA, Wysocki AB. Rat models of skin wound healing. In: Source Book of Models for Biomedical Research, Humana Press; 2008. p. 778. - 13.
Gal P, Kilik R, Mokry M, Vidinsky B, Vasilenko T, Mozes S, Lenhardt L. Simple method of open skin wound healing model in corticosteroid-treated and diabetic rats: standardization of semi-quantitative and quantitative histological assessments. Vet Med. 2008; 53: 652–659. - 14.
Gottrup F, Argen MS, Karlsmark T. Models for use in wound healing research: a survey focusing on in vitro andin vivo adult soft tissue. Wound Repair Regen. 2000; 8: 83–96. - 15.
Tarnuzzer RW, Schultz GS. Biochemical analysis of acute and chronic wound environments. Wound Repair Regen. 1996; 4: 321–325. - 16.
Agyare C, Bempah SB, Boakye YD, Ayande PG, Adarkwa-Yiadom M, Mensah KB. Evaluation of antimicrobial and wound healing potential of Justicia flava andLannea welwitschii . Evid Based Complement Altern. 2013. Article ID 632927, 10 pp. - 17.
Burkill HM. 1985. The Useful Plants of Tropical West Africa. Royal Kew Botanical Gardens K, London, UK; 1985; pp. 293–295. - 18.
Shubhashini S, Kantha DA. Investigations on the phytochemica activities and wound healing properties of Adhatoda vasica leave in Swiss albino mice. Afr J Plant Sci.2011; 5(2): 133–145. - 19.
Fikru A ME, Eguale T, Debella A, Mekonnen GA. Evaluation of in vivo wound healing activity of methanol extract ofAchyranthes aspera L. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012; 143: 469–474. - 20.
Barua CC, Talakdar A, Barua AG, Chakraborty A, Sarma RK, Bora RS. Evaluation of the wound healing activity of methanolic extract of Azadirachta Indica (Neem) andTinospora cordifolia (Guduchi) in rats. Pharmacologyonline. 2010; 1: 70–77. - 21.
Hossain AI, Faisal M, Rahman S, Jahan R, Rahmatullah M. A preliminary evaluation of antihyperglycemic and analgesic activity of Alternanthera sessilis aerial parts. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2014; 14: 169. - 22.
Jalalpure SS, Arawal N, Patil MB, Chimkode R, Tripathi A. Antimicrobial and wound healing activities of leaves of Alternanthera sessilis Linn. Int J Green Pharm. 2008; 2: 141–144. - 23.
Ullah MO, Haque M, Urmi KF, Zulfiker AH, Anita ES, Begum M, Hamid K, Uddin SJ. Anti-bacterial activity and brine shrimp lethality bioassay of methanolic extracts of fourteen different edible vege’s from Bangladesh. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2013; 3: 1–7. - 24.
Neeharika V, Fatima H, Reddy BM. Evaluation of antinociceptive and antipyretic effect of Pupalia lappacea Juss. Int Curr Pharm J. 2013; 2: 23–28. - 25.
Apenteng JA, Agyare C, Adu F, Ayande PG, Boakye YD. Evaluation of wound healing potential of different leaf extracts of Pupalia lappacea . Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2014; 8: 1039–1048. - 26.
Udegbunam SO, Udegunam RI, Muogbo CC, Ayamwu MV, Nwaehugor CO.Wound healing and antibacterial properties of methanolic extract of Pupulia lappacea Juss in rats. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2014; 14: 157. - 27.
Siddiqui MZ, Chowhury, Prasad N, Thomas M. Buchanania lanzan: a species of enormous potentials. World J Pharm Sci. 2014; 2: 374–379. - 28.
Pattnaik A, Sarkar R, Sharma A, Yadav KK, Kumar A, Roy P, Sen T. Pharmacological studies on Buchanania lanzan Spreng.-A focus on wound healing with particular reference to anti-biofilm properties. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2013; 3: 967–974. - 29.
Chitra V, Dharabu PP, Pavan KK, Alla NR. Wound healing activity of alcoholic extract of Buchanania lanzan in Albino rats. Int J ChemTech Res. 2009; 1: 1026–1031. - 30.
Jamil SS, Nizami Q, Salam M. Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban: a review. Nat Prod Radiance. 2007; 6: 158–170. - 31.
Bylka W, Znajdek-Awiżeń P, Studzińska-Sroka E, Brzezińska M. Centella asiatica in cosmetology. Postepy Dermatol Alergol. 2013; 30: 46–49. - 32.
Bylka W, Znajdek-Awiżeń P, Studzińska-Sroka E, Dańczak-Pazdrowska A, Brzezińska M. Centella asiatica in dermatology: an overview. Phytother Res. 2014; 28: 1117–1124. - 33.
Shukla A, Rasik AM, Jain GK, Shankar R, Kulshrestha DK, Dhawan BN. In vitro andin vivo wound healing activity of asiaticoside isolated fromCentella asiatica . J Ethnopharmacol. 1999; 65: 1–11. - 34.
Rechinger KH. Flora Iranica, Apiaceae. Academische Druck-U-Verganstalt. Graz: Austria. 1981; 162: 140–142. - 35.
Mozaffarian V. A Dictionary of Iranian Plant Names. Tehran: Farhang Moaser Publisher; 1996. p. 739. - 36.
Gohari AR, Saeidnia SA. Review on Phytochemistry of Cuminum cyminum seeds and its standards from field to market. Pharmacognosy J. 2011; 3: 1–5. - 37.
Patil DN KA, Shahapurkar AA, Hatappakki BC. Natural cumin seeds for wound healing activity in albino rats. Int J Biol Chem. 2009; 3: 148–152. - 38.
Nayak BS, Pinto-Pereira ML. Catharanthus roseus flower extract has wound-healing activity in Sprague Dawley rats. BMC Compliment Altern Med. 2006; 6: 41–39. - 39.
Krasner DL RG, Sibbald RG. Chronic wound care: A Clinical source book for health professionals, HMP Communications, Malvern, Ala, USA, 4th ed.; 1990. - 40.
