Protocols of sensitizations in food allergy
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7965",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology",title:"Liquid Crystals and Display Technology",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Liquid crystals have attracted scientific attention for potential applications in advanced devices. Display technology is continuously growing and expanding and, as such, this book provides an overview of the most recent advances in liquid crystals and displays. Chapters cover such topics as nematic liquid crystals, active matrix organic light-emitting diodes, and tetradentate platinum(II) emitters, among others.",isbn:"978-1-78985-368-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-367-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-505-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77795",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"liquid-crystals-and-display-technology",numberOfPages:198,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"eb83772cea6200bdd685b8a1b93ee35d",bookSignature:"Morteza Sasani Ghamsari and Irina Carlescu",publishedDate:"October 7th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7965.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5810,numberOfWosCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:16,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:40,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 20th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 11th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 10th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 28th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 28th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"64949",title:"Prof.",name:"Morteza",middleName:null,surname:"Sasani Ghamsari",slug:"morteza-sasani-ghamsari",fullName:"Morteza Sasani Ghamsari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64949/images/system/64949.jpg",biography:"Dr. Morteza Sasani Ghamsari is a senior researcher in the Photonics and Quantum Technologies Research School of Iranian Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute. His research focuses on photonic materials including metamaterials, quantum\ndots, and plasmonic nanomaterials that can be used in a wide range of nanophotonics applications. His recent interests also include nano-bioimaging, 3D printing, nanostructures for tissue engineering (ZnO, TiO2, etc.) and biomaterials including carbon, graphene, and\ndiamond quantum dots. He is an editorial board member and reviewer for different\ninternational journals and has collaborated with local and international academics/\nresearchers on post-graduate research projects. He has edited four books and published four chapters and more than 105 articles in scientific journals and reviewed\nconference proceedings. His papers have been cited more than 2100 times with\nh-index 26 and i-10 index 46 (Google Scholar).",institutionString:"Photonics and Quantum Technologies Research School",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"258032",title:"Prof.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Carlescu",slug:"irina-carlescu",fullName:"Irina Carlescu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258032/images/system/258032.jfif",biography:"Dr. Irina Cârlescu received an MS in Ecological Catalysis in 2000\nand a PhD in Organic Chemistry in 2005. Her areas of research\ninterest include synthesis and characterization of liquid crystals\nwith applications in opto-electronics, azobenzene compounds,\nglycoconjugates and ferrocene derivatives. She is a reviewer for\nLiquid Crystals, Crystals, Molecules and Medicinal Chemistry Research. She is also co-author of twenty-seven articles in peer-reviewed journals, h-index = 8.",institutionString:"Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iași",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iași",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1222",title:"Condensed Matter Physics",slug:"optics-and-lasers-condensed-matter-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"72382",title:"Introductory Chapter: Nematic Liquid Crystals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92726",slug:"introductory-chapter-nematic-liquid-crystals",totalDownloads:661,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Irina Carlescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72382",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72382",authors:[{id:"258032",title:"Prof.",name:"Irina",surname:"Carlescu",slug:"irina-carlescu",fullName:"Irina Carlescu"}],corrections:null},{id:"71926",title:"An Overview of Polymer-Dispersed Liquid Crystals Composite Films and Their Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91889",slug:"an-overview-of-polymer-dispersed-liquid-crystals-composite-films-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:1188,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Inherent and incredible properties of liquid crystals (LC) such as optical and dielectric anisotropy make them special candidates for flat-panel display devices; bi-stable reflective displays; high-definition spatial light modulators; switchable windows; haze-free normal- and reverse-mode light shutter devices; projectors; optical, thermal and strain sensors; tuneable lenses; etc. Non-linear response of LC material to the applied electric field is very useful in the above-mentioned applications. When a low molecular weight LC material is doped in a high molecular weight polymer matrix to obtain polymer-dispersed liquid crystal (PDLC) films, it offers flexibility and mechanical strength (structural stabilization) to the composite films—PDLC devices. Depending upon the concentration of monomer/polymer, these composite films are classified as polymer-stabilized liquid crystal (PSLC), PDLC and holographic PDLC (HPDLC) films. Depending upon the process conditions, we get phase-separated randomly dispersed micron-sized LC droplets in a continuous polymer matrix. These nematic LC droplets exhibit light scattering transmission properties depending on their orientation, which can be controlled by external electric field. This chapter gives deep insight about operating principle, phase separation techniques involved, alignment of LC and controlling LC droplet morphology of PDLC films to obtain desired properties. In order to improve the optical efficiency and to obtain the desired result from PDLC films, various guest entities such as dye and nanomaterials are doped in the host LC material. This chapter also accounts for various possible LC dopants desired for improving the electro-optic (EO) and dielectric properties of PDLC devices. Various applications of PDLC composite films are also described in this chapter.",signatures:"Anuja Katariya Jain and Rajendra R. Deshmukh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71926",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71926",authors:[{id:"34437",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajendrasing",surname:"Deshmukh",slug:"rajendrasing-deshmukh",fullName:"Rajendrasing Deshmukh"},{id:"318245",title:"Dr.",name:"Anuja",surname:"Katariya-Jain",slug:"anuja-katariya-jain",fullName:"Anuja Katariya-Jain"}],corrections:null},{id:"71353",title:"Cholesteric Liquid Crystal Polyesteramides: Non-Viral Vectors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91317",slug:"cholesteric-liquid-crystal-polyesteramides-non-viral-vectors",totalDownloads:603,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Polyesteramides PNOBDME (C34H38N2O6)n, Poly[oxy(1,2-dodecane)-oxy-carbonyl-1,4-phenylene-amine-carbonyl-1,4-phenylene-carbonyl-amine-1,4-phenylene-carbonyl], and PNOBEE (C26H22N2O6)n, Poly[oxy(1,2-butylene)-oxy-carbonyl-1,4-phenylene-amine-carbonyl-1,4-phenylene-carbonyl-amine-1,4-phenylene-carbonyl], have been designed and synthesized as cholesteric liquid crystals (LCs)—through a condensation reaction between 4- 4′-(terephthaloyl-diaminedibenzoic chloride) (NOBC) and racemic glycol, DL-1,2-dodecanediol or DL-1,2-butanediol, respectively—as chemical modifications of multifunctional cholesteric LC polyesters, involving new properties but holding the precursor helical macromolecular structures. The new compounds have been characterized by 1H and 13C-NMR, COSY and HSQC, exhibiting two 1H-independent sets of signals observed for each enantiomer, attributed to two diastereomeric conformers, gg and gt, of the torsion containing the asymmetric carbon atom in the spacer. They have also been characterized by x-ray diffraction with synchrotron radiation source. Thermal behaviour of the new compounds is studied by thermogravimetric (TG) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis. The substitution of the ester groups in the mesogen by amide groups causes an increase of thermal stability with respect to the precursors. Optical rotatory dispersion (ORD) is evaluated. Morphology of powdered PNOBDME exhibits spherical clusters of about 5 μm in diameter homogeneously dispersed. Molecular models show helical polymeric chains with stereoregular head-tail, isotactic structure, explained as due to the higher reactivity of the primary hydroxyl with respect to the secondary one in the glycol through the polycondensation reaction. Besides being biocompatible, these synthetic polyesteramides have proved to act as non-viral vectors in gene therapy and be able to transfect DNA to the nucleus cell. Similar new cationic cholesteric liquid crystal polyesters