Agyare C, Dwobeng AS, Agyepong N, Boakye YD, Mensah KB, Ayande PG, Adarkwa-Yiadom M. Antimicrobial, antioxidant, and wound healing properties of Kigelia africana (Lam.) Beneth. andStrophanthus hispidus DC. Adv Pharmacol Sci. 2013. Article ID 692613, 10 pp. - 41.
Singh VP, Sharma SK, Kare VS. Medicinal plants from Ujjain District Madhya Pradesh, Indian Drugs. 1980; 17: 7–12. - 42.
Shah GL, Gopal GV. Ethnomedical notes from the tribal inhabitants of the north Gujarat (India). J Ecotoxicol Bot. 1988; 6: 193–221. - 43.
Joshi MC, Patel MB, Mehta PJ. Some folk medicines of Dangs, Gujarat State. Bull Med Ethnobot Res. 1980; 1: 8–24. - 44.
Veerapur VP, Palkar MB, Srinivasa H, Kumar MS, Patra S, Rao PGM, Srinivasan KK. The effect of ethanol extract of Wrightia tinctoria bark on wound healing in rats. J Nat Prod. 2004; 4: 155–159. - 45.
Omale J, Ubimago UOTG. In-vitro anthelmintic activity of Saba florida (Benth) extracts against Nigerian adult earth worm (Terrestris lumbricoides ). Am J Phytomed Clin Ther. 2014; 2(6), 758–766. - 46.
Omale J, Victoria IA. Excision and incision wound healing potential of Saba florida (Benth) leaf extract inRattus novergicus . Int J Pharm Biomed Res. 2010; 1: 101–107. - 47.
Ahmed KKM, Rana AC, Dixit VK. Calotropis species (Ascelpediaceae) – A comprehensive review. Pharmacog Mag. 2005; 1: 48–52. - 48.
Chitme HR, GhobadiR, Chandra M, Kaushik S. Studies on anti-diarrhoeal activity of Calotropis gigantea R. Br. in experimental animals. J Pharm Pharm. Sci. 2004; 7: 70–75. - 49.
Argal A, Pathak AK. Antidiarrhoeal activity of Calotropis gigantea flowers. Indian J Nat Prod. 2005; 21: 42–44. - 50.
Deshmukh PT, Fernandes J, Atul A, Toppo E. Wound healing activity of Calotropis gigan tea root bark in rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009; 125; 178–181. - 51.
Parsons WT, Cuthbertson EG. Noxious weeds of Australia. CSIRO Publishing; 2001. 712. - 52.
Rasik MA, Raghubir R, Gupta A, Shukla A, Dubey MP, Srivastava S, Jain HK, Kulshrestha KD. Healing potential of Calotropis procera on dermal wounds in guinea pigs. J Ethnopharmacol. 1999; 68: 261–266. - 53.
Akkol EK, Koca U, Pesin I, Yilmazer D. Evaluation of the wound healing potential of Achillea biebersteinii Afan.(Asteraceae) byin vivo excision and incision models. Evid-Based Complement Altern Med. 2011. Article ID 474026, 7 pp., 2011. - 54.
Almagboul AZ, Farroq AA, Tyagi BR. Antimicrobial properties of certain Sudanese plants used in folk medicine: screening for antibacterial activity part 2. Fitoterapia. 1985; 56: 103–109. - 55.
Ekundayo OS, Sharma S, Rao EV. Essential oils of Ageratum conyzoides . Linn Planta Med. 1987; 54: 55–57. - 56.
Borthakur N, Baruah AKS. Search for precocenes in Ageratum conyzoides L. of Northeast India. J India Chem Soc. 1987; 64: 580–581. - 57.
Watt JM, Breyer-Brandwijk MG. The medicinal and poisonous plants of South and Eastern Africa.197–8. 2nd Edn. London. E&S Livingstone Ltd., London, UK; 1962. 1457. - 58.
Oladejo OW, Imosemi IO, Osuagwu FC, Oluwadara OO, Aiku A, Adewoyin O, Ekpo OE, Oyedele OO, Akang EEU. Enhancement of cutaneous wound healing by methanolic extracts of Ageratum conyzoides in the Wistar rat. Afr J Biomed Res. 2003; 6: 27–31. - 59.
De Rouw DEA. The fallow period as weed-break in shifting cultivation (tropical wet forests). Agric Ecosys Environ. 1995; 54: 31–43. - 60.
Olaoye SOA. Chromolaena odorata in the tropics and its control in Nigeria. In: Moody K. (Ed.) Weed control in tropical crops. Volume II. Weed Science Society of the Los Banos, Philippines, 1986, pp. 279–293. - 61.
Phan T, Wang Lee, See P, Grayer JR, Chan S, Lee ST. Phenolic compounds of Chromolaena odorata protect cultured skin cells from oxidative damage: implication for cutaneous wound healing. Biol Pharm Bull. 2001; 24: 1373–1379. - 62.
Koca U, Suntar PI, Keles H, Yesilada E, Akkol EK. In vivo anti-inflammatory and wound healing activities ofCentaurea iberica Trev. ex Spreng. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009; 126: 551–556. - 63.
Nadkarni AK. Indian Materia Medica. Popular Prakashan Private Limited. Bombay: 3rd ed; 2007. 1163. - 64.
Chopra RN, Nayar SL., Chopra IC. Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants, Publications and Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi; 1956. 88–89. - 65.
Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. Dehra Dun: International Book Distributors. Indian Medicinal Plants; 1999; 1347. - 66.
Sadaf F, Saleem R, Ahmed M, Ahmad SI. Healing potential of cream containing extract of Sphaeranthus indicus on dermal wounds in guinea pigs. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006, 107: 161–163. - 67.
Udupa AL, Kulkarni DR, Udupa SL. Effect of Tridax Procumbens on wound healing. Pharm Biol. 1995; 33: 37–40. - 68.
Yaduvanshi B, Mathur R, Mathur SR, Velpandian T. Evaluation of wound healing potential of topical formulation of leaf juice of Tridax procumbens L. in mice. Indian J Pharm Sci. 2011; 73: 303–306. - 69.
Yogesh PT, Biswaddeep D, Tania P, Deeali YT, Kishori GA, Pradeep BP. Evaluation of wound healing potential of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Tridax procubens Linn. in Wistar Rat. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2012; 5: 4, 141–145. - 70.