have also been synthesized in our laboratory.",signatures:"Mercedes Pérez Méndez and José Fayos Alcañiz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71353",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71353",authors:[{id:"205972",title:"Dr.",name:"Mercedes",surname:"Pérez Méndez",slug:"mercedes-perez-mendez",fullName:"Mercedes Pérez Méndez"},{id:"316150",title:"Prof.",name:"José",surname:"Fayos Alcañíz",slug:"jose-fayos-alcaniz",fullName:"José Fayos Alcañíz"}],corrections:null},{id:"68795",title:"Preparation, Characterization, and Applications of Carbonaceous Mesophase: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88860",slug:"preparation-characterization-and-applications-of-carbonaceous-mesophase-a-review",totalDownloads:1352,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Carbonaceous mesophase with a nematic liquid crystal structure possesses an easily graphitizable characteristic and can be used as a promising raw material to prepare anisotropic carbon and graphite materials with high performance and multifunction. Therefore, the carbonaceous mesophase occupies a pivotal and irreplaceable position in many frontier and cutting-edge fields. The controllable preparation and characterization of carbonaceous mesophase derived from a model molecule (i.e., naphthalene) are presented, especially the formation, development, and transformation of anisotropic liquid crystalline mesophase in the synthetic naphthalene pitch during the process of liquid-phase carbonization (350–450°C). The increasing applications of naphthalene-based carbonaceous mesophase as an ideal precursor material for fabricating representative advanced carbon materials with high added value (e.g., mesophase pitch-derived coke, mesocarbon microbeads, mesophase pitch-based carbon foam, high-modulus mesophase pitch-based carbon fibers, and high-thermal-conductivity carbon-based composites, etc.) are reviewed in detail in this chapter.",signatures:"Guanming Yuan and Zhengwei Cui",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68795",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68795",authors:[{id:"308403",title:"Prof.",name:"Guanming",surname:"Yuan",slug:"guanming-yuan",fullName:"Guanming Yuan"},{id:"309210",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhengwei",surname:"Cui",slug:"zhengwei-cui",fullName:"Zhengwei Cui"}],corrections:null},{id:"72667",title:"AMOLED Displays with In-Pixel Photodetector",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93016",slug:"amoled-displays-with-in-pixel-photodetector",totalDownloads:846,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The focus of this chapter is to consider additional functionalities beyond the regular display function of an active matrix organic light-emitting diode (AMOLED) display. We will discuss how to improve the resolution of the array with OLED lithography pushing to AR/VR standards. Also, the chapter will give an insight into pixel design and layout with a strong focus on high resolution, enabling open areas in pixels for additional functionalities. An example of such additional functionalities would be to include a photodetector in pixel, requiring the need to include in-panel TFT readout at the peripherals of the full-display sensor array for applications such as finger and palmprint sensing.",signatures:"Nikolaos Papadopoulos, Pawel Malinowski, Lynn Verschueren, Tung Huei Ke, Auke Jisk Kronemeijer, Jan Genoe, Wim Dehaene and Kris Myny",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72667",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72667",authors:[{id:"50125",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Genoe",slug:"jan-genoe",fullName:"Jan Genoe"},{id:"135511",title:"Prof.",name:"Wim",surname:"Dehaene",slug:"wim-dehaene",fullName:"Wim Dehaene"},{id:"312323",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolaos",surname:"Papadopoulos",slug:"nikolaos-papadopoulos",fullName:"Nikolaos Papadopoulos"},{id:"314732",title:"Dr.",name:"Kris",surname:"Myny",slug:"kris-myny",fullName:"Kris Myny"},{id:"314733",title:"Dr.",name:"Pawel",surname:"Malinowski",slug:"pawel-malinowski",fullName:"Pawel Malinowski"},{id:"318055",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Lynn",surname:"Verschueren",slug:"lynn-verschueren",fullName:"Lynn Verschueren"},{id:"318073",title:"Dr.",name:"Tung",surname:"Huei Ke",slug:"tung-huei-ke",fullName:"Tung Huei Ke"},{id:"318074",title:"Dr.",name:"Auke",surname:"Kronemeijer",slug:"auke-kronemeijer",fullName:"Auke Kronemeijer"}],corrections:null},{id:"72548",title:"Vertical-Type Organic Light-Emitting Transistors with High Effective Aperture