Leach MJ. Calendula officinalis and wound healing: A Systematic review. Wounds. 2008; 20: 236–243. - 71.
Preethi KC, Kuttan R. Wound healing activity of flower extract of Calendula offlcinalis . J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol. 2009; 20: 73–80. - 72.
Irvine FR. Woody Plants of Ghana. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK 1961. 868. - 73.
Houghton PJ. Tesausage tree ( Kigelia pinnata ): Ethnobotany and recent scientific work. S Afr J Bot. 2002; 68: 14–20. - 74.
Picerno P AG, Marzocco S, Meloni M, Sanogo R, Aquino RP. Anti-inflammatory activity of verminoside from Kigelia africana and evaluation of cutaneous irritation in cell cultures and reconstituted human epidermis. J Nat Prod. 2005; 68: 1610–1614. - 75.
Mensah AY, Fleischer TC, Adu F, Agyare C, Ameade AE. Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of two Ghanaian plants used traditionally for wound healing. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2003; 55: S-4. - 76.
Ofori-Kwakye K KA, Bayor MT. Wound healing potential of methanol extract of Spathodea campanulata stem bark formulated into a topical preparation. Afr J Trad Complement Altern Med. 2011; 8: 218–223. - 77.
Saini NK SM, Srivastava B. Evaluation of wound healing activity of Tecomaria capensis leaves. Chin J Nat Med. 2012; 10: 138–141. - 78.
Iwu MM. Handbook of African medicinal plants. CRC Press BR, Florida, United States; 1993. p. 464. - 79.
Sofowora A. Medicinal plants and traditional medicines in Africa. New York CJ, Wiley & Sons, UK; 1993. p. 320. - 80.
Dash GK, Murthy PN. Evaluation of Argemone mexicana L. leaves for wound healing activity. J Nat Prod Plant Res. 2011; 1: 46–56. - 81.
Butera D, Tosoriere L, Di Gaudio F, Bongiorno A, Allegra M, Pintaudi AM, Kohen R, Livrea M. A. Antioxidant activities of sicilian prickly pear ( Opuntia ficus indica ) fruit extracts and reducing properties of its betalains: Betanin and indicaxanthin. J Agric Food Chem. 2002; 50: 6895–6901. - 82.
Hassan F, El-RazekA, Hassan AA. Nutritional value and hypoglycemic effect of prickly cactus pear ( Opuntia Ficus-Indica ) fruit juice in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Aust J Basic Appl Sci. 2012; 5: 356–377. - 83.
Galati EM, Mondello MR, Giufferida D, Dugo G, Miceli N, Pergolizzi S, Taviano MF. Chemical characterization and biological effects of Sicilian Opuntia ficus indica (L.) Mill. Fruit juice: antioxidant and antiulcerogenic activity. J Agric Food Chem. 2003; 51: 4903–4908. - 84.
Park EH, Chun MJ. Wound healing activity of Opuntia ficus-indica . J Ethnopharmacol. 2001; 72: 165–167. - 85.
Trombetta D, Puglia C, Perri D, Licata A, Pergolizzi S, Lauriano ER, Bonina FP. Effect of polysaccharides from Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) cladodes on the healing of dermal wounds in the rat. Phytomedicine. 2006; 13: 352–358. - 86.
Burkill HM. The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa ne, vol 3:11, Royal Kew Botanical Gardens, Kew, London, UK; 1995. 868p. - 87.
Mahmood AA, Sidik K, Salmah I. Wound healing activity of Carica papaya L. aqueous leaf extract in rats. Int J Mol Med Adv Sci. 2005; 1: 398–401. - 88.
Nayak BS, Pereira LP, Maharaj D. Wound healing activity of Carica papaya L. in experimentally induced diabetic rats. Indian J Exp Biol. 2007; 45: 739. - 89.
Gurung S, Škalko-Basnet N. Wound healing properties of Carica papaya latex: in vivo evaluation in mice burn model. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009; 121: 338–341. - 90.
Agyare C, Ansah AO, Ossei PPS, Apenteng JA, Boakye YD. Wound healing and anti-infective properties of Myrianthus arboreus andAlchornea cordifolia . Med Chem. 2014; 4: 533–539. - 91.
Chaudhari M, Mengi S. Evaluation of phytoconstituents of Terminalia arjuna for wound healing activity in rats. Phytother Res. 2006; 20: 799–805. - 92.
Kisseih E, Lechtenber M, Petereit F, Sendker J, Brandt S, Agyare C, Hensel A. Phytochemical characterization and in vitro wound healing activity of leaf extracts from Combretum mucronatum Schum. & Thonn.: Oligomeric procyanidins as strong inductors of cellular differentiation. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015; 174: 628–636. - 93.
Khan M, Patil PA, Shobha JC. Influence of Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lim.) leaf extract on wound healing in albino rats. J Nat Remedies. 2004; 4: 41–46. - 94.
Agyare C, Amuah E, Adarkwa-Yiadom M, Osei-Asante S, Ossei SPP. Medicinal plants used for the treatment of wounds and skin infections: assessment of wound healing and antimicrobial properties of Mallotus oppositifolius andMomordica charantia . Int J Phytomedicine. 2014; 6: 50–58. - 95.
Gordon-Gray KD. Cyperaceae in Natal. National Botanical Institute P, South Africa; 1995. p. 218. - 96.
Chopra RN, Chopra IC, Varma BS. Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants, CSIR, New Delhi; 1969. p. 119. - 97.
Puratchikody A, Devi CN, Nagalakshmi G. Wound healing activity of Cyperus rotundus Linn Indian J Pharm Sci. 2006; 68: 97–101. - 98.
Agyare C, Lechntenberg M, Deters A, Petereit F, Hensel A. Ellagitannins from Phyllanthus muellerianus (Kuntze) Exell.: Geraniin and furosin stimulate cellular activity, differentiation and collagen synthesis of human skin keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts. Phytomedicine. 2011; 18: 617–624. - 99.
Gonasekera MM, Gunawardan VK, Mohammed SG, Balasubramania S. Pregnancy terminating effects of Jatropha curcas in rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995; 47: 117–123. - 100.
Igoli JO, Ogaji D. Tor-Anyim TA, Igoli NP.Traditional Medicine practice among the Igede people of Nigeria. Afr J Trad Compliment Altern Med. 2005; 2: 134–152. - 101.
Shetty S, Udupa L. Evaluation of antioxidant and wound healing effects of alcoholic and aqueous extract of Ocimum sanctum Linn in rats. Evid-Based Complement Altern Med. 2008; 5: 95–101. - 102.
Zippel J, Wells T, Hensel A. Arabinogalactan protein from Jatropha curcas L. seeds as TGFβ1-mediated inductor of keratinocyte in vitro differentiation and stimulation of GM-CSF, HGF, KGF and in organotypic skin equivalents. Fitoterapia. 2010; 81: 772–778. - 103.
Kabran FA, Maciuk A, Okpekon TA, Leblanc K, Seon-Meniel B, Bories C, Champy P, Djakouré L A, Figadère B. Phytochemical and biological analysis of Mallotus oppositifolius (Euphorbiaceae). Planta Med. 2012; 78: 1381. - 104.
Lodhi S, Pawar RS, Jain AP, Singhai AK. Wound healing potential of Tephrosia purpurea (Linn.) Pers. in rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006; 108: 204–210. - 105.
Chularojmontri L, Suwatronnakorn M, Wattanapitayakul SK. Phyllanthus emblica L. enhances human umbilical vein endothelial wound healing and sprouting. Evid-Based Complement Altern Med. 2013. Article ID 720728, 9 pp., 2013. - 106.
Kokane DD, More YR, Kale BM, Nehete NM, Mehendale CP, Gadgol HC. Evaluation of wound healing activity of root of Mimosa pudica . J Ethnopharmacol. 2009; 124: 311–315. - 107.
Sivagamy M, Jeganathan, Manavalan R, Senthamarai R. Wound healing activity of Indigofera enneaphylla Linn. Int J Adv Pharm Chem Biol. 2012; 1: 211–214. - 108.
Umachigi SP, Jayaveera KN, Kumar CA, Kumar GS¸ Kumar DK. Studies on wound healing properties of Quercus infectoria . Trop J Pharm Res. 2008; 7: 913–919. - 109.
Oommen ST, Rao M, Raju CVN. Effect of oil of Hydnocarpus on wound healing1. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 1999; 67: 154. - 110.
Oommen ST. The effect of oil of hydnocarpus on excision wounds. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 2000; 68: 69–70. - 111.
Dokosi OB. Herbs of Ghana. Ghana Universities Press; 1998. p. 765. - 112.
Annan K, Dickson R. Evaluation of wound healing actions of Hoslundia opposita Vahl,Anthocleista nobilis G. Don. andBalanites aegyptiaca L. J Sci Tech (Ghana), 2008; 28(2): 26–35. - 113.
Bairy KL, Rao CM. Wound healing profiles of Ginkgo biloba . J Nat Remedies. 2001; 1: 25–27. - 114.
Baruah A, Sarma D, Saud J, Singh RS. In vitro regeneration of Hypericum patulum Thunb.-A medicinal plant. Indian J Experiment Biol. 2001; 39: 947–949. - 115.
Mukherjee KP, Verpoorte R, Suresh B. Evaluation of in-vivo wound healing activity ofHypericum patulum (Family: Hypericaceae) leaf extract on different wound model in rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2000; 70: 315–321. - 116.
Gleason HA, Cronquist A. Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. Bronx, NY: The New York Botanical Garden; 1991. 810. - 117.
Süntar IP, Akkol EK, Yılmazer D, Baykal T, Kırmızıbekmez H, Alper M, Yeşilada E. Investigations on the in vivo wound healing potential of Hypericum perforatum L. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010; 127: 468–477. - 118.
Prisăcaru AI, Andritoiu CV, Andriescu C, Hăvârneanu EC, Popa M, Motoc AGM, Sava A. Evaluation of the wound-healing effect of a novel Hypericum perforatum ointment in skin injury. Rom J Morphol Embryol. 2013; 54: 1053–1059. - 119.
Laeuchli S, Vannotti S, Hafner J, Hunziker T, French L. A Plant-derived wound therapeutic for cost-effective treatment of post-surgical scalp wounds with exposed one. Res Complement Med. 2014; 21: 88–93. - 120.
Mainetti S, Carnevali F. An experience with pediatric burn wounds treated with a plant-derived wound therapeutic. J Wound Care. 2013; 22: 681–689. - 121.
Godhwani S, Godhwani JL, Vyas DS. Ocimum sanctum – a preliminary study evaluating its immunoregulatory profile in albino rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 1988; 24: 193–198. - 122.
Goel A, Kumar S, Singh DK, Bhatia AK. Wound healing potential of Ocimum sanctum Linn. with induction of tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 2010; 48: 402–406. - 123.
Osuagwu FC, Oladepo OW, Imosemi IO, Adewoyin BA, Adewoyin OO, Ekpe OE, Olumadara OO. Wound healing activities of methanolic extracts of Ocimum gratissum leaf in Wistar rats – a preliminary study. Afr J Med Sci. 2004; 33: 23–26. - 124.
Chah KF, Eze CA, Emuelosi CE, Esimone CO. Antibacterial and wound healing properties of methanolic extracts of some Nigerian medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006; 104: 164–167. - 125.
Abbiw DK. Useful plants of Ghana: West African uses of wild and cultivated plants. Intermediate Technology Publications and The Royal Botanic Gardens; Kew, UK 1990. p. 337. - 126.
Olajide OA, Oladiran OO, Awo SO, Makinde JM. Pharmacological evaluation of Hoslundia opposita . Phytother. Res. 1998; 12: 364–366. - 127.
Moshi MJ, Kagashe GA, Mwambo ZH. Plants used to treat epilepsy in Tanzanian tradition. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005; 97: 327–336. - 128.
Shirwaikar A, Shenoy R, Udupa AL, Udupa SL, Shetty S. Wound healing property of ethanolic extract of leaves of Hyptis suaveolens with supportive role of antioxidant enzymes. Indian J Exp Biol. 2003; 41: 238–241. - 129.
Shenoy C, Patil MB, Kumar R, Patil S. Preliminary phytochemical investigation and wound healing activity of Allium cepa Linn. (Liliaceae). Int J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2009; 2: 167–175. - 130.