Ratios",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92833",slug:"vertical-type-organic-light-emitting-transistors-with-high-effective-aperture-ratios",totalDownloads:607,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The inherent complexity of the structures of active-matrix (AM) organic light-emitting diode (OLED) displays severely limits not only their size but also device performance. Surface-emitting organic light-emitting transistors (OLETs) may offer an attractive alternative to AM displays. We report some characteristics of vertical-type OLETs (VOLETs) composed of a source electrode of low-dimensional materials and an emissive channel layer. With a functionalized graphene source, it is shown that the full-surface electroluminescent emission of a VOLET can be effectively controlled by the gate voltage with a high luminance on/off ratio (104). The current efficiency and effective aperture ratios were observed to be more than 150% of those of a control OLED, even at high luminances exceeding 500 cd m−2. Moreover, high device performance of micro-VOLET pixels has been also successfully demonstrated using inkjet-patterned emissive channel layers. These significant improvements in the device performance were attributed to the effective gate-voltage-induced modulation of the hole tunneling injection at the source electrode.",signatures:"Byoungchoo Park, Won Seok Lee, Seo Yeong Na, Jaewoo Park and In-Gon Bae",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72548",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72548",authors:[{id:"10259",title:"Prof.",name:"Byoungchoo",surname:"Park",slug:"byoungchoo-park",fullName:"Byoungchoo Park"},{id:"316591",title:"MSc.",name:"W. S.",surname:"Lee",slug:"w.-s.-lee",fullName:"W. S. Lee"},{id:"316592",title:"BSc.",name:"Seo Yeong",surname:"Na",slug:"seo-yeong-na",fullName:"Seo Yeong Na"},{id:"316593",title:"BSc.",name:"Jaewoo",surname:"Park",slug:"jaewoo-park",fullName:"Jaewoo Park"},{id:"316594",title:"MSc.",name:"In-Gon",surname:"Bae",slug:"in-gon-bae",fullName:"In-Gon Bae"}],corrections:null},{id:"72888",title:"Tetradentate Platinum(II) Emitters: Design Strategies, Photophysics, and OLED Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93221",slug:"tetradentate-platinum-ii-emitters-design-strategies-photophysics-and-oled-applications",totalDownloads:555,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter \ufeffprovides an overview of tetradentate platinum(II) emitters as a promising class of metal-organic phosphorescent dopants for organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). Tetradentate platinum(II) emitters showing blue, green, and red light emissions, which are essential for full color displays as well as white light emission, are reviewed and discussed in the context of molecular design and \ufeffphotophysical and electroluminescent properties. Emphasis is placed on the molecular structures, the nature of emissive excited states [including ligand-centered (LC), intra-ligand charge transfer (ILCT), metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT), and excimeric and oligomeric metal-metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MMLCT)], the intermolecular interactions impacting \ufeffphotophysical attributes (e.g., emission energies, quantum yields, and decay times), and OLED device performances.",signatures:"Huiyang Li, Tsz-Lung Lam, Liangliang Yan, Lei Dai, Byoungki Choi, Yong-Suk Cho, Yoonhyun Kwak and Chi-Ming Che",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72888",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72888",authors:[{id:"313356",title:"Prof.",name:"Chi Ming",surname:"Che",slug:"chi-ming-che",fullName:"Chi Ming Che"},{id:"318435",title:"Dr.",name:"Tsz-Lung",surname:"Lam",slug:"tsz-lung-lam",fullName:"Tsz-Lung Lam"},{id:"318703",title:"Dr.",name:"Huiyang",surname:"Li",slug:"huiyang-li",fullName:"Huiyang Li"},{id:"318706",title:"Dr.",name:"Lei",surname:"Dai",slug:"lei-dai",fullName:"Lei Dai"},{id:"318708",title:"Dr.",name:"Byoungki",surname:"Choi",slug:"byoungki-choi",fullName:"Byoungki Choi"},{id:"318709",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoonhyun",surname:"Kwak",slug:"yoonhyun-kwak",fullName:"Yoonhyun Kwak"},{id:"318711",title:"Dr.",name:"Yong-Suk",surname:"Cho",slug:"yong-suk-cho",fullName:"Yong-Suk Cho"},{id:"318713",title:"Dr.",name:"Liangliang",surname:"Yan",slug:"liangliang-yan",fullName:"Liangliang Yan"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7649",title:"Nanorods and Nanocomposites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4ec1066a1d642f736d04932ded52ab44",slug:"nanorods-and-nanocomposites",bookSignature:"Morteza Sasani Ghamsari and Soumen Dhara",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7649.