Mukerjee SK. A revision of the Labiatae of the Indian Empire (Doctoral dissertation), University of Edinburgh. - 131.
Ryding O. Phylogeny of the Leucas Group (Lamiaceae). Syst Botany. 1998; 23: 235–247. - 132.
Williamson EM. Major herbs of Ayurveda L, Churchill Livingstone, UK; 2002. p. 361. - 133.
Manjunatha BK, Vidya SM, Krishna V, Mankani KL. Wound healing activity of Leucas hirta . Indian J Pharm Sci. 2006; 68: 380–384. - 134.
Dahanukar SA, Kulkarni RA, Rege NN. Pharmacology of medicinal plants and natural products. Indian J Pharmacol. 2000; 32: S81–S118. - 135.
Nayak BS, Isitor G, Davis EM, Pillai GK. The evidence based wound healing activity of Lawsonia inermis Linn. Phytother Res. 2007; 21(9): 827–831. - 136.
Chidambara MKN, Vittal KR, Jyothi MV, Uma DM. Study on wound healing activity of Punica granatum peel. J Med Food. 2004; 7: 256–259. - 137.
Kumar A, Singh A. Review on Hibiscus Rosa sinensis. Int J Res Pharm Biomed Sci., 2012; 3: 534–538. - 138.
Nayak BS, Raju SS, Eversley M, Ramsubhag A. Evaluation of wound healing activity of Lantana camara L. – a preclinical study. Phytother Res. 2009; 23: 241–245. - 139.
Bhaskar A, Nithya V. Evaluation of the wound-healing activity of Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. (Malvaceae) in Wistar albino rats. Indian J Pharmacol. 2012; 44: 694–698. - 140.
Shivakumar H, Prakash T, Rao RN, Swamy BJ, Nagappa AN. Wound healing activity of the leaves of Thespesia populnea . J Nat Remedies. 2007; 7: 120–124. - 141.
Nayak SB KJ, Milne MD, Pinto-Pereira L, Swanston HW. Extract of Carapa guianensis L. Leaf for its wound healing activity using three wound models. Evid-Based Complement Altern Med. 2011, Article ID 419612, 6 pp. - 142.
Hukkeri VI, Nagathan CV, Karadi RV, Patil BS. Antipyretic and wound healing activities of Moringa oleifera Lam. in rats. Indian J Pharm Sci. 2006; 68:124–126. - 143.
Pandey IP, Ahmed SF, Chhimwal S, Pandey S. Chemical composition and wound healing activity of volatile oil of leaves of Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Adv Pure Appl Chem. 2012; 1: 62–66. - 144.
Roy K, Shivakumar, Sarkar S. Wound healing potential of leaf extracts of Ficus religiosa on Wistar albino strain rats. Int J Pharm Tech Res, 2009; 1: 506–508. - 145.
Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. In; Indian Medicinal Plants, 1st edn. Vol. III, International Book Publishers, Dehradun; 1980; 676. - 146.
Chopra RN. In: Indigenous Drugs of India, 2nd edn., Vol. I. Academic Publishers, Kolkata; 1993; 792. - 147.
Rahman MM. Bangladesh: (IUCN) International Union for Conservation of Nature. Invasive plants of Sundarbans. Interim report under SBCP Project; 2003. p.132. - 148.
Goel RK KSA-udfisweoMs, Tamrab hasma, Asparagus racemosus andZingiber officinale . Indian J Pharmacol. 2002; 34: 100–110. - 149.
Agarwal PK, Singh A, Gaurav K, Goel S, Khanna HD, Goel RK. Evaluation of wound healing activity of extracts of plantain banana ( Musa sapientum var.paradisiaca ) in rats. Indian J Exp Biol. 2009; 47:32–34. - 150.
Lal B, Mishra N. Importance of Embelia ribes : An update. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2013; 4: 3823–3838. - 151.
Kumara SHM, Krishna V, Shankarmurthy K, Abdul RB, Mankani KL, Mahadevan KM, Harish BG, Raja NH. Wound healing activity of embelin isolated from the ethanol extract of leaves of Embelia ribes Burm. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007; 109: 529–534. - 152.
Mittal A, Satish SS, Anima P. Evaluation of wound healing, antioxidant and antimicrobial efficacy of Jasminum auriculatum Vahl. leaves. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2015: 1–11. - 153.
Chaturvedi AP, Kumar M, Tripathi YB. Efficacy of Jasminum grandiflorum L. leaf extract on dermal wound healing in rats. Int Wound J. 2013; 10: 675–682. - 154.
Rajvaidhya S, Nagori BP, Singh GK, Dubey BK, Desai P, Jain S. A review on Argemone mexicana Linn.-an Indian medicinal plant. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2012; 3: 2494–2504. - 155.
Kiran K, Asad M. Wound healing activity of Sesamum indicum L. seed and oil in rats. Ind. J Exp Bio. 2008; 46: 777–782. - 156.
Parmer VS JS, Bisht KS. Phytochemistry of genus Piper , Phytochemistry. 1997; 46: 597–673. - 157.
Santhanam G, Nagarajan S. Wound healing activity of Curcuma aromatica andPiper betle . Fitoterapia. 1990; 61: 458–459. - 158.
Rubatzky VE, Yamaguchi M. World vegetables: principles, production and nutritive values. 2nd edn. Chapman & Hall, New York, United States; 1997. p. 843. - 159.
P Phillips SM. Portulacaceae. In: Beentje, H.J. (Ed). Flora of Tropical East Africa. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands; 2002; p. 40. - 160.
Rashed NA, Afifi UF, Disi AM. Simple evaluation of the wound healing activity of a crude extract of Portulaca oleracea L. (growing in Jordan) inMus musculus JVI-1. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003; 88:131–136. - 161.
Pennington TD. The genera of Sapotaceae. Royal Botanic Gardens K, Richmond, United Kingdom and the New York Botanical Garden, New York, United States; 1991. p. 307. - 162.
Adetutu A, Morgan WA, Corcoran O. Ethnopharmacological survey and in vitro evaluation of wound-healing plants used in South-western Nigerian. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011; 137: 50–56. - 163.
Nayak BS, Sandiford S, Maxwell A. Evaluation of the wound-healing activity of ethanolic extract of Morinda citrifolia L. Leaf. Evid-Based Complement Altern Med. 2009; 6: 351–356. - 164.
Nayak SB, Vinuta B, Geetha B, Sudha B. Experimental evaluation of Pentas lanceolata flowers for wound healing activity in rats. Fitoterapia. 2005; 76: 671–675. - 165.
Karodi, Jadhav M, Rub R, Bafna A. Evaluation of the wound healing activity of a crude extract of Rubia cordifolia L. (Indian madder) in mice. Int J Appl Res Nat Prod. 2009; 2: 12–18. - 166.
Jaswanth A, Sathya S, Ramu S, Puratchikody A, Ruckmani K. Effect of root extract of Aegle marmelos on dermal wound healing in rats. Anc Sci life. 2001; 20: 111. - 167.
Gautam MK, Purohit V, Agarwal M, Singh A, Goel RK. In vivo healing potential of Aegle marmelos in excision, incision, and dead space wound models. Sci World J. 2014. Article ID 740107, 9 pp. - 168.
Lemmens RHMJ. Mimusops elengi L. In: Louppe D, Oteng-Amoako, A. A., Brink, M. (Editors). Prota 7(1): Timbers/Bois d’œuvre 1 [CD-Rom]. PROTA, Wageningen, Netherlands; 2005. - 169.
Shah PJ, Gandhi MS, Shah MB, Goswami SS, Santani D. Study of Mimusops elengi bark in experimental gastric ulcers. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003; 89: 305–311. - 170.
Gupta N, Jain UK. Investigation of wound healing activity of methanolic extract of stem bark of Mimusops elengi Linn. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2011; 8: 98–103. - 171.
Ratsch C. The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and its Applications. Rochester: Park Street Press 1998: p. 944. - 172.
Avery AG. “Historical Review.” In Blakeslee – the Genus Datura, New York: Ronald Press; 1959: 3–15. - 173.
Nithya V. Evaluation of the wound healing activity of Datura metel L. in Wistar albino rats. Inventi Rapid: Ethnopharmacol. 2011; 4. - 174.
Dewangan H BM, Jaiswal V, Verma VK. Potential wound healing activity of the ethanolic extract of Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad and Wendl leaves. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2012; 25: 189–194. - 175.
Bharti M, Bias M, Singhasiya A. Evaluation of wound healing activity of Cissus quadrangularis . World J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2014; 3: 822–834. - 176.
Gbedema SY, Kisseih E, Adu F, Annan K, Woode E. Wound healing properties and kill kinetics of Clerodendron splendens G. Don, a Ghanaian wound healing plant. Pharmacog Res. 2001; 2:63–68. - 177.
Liu HW, Nakanishi K. The structure of balanitins; potent molluscicides isolated from Balanites aegyptiaca . Tetrahedron. 1982; 38:513–519. - 178.
Kojima H, Yanai T, Toyota A. Essential oil constituents from Japanese and Indian Curcuma aromatica rhizomes. Planta Med. 1998; 64: 380–381. - 179.
Arun MSS, Anima P. Herbal boon for wounds. Int J Pharmacy Pharm Sci. 2013; 5, 1–12. - 180.
Bhagavathula N, Warner RL, DaSilva M, McClintock SD, Barron A, Aslam MN, Varani J. A combination of curcumin and ginger extract improves abrasion wound healing in corticosteroid-impaired hairless rat skin. Wound Repair and Regen. 2009; 17: 360–366. - 181.
Pawar RS, Toppo FA, Mandloi AS, Shaikh S. Exploring the role of curcumin containing ethanolic extract obtained from Curcuma longa (rhizomes) against retardation of wound healing process by aspirin. Indian J Pharmacol. 2015; 47:160–166. - 182.
Kundu S, Biswas TK, Das P, Kumar S, De DK. Turmeric ( Curcuma longa ) rhizome paste and honey show similar wound healing potential: a preclinical study in rabbits. The Int J Lower Extre Wounds. 2005; 4: 205–213. - 183.
Sidhu GS, Singh AK, Thaloor D, Banaudha KK, Patnaik GK, Srimal RC, Maheshwari RK. Enhancement of wound healing by curcumin in animals. Wound Repair Regen. 1998; 6: 167–177. - 184.
Rouhollahi E, Moghadamtousi SZ, Hajiaghaalipour F, Zahedifard M, Tayeby F, Awang K, Mohamed Z. Curcuma purpurascens Bi. rhizome accelerates rat excisional wound healing: involvement of hsp70/Bax proteins, antioxidant defense, and angiogenesis activity. Drug Des Dev Ther. 2015; 9: 5805–5813. - 185.
Kamel MS, Ontani K, Kurokawa T, Assaf HM, El-Shannawany MA. Studies on Balanites aegyptiaca fruits, an antidiabetic Egyptian folk medicine. Phytochemistry. 1991; 31: 3565–3569. - 186.
Khanna S, Venojarvi M, Roy S, Sharma N, Trikha P, Bagchi D, Bagchi M, Sen CK. Dermal wound healing properties of redox-active grape seed proanthocyanidins. Free Rad Biol Med 2002; 33: 1089–1096. - 187.
Ghosh P, Gaba A. Phyto-extracts in Wound healing. J Pharm Sci. 2013; 16: 760–820. - 188.
Thakur R, Jain N, Pathak R, Sandhu SS. Practices in wound healing studies of plants. Evid-Based Complement Alternat Med. 2011; 17. Article ID 438056. - 189.
Fraga CG, Oteiza PI. Dietary flavonoids: role of (−)-epicatechin and related procyanidins in cell signaling. Free Rad Biol Med 2011; 51: 813–823. - 190.
Fakhim SA, Babaei H, Nia AK, Ashrafi J. Wound healing effect of topical grape seed extract ( Vitis Vinifera ) on rat palatal mucosa. Int J Curr Res Aca Rev. 2015; 3(6):477–489. - 191.
Shirley D, McHale C, Gomez G. Resveratrol preferentially inhibits IgE-dependent PGD2 biosynthesis but enhances TNF production from human skin mast cells. Bioch Bioph Acta 2016; 1860: 678–685 - 192.