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64949",title:"Prof.",name:"Morteza",surname:"Sasani Ghamsari",slug:"morteza-sasani-ghamsari",fullName:"Morteza Sasani Ghamsari"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"196334",title:"Dr.",name:"Soumen",middleName:null,surname:"Dhara",slug:"soumen-dhara",fullName:"Soumen Dhara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196334/images/system/196334.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Dhara received his Ph. 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The prevalence of allergies has dramatically and rapidly increased over the past decades in areas with a “westernized” or “industrialized” lifestyle. This increase and the dichotomy in the rate of allergic disease between industrialized and developing countries are two lines of evidence suggesting that environmental changes are a major factor in the development of allergies. There is mounting evidence that the microbiota is a key environmental factor that influences oral tolerance. Alterations in the sequential establishment of gut microbiota observed in western countries could therefore be responsible for a T-helper balance deviation toward a Th2 profile, a major factor in the rise of allergic diseases. Likewise treatment with broad spectrum antibiotics in infancy leading to microbiota alterations and dysbiosis, is associated with increased susceptibility to allergy [1]. Indeed recent epidemiological studies have linked factors influencing microbiota establishment and risk of allergy [2,3]. Hence, increasing evidences suggest that the composition of the microbiota influences intestinal barrier functions [4,5] and both local [6] and systemic immune responses [7]. A specific signature of the microbiota has been associated with allergy sensitivity [8-10]. This hypothesis has been confirmed by studies using mice models which have shown that the gut microbiota is likely to play a role in the development of oral tolerance. We and other have shown that the lack of gut microbiota in germ free mice is associated with the development of Th2 and IgE responses to dietary antigens [11,12]. The specific gut microbiota observed in mice with food allergy by Noval-Rivas
If present results of clinical trials do not allow concluding unambiguously in favor of probiotics, studies have shown the benefits of this approach, justifying further research in this direction [13,19-21]. Recent reviews reported studies showing the beneficial effects in the prevention of atopic dermatitis [19-21]. Prevention of respiratory allergies also seems possible [21]. Differences between studies are most likely due to differences in the populations studied - in terms of type of allergy, evolutionary stage of the disease, environment, genetic background - but also to the various probiotic used in terms of strain, dose, duration and time of administration in relation to the development of allergy, and finally the follow-up period [13,19]. The combined prenatal and postnatal administration of probiotics appears more effective [21]. However, the conflicting results reported today do not allow the recommendation of the use of probiotics in prevention of allergy by expert committees. Despite the promising results on prevention and treatment of allergic diseases by various strains, EFSA did not delivered favorable opinions on requests. Progress in our basic knowledge of probiotic strains, in strain selection, and in understanding their mechanisms of action is needed to give credibility to the health claims made for probiotics and especially for the design of efficacious therapeutic agents. For these reasons, animal models constitute unavoidable tools for biomedical research. They are used for their potential to mimic the human disease process, and allow better understanding of key events of allergic disease development.
In this chapter, only animal models that have been used to characterize the impact of probiotics on allergy will be described.
The impact of probiotics on allergy – including food allergy, asthma and atopic dermatitis – was mainly studied on small laboratory animals (mice and rats), but domestic animals, as dogs and piglets, were also used. It is important to carefully choose animal model because it can deeply affect the study. Indeed, genetic predispositions condition IgE responsiveness [22].
Mice are the first model organism because of its easy reproduction and its low cost of maintenance. This model does not completely mirror the human but it shares with him similar mechanisms of immune regulation, notably in T cell polarization [23]. These animals have the capacity to produce IgE and IgG1 antibodies, and, depending on their genetic background, strains can be divided into high or low IgE responders [22]. There are also differences in their ability to produce Th1 and Th2 cytokines.
Murine models of food allergy and asthma have been investigated in several strains, including BALB/c, C57BL/6 and C3H/HeJ. BALB/c strain is the most commonly used in models of experimental induced allergy. Indeed, BALB/c mice develop a strong Th2 response following sensitization and challenge with an allergen, with higher levels of allergen-specific IgE. It can be explained by a genetic predisposition towards the development of Th2 cells, implicate in allergy process [24]. This bias is caused by the loss of functional IL-12 receptor which leads to promote the generation of IL-4-producing cells. Indeed, IL-12 favors the generation of Th1 effector cells which antagonize the effects of IL-4 [25]. Many authors have succeeded to sensitize BALB/c mice with different allergens, such as ovalbumin (OVA) [26,27], ovomucoid [27] and β-lactoglobulin [28]. However, according to protocols, teams have obtained conflicting results. For instance, Morafo
C57BL/6 mice are intermediate IgE responders [22] and have been used successfully in allergen challenge studies [30-32]. C57BL/6 strain has the advantage of being stable and having its genome entirely sequenced. Moreover, the most available knock-out strains mice are created on C57BL/6 genetic background.
C3H/HeJ strain is also used [33-35]. It has a mutation in the gene
One study has compared these three mice strains in a model of asthma [38]. After immunizations to OVA/alum, BALB/c strain develops an α-actin smooth muscle hyperplasia and an airway responsiveness which was more important than in C57BL/6 and C3H/HeJ. These results have been confirmed by Van Hove
Strain NC/Nga, firstly developed by Matsuda
The rat is another small animal model to examine food allergy, but it is few implemented [43-45]. Due to the size of this species, it is possible to monitor within individual animals the kinetics of specific serum antibody responses. They have the capacity to produce IgE and IgG2a antibodies [46]. The Brown Norway strain is a suitable model with a high-IgE response after oral sensitization [47,48]. However, Dearman
Swine and dogs are an example of large animal models that have been investigated for allergy. They are less commonly used because they are most expensive than rodents and their housing is uneasy. However, in many aspects, closer similarities exist between these large animal species and humans. First, dog’s gut anatomy and physiology and nutritional requirements are similar to humans [50]. Second, atopic dogs share many allergies with human. Indeed, it develops spontaneously allergic reaction to dust mites and foods for example, with an incidence of 10% [51]. In this way, dogs present frequently IgE-mediated food hypersensitivity, with clinical symptoms comparable to those of human including gastrointestinal and dermatologic reactions. Of this fact, this model can be utilized for mimicking and characterizing mechanisms involved in the development of food allergies in children. To the best of our knowledge, up to now, the impact of probiotics has been only study on atopic dermatitis [52,53].
Only two teams used swine model within the framework of food allergy [54] and asthma [55]. Swine presents a number of important advantages for study allergy. Indeed, they have a similarity with young children in terms of size, organ development, intestinal physiology, whether anatomically or histologically, mucosal immunity and disease progression [56]. They are able to produce IgG and IgE [51].
Multiple methods are used to induce allergy in animal models. Differences between protocols consist of the nature and dose of the allergen, and the strategy used to sensitize the animal prior to challenge (route of exposure and use or not of an adjuvant). The number of sensitizations is also extremely variable from one study to another, between 1 and 4 per week, during 1 from 8 weeks, according to the model, the use or not of an adjuvant, and the route of exposure (Tables 1 to 3).
Many allergens are used to sensitize the different animal species. Ovalbumin (OVA), the main protein found in egg white, is used in more than 50% of publications on probiotic and allergy. Other major allergens are peanut extract in food allergy [30,35,43,57], birch pollen from
The dose of allergen and its frequency of administration are also important parameters in the magnitude of the immune response. Kroghsbo
The route by which antigen is administered has its advantages and disadvantages, and affects both the magnitude and the type of response obtained. It must be chosen depending on the purpose of the study. The route of delivery to animals should closely look like about the projected route of administration to humans. The most common routes for allergen administration are oral, IP and epicutaneous (EC) routes. Intra-nasal (IN) - for administration of pneumallergen in model of asthma [69], intra-tracheal (IT) [55], and subcutaneous routes (SC) [55,59,60,62,70,71] are more rarely employed.