Novelle MG, Wahl D, Diéguez C, Bernier M, de Cabo R. Resveratrol supplementation: Patel, H. H., and Insel, P. A. Lipid rafts and caveolae and their role in compartmentation of redox signaling. Antioxidant and Redox Signaling 2009; 11: 1357–1372. - 193.
Yaman I DH, Kara C, Kamer E, Diniz G, Ortac R, Sayin O. Effects of resveratrol on incisional wound healing in rats. Surg Today. 2013; 43(12): 1433–1438. - 194.
Haslam, E. Natural polyphenols (vegetable tannins) as drugs: possible modes of action. J Nat Prod. 1996; 59: 205–215. - 195.
Aerts RJ, Barry TN and McNabb WC. (Polyphenols and agriculture: beneficial effects of proanthocyanidins in forages. Agric Ecosys Environ. 1999; 75: 1–12. - 196.
Neves ALA, Komesu MC, Di Matteo, MA. Effects of green tea use on wound healing. Int J Morphol. 2010; 28: 905–910. - 197.
Ramos-Jerz MDR, Villanueva S, Jerz G, Winterhalter P, Deters AM. Persea americana Mill. Seed: Fractionation, characterization, and effects on human keratinocytes and fibroblasts. Evid-Based Complement Alternat Med. 2013; 2013: 391247. - 198.
Deters A, Dauer A, Schnetz E, Fartasch M, Hensel, A. High molecular compounds (polysaccharides and proanthocyanidins) from Hamamelis virginiana bark: Influence on human skin keratinocyte proliferation and differentiation and influence on irritated skin. Phytochemistry. 2001; 58: 949–958. - 199.
Bueno FG, Panizzon GP, Souza EV, Mello DL, Lechtenberg M, Petereit F, João Carlos J, de Mello P, Hensel A. Hydrolyzable tannins from hydroalcoholic extract from Poincianella pluviosa stem bark and its wound-healing properties: phytochemical investigations and influence on in vitro cell physiology of human keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts. Fitoterapia. 2014; 99: 252–260. - 200.
McKelvey K, Xue M, Whitmont K, Shen K, Cooper A, Jackson C. Potential anti-inflammatory treatments for chronic wounds. Wound Pract Res. 2012; 20: 86–89. - 201.
Shin YS, Shin HA, Kang SU, Kim JH, Oh YT, Park KH, Kim CH. Effect of epicatechin against radiation-induced oral mucositis: In vitro andin vivo study. PLoS ONE 2013; 8: e69151. - 202.
Balasubramanian S, Efimova T, Eckert RL. Green tea polyphenol stimulates Ras, MEKK1, MEK3 and p38 cascade to increase activator protein 1 factor-dependent involucrin gene expression in normal human keratinocytes. J Biol Chem. 2002; 277: 1828–1836. - 203.
Mackenzie GG, Adamo AM, Decker NP, Oteiza PI. Dimeric procyanidin B2 inhibits constitutively active NF-kappa B in Hodgkin’s lymphoma cells independently of the presence of Ikappa B mutations. Biochem Pharmacol. 2008; 75: 1461–1471. - 204.
Mackenzie GG, Delfino JM, Keen CL, Fraga CG, Oteiza PI. Dimeric procyanidins are inhibitors of NF-kappa B-DNA binding. J Biol Chem. 2002; 277: 1828–1836. - 205.
Kamimura A, Takahashi T. Procyanidn B-2 extracted from apples, promotes hair growth: a laboratory study. Brit J Dermatol. 2002; 146: 41–51. - 206.
Byun EB, Sung NY, Byun EH, Song DS, Kim JK, Park JH, Song BS, Park SH, Lee JW, Byun MW and Kim JH. The procyanidin trimer C1 inhibits LPS-induced MAPK and NF-κB signaling through TLR4 in macrophages. Int J Immunopharmacol. 2013; 15: 450–456. - 207.
Takahashi T, Kamiya T, Hasegawa A, Yokoo Y. Procyanidin oligomers selectively and intensively promote proliferation of mouse hair epithelial cells in vitro and activate hair follicle growthin vivo . J Invest Dermatol. 1999; 112: 310–316. - 208.
Crozier A, Jaganath IB, Clifford MN., Deters A, Dauer A, Schnetz E, Fartasch M, Hensel, A. High molecular compounds (polysaccharides and proanthocyanidins) from Hamamelis virginiana bark: influence on human skin keratinocyte proliferation and differentiation and influence on irritated skin. Phytochemistry. 2001; 58: 949–958. - 209.
Nijveldt RJ, van Nood E, van Hoorn DE, Boelens PG, van Norren K, van Leeuwen PA. Flavonoids: a review of probable mechanisms of action and potential applications. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001; 74 (4): 418–425. - 210.
Robak J, Gryglewski RJ. Bioactivity of flavonoids. Pol J Pharmacol 1996; 48: 555. - 211.
Ferrandiz ML, Nair AG, Alcaraz MJ. Inhibition of sheep platelet arachidonate metabolism by flavonoids from Spanish and Indian medicinal herbs. Pharmazie 1990; 45: 206–208. - 212.
Hasanoglu A, Ara C, Ozen S, Kali K, Senol M, Ertas E. Efficacy of micronized flavonoid fraction in healing of clean and infected wounds. Int J Angiol. 2001; 10(1): 41–44. - 213.
Lodhi S, Singhai KK. Wound healing effect of flavonoid rich fraction and luteolin isolated from Martynia annua Linn. on streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2013; 6: 253–259. - 214.
Hirota BCK, Miyazaki CMS, Mercali CA, Verdan MC, Kalegari M, Gemin C, Lordello AL, Miguel MD, Miguel OG. C-glycosyl flavones and a comparative study of the antioxidant, hemolytic and toxic potential of Jatropha multifida leaves and bark. Int J Phytomedicine 2012; 4: 1–5. - 215.
Ambigas S, Narayanan R, Gowri D, Sukumar D, Madhavan S. Evaluation of wound healing activity of flavonoids from Ipomea carnea Jacq. Ancient Sci Life 2007; 26: 45–51. - 216.
Mali PC, Ansari AS, Chaturvedi M. Antifertility effect of chronically administered Martynia annua root extract on male rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002; 82(3): 61–67. - 217.