To model food allergy, antigen administration via the gastrointestinal tract – in other words, by gavage (IG) – provides clear ties to the human condition, and it is thus very relevant for exposure to food antigens. Additionally, it has the advantage of being economical, convenient, and relatively safe. Oral route also allows testing different allergens to evaluate their allergenic potential [64]. Oral immunization does not discriminate between males versus females, with no differences in their level of Th1 (i.e. IgG2a) or Th2 -associated (i.e. IgE and IgG1) antibodies [65]. This route can be used for sensitization studies [30,33-35,43-45,72-75] but also for tolerance studies [76-78]. Consequently, this route is principally used to study the impact of probiotics on food allergy.
The intraperitoneal administration is a common technique in laboratory rodents. It can be used to administer large volumes of fluid safely, unlike oral route which only tolerate low volumes [79]. The pharmacokinetic of substances administered by this route is closed to those seen after oral administration, with a passage by the liver. Special care must be taken regarding the injected substances which should be sterile, isotonic and nonirritating. There are differences in sensitization according to the gender when this route is applied. Bonnegarde-Bernard
Some substances can also be administered directly to the skin surface (epicutaneous administration) for a topical affect. The allergen is captured by skin dendritic cells that migrate to the afferent lymph nodes and activate immune responses and allergen-specific cytokine production [84]. Several studies have demonstrated that this route allows to sensitize to various antigens, in the absence of adjuvant [85], with a strong Th2 response [86,87]. For that, they utilized occlusive dressings and/or prolonged exposure to the antigen. The extent of absorption of substances through the skin and into the systemic circulation depends on many parameters, as for example the surface area of application, the integrity of the skin and the contact time [79]. Contrary to the oral route, the epicutaneous administration is inadequate to discriminate the allergenic potential of proteins [64]. This route is very employed in atopic dermatitis model [52,53,66,88-95].
Several publications have compared the impact of these different routes of administration on sensitization. Animals can be sensitized to many allergens, but in an adjuvant-dependent manner, whatever the route practiced (IP, SC, IG, EC, and IN), with a significant production of allergen-specific IgE, IgG1 and IgG2a [49,64,85]. The maximal level of these immunologic markers is attained via the cutaneous route [85]. A mucosal administration (i.e. IG, SC or IN administrations) was shown to develop a robust allergen-specific IgA response by contrast with a cutaneous exposure [85]. The intraperitoneal route allowed a stronger IgE and IgG response compared with that obtained by oral route [49], but this response was weaker than the one observed with intranasal and epicutaneous allergen application [68]. Contrary to the oral route, intraperitoneal and epicutaneous administrations did not allow the induction of oral tolerance [87].
Most proteins are poorly immunogenic or non-immunogenic when administered on their own. To increase the immune response and thus sensitize animals, the majority of experimental studies utilize an adjuvant. The latter leads to a Th2 skewing, and abrogates the establishment of oral tolerance [96, 97]. There are exogenous Th2 adjuvants as glycans, endogenous adjuvants as thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) and experimental adjuvants as cholera toxin, aluminum hydroxide and enterotoxin B from
Cholera toxin (CT) is secreted by the bacterium
Aluminum hydroxide (alum) rarely induces cellular immune responses. However, it slows down the rate of release of the antigen and in this way increases the duration of antigen interaction with the immune system. It also promotes macrophage uptake. Therefore, it enhances the immune response against the antigen [97,99].
The enterotoxin B (SEB) is produced by
Few studies have focused on the impact of dose adjuvant on sensitization. Kroghsbo
Animal models can be used to select probiotic strains which can prevent or manage allergy, and to study their mechanism of action. Indeed, these animal models can be discriminant. For instance, if number of studies showed a positive impact of probiotic supplementation in their models of allergy (Tables 4 to 6), Meijerink
The beneficial effect of probiotic supplementation is evaluated according to the model used.
In models of anaphylaxis, clinical markers are analyzed after challenge by allergen, according to a scale score based on observed clinical symptoms (number of itches, mobility during the experiment, swelling of eyes and/or noise, aspect of hair, and body temperature). Thang
In models of asthma, there is no scale of scores. The impact of probiotic is estimated by the determination of the cellular composition of bronchoalveolar fluid (total cell count and proportion of each cell type – lymphocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils and monocytes), the evaluation of number of infiltrated inflammatory cells in lung, and by the measurement of bronchial hyperresponsiveness [70,81,104].