Goldstein JT, Dobrzyn A, Clagett-Dame M, Pike JW, DeLuca HF. Isolation and characterization of unsaturated fatty acids as natural ligands for the retinoid-X receptor. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2003; 420(1): 185–193. - 218.
Michalik L, Wahli W. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) in skin health, repair and disease. Biochim Biophys Acta (BBA)-Mol Cell Biol Lipids. 2007; 1771 (8): 991–998. - 219.
Efron PA, Moldawer LL. Cytokines and wound healing: the role of cytokine and anticytokine therapy in the repair response. J Burn Care Res. 2004; 25(2): 149–160. - 220.
Calder PC. n–3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammation: from molecular biology to the clinic. Lipids. 2003; 38(4): 343–352. - 221.
Hukkeri VI, Karadi R V, Akki KS, et al. Wound healing property of Eucalyptus globulus L. leaf extract’. Indian Drugs. 2002; 39(9): 481–483. - 222.
Medal JC, Vitorino MD, Habeck DH, Gillmore JL, Pedrosa JH, De Sousa LP. Host specificity of Heteroperreyia hubrichi Malaise (Hymenoptera: Pergidae), a potential biological control agent of Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi). Biol Control. 1999; 14(1): 60–65. - 223.
Estevão LRM, Mendonca FDS, Baratella-Evêncio L, et al. Effects of aroeira ( Schinus terebinthifoliu Raddi) oil on cutaneous wound healing in rats. Acta Cir Bras. 2013; 28(3): 202–209. - 224.
Srivastava P, Durgaprasad S. Burn wound healing property of Cocos nucifera : an appraisal. Indian J Pharmacol. 2008; 40(4): 144–146. - 225.
Bergsson G, Arnfinnsson J, Steingrimsson Ó, Thormar H. Killing of Gram-positive cocci by fatty acids and monoglycerides. Note Apmis. 2001; 109 (10): 670–678. - 226.
Chadeganipour M, Haims A. Antifungal activities of pelargonic and capric acid on Microsporum gypseum . Mycoses. 2001; 44(3–4):109–112. - 227.
Nevin KG, Rajamohan T. Effect of topical application of virgin coconut oil on skin components and antioxidant status during dermal wound healing in young rats. Skin Pharmacol Physiol. 2010; 23(6): 290–297. - 228.
Shivananda NB, Dan Ramdatg D, Marshall JR, Isitor G, Xue S, Shi J. Wound-healing properties of the oils of Vitis vinifera andVaccinium macrocarpon . Phyther Res. 2011; 25(8): 1201–1208. - 229.
Castola V, Bighelli A, Casanova J. Intraspecific chemical variability of the essential oil of Pistacia lentiscus L. from Corsica. Biochem Syst Ecol. 2000; 28(1): 79–88. - 230.
Carson CF, Riley T V. Antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia . Lett Appl Microbiol. 1993; 16(2): 49–55. - 231.
Carson CF HK, Riley TV. Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil: a review of antimicrobial and other medicinal properties. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2006; 19(1): 50–62. - 232.
Halcón L, Milkus K. Staphylococcus aureus and wounds: a review of tea tree oil as a promising antimicrobial. Am J Infect Control. 2004; 32(7): 402–408. - 233.
Edmondson M, Newall N, Carville K, Smith J, Riley T V, Carson CF. Uncontrolled, open-label, pilot study of tea tree ( Melaleuca alternifolia ) oil solution in the decolonisation of methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus positive wounds and its influence on wound healing. Int Wound J. 2011; 8 (4): 375–384. - 234.
Carette C, Malotaux M, van Leeuwen M, Tolkamp M. Shea nut and butter in Ghana: opportunities and constraints for local processing. Rep Proj Oppor Shea Nuts North Ghana. 2009. pp. 1–88. - 235.
Goreja WG. Shea Butter: The Nourishing Properties of Africa’s Best-Kept Natural Beauty Secret. TNC International Inc; Stone Mountain, Georgia 2004. - 236.
Wallace-Bruce S, Appleton H. Shea Butter Extraction in Ghana. Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd (ITP); London, UK 1995. - 237.
Benhammou N, Bekkara FA, Panovska TK. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of the Pistacia lentiscus andPistacia atlantica extracts. Afri J Pharm Pharmacol. 2008; 2(2): 22–28. - 238.
Dedoussis GVZ, Kaliora AC, Psarras S, et al. Antiatherogenic effect of Pistacia lentiscus via GSH restoration and downregulation of CD36 mRNA expression. Atherosclerosis. 2004; 174(2): 293–303. - 239.
Djerrou J, Maameri Z, Hamdo-Pacha Y, et al. Effect of virgin fatty oil of Pistacia lentiscus on experimental burn wound’s healing in rabbits. Afri J Trad Complement Altern Med. 2010; 7(3): 258–263. - 240.
El-Soud A, Helmy N. Honey between traditional uses and recent medicine. Maced J Med Sci. 2012; 5(2): 205–214. - 241.
Al-Waili N SK, Al-Ghamdi AA. Honey for wound healing, ulcers, and burns; data supporting its use in clinical practice. Sci World J. 2011; 11: 766–787. - 242.
Bang LM, Buntting C, Molan P. The effect of dilution on the rate of hydrogen peroxide production in honey and its implications for wound healing. J Altern Complement Med. 2003; 9(2): 267–273. - 243.
Subrahmanyam M, Sahapure AG, Nagane NS, Bhagwat VR, Ganu J V. Effects of topical application of honey on burn wound healing. Ann Burns Fire Disasters. 2001; 14(3): 143–145. - 244.
Maeda Y, Loughrey A, Earle JAP, et al. Antibacterial activity of honey against community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA). Complement Ther Clin Pract. 2008; 14(2): 77–82. - 245.
Islam A, Khalil I, Islam N, et al. Physicochemical and antioxidant properties of Bangladeshi honeys stored for more than one year. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2012; 12(1): 1. - 246.
Al-Mamary M, Al-Meeri A, Al-Habori M. Antioxidant activities and total phenolics of different types of honey. Nutr Res. 2002; 22(9): 1041–1047. - 247.
Alam F, Islam MA, Gan SH, Khalil MI. Honey: a potential therapeutic agent for managing diabetic wounds. Evid-Based Complement Altern Med. 2014; 2014: 16