As in models of food allergy, a scale of scores can be used in models of atopic dermatitis. Matsuda
The limit of all these evaluations lies in its subjectivity despite a blind evaluation system. This subjectivity results in a problem of reproducibility of the method. An analysis of biological markers of allergic reaction, i.e. the dosage in plasma of mast cell protease-1 (MCP-1) and/or histamine release during mast cell degranulation, provides less subjective data than clinical score [30,34,35]. These models also allow evaluating sensitization through dosage of allergen-specific and total IgE, IgG1 and IgG2a [60,92,100].
The dose of probiotic is often comprised between 106 and 109 CFU. When the dose of probiotic is tested, the highest dose shows, most of the time, better results [35,62,89,94,106]. Jan
In oral administration, we distinguish the intra-gastric (IG) administration, in other words the gavage (with a needle), from oral administration (PO) (probiotic mixed in water or food). These two routes of exposure are principally used for the probiotic supplementation and whatever the types of allergy study. Gavage allows giving a precise dose of bacteria, but it is constraining because each animal must be handled individually leading to an additional stress in animals. Administration of the probiotic strains in drinking water or food avoids these problems of stress, but it raises the problem of their stability. Moreover, it does not allow knowing precisely the amount of bacteria received per day per animal. Probiotic can also be given by intranasal administration in models of asthma, or by epicutaneous exposure in models of atopic dermatitis. Intranasal administration allows a contact more extended with the probiotic, and therefore a longer action. However, according to the protocols, an anesthesia is necessary [107,108]. It could affect the lung antigen deposition by changing the breathing pattern and airway reflexes in animal [109]. Pellaton
In the window of administration, we will consider the number of weeks of supplementation as well as the number of administration per week. According to studies, the probiotic is administered between 1 to 15 weeks, during 3 to 7 days per week.
The term “prevention” refers to an administration of the probiotic that starts prior to sensitizations and continues throughout the experiment. On the contrary, the term “management/treatment” refers to an administration of the probiotic that starts after sensitizations until the end of protocol.
In studies, probiotic is mainly tested for prevention and therefore administrated until two weeks before the start of sensitizations. Meijerink
This high heterogeneity in the different protocols of probiotic administration make difficult, even impossible, comparisons between studies, and prevents establishment of an optimal administration scheme of probiotic. Comparison between prevention and management protocols shows that the window of administration plays a key role in the efficiency of probiotic, with a better effect in prevention. Indeed, in a model of food allergy, Kim
The age and the sanitary status of animals have also an influence. In study of Lyons
At a time when probiotics seem promising products for the prevention and treatment of allergy, fundamental and clinical studies failed the issuance of health claims and the implementation of recommendations by expert committees. The use of animal models is an essential step in the selection of strains of interest. However, such a use must be part of a rationalization process taking into account the 3Rs (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle) and ethical rules.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
BALB/c | \n\t\t\t6 wks | \n\t\t\tBLG | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x1 wk | \n\t\t\t[80] | \n\t\t
BALB/c male | \n\t\t\t3 wks | \n\t\t\tBLG | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x3 wks | \n\t\t\t[28] | \n\t\t
BALB/c female | \n\t\t\t6 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/2wks, x2 | \n\t\t\t[100] | \n\t\t
OVA-TCR female | \n\t\t\t8 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIG | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t4/wk, x2 wks | \n\t\t\t[73] | \n\t\t
C3H/HeOuJ female | \n\t\t\t6 wks | \n\t\t\tpeanut extract | \n\t\t\tIG | \n\t\t\tCT | \n\t\t\t3/wk then 1/wk, x3 wks | \n\t\t\t[57] | \n\t\t
BALB/c | \n\t\t\t6 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIG | \n\t\t\tCT | \n\t\t\t4/wk then 1/wk | \n\t\t\t[75] | \n\t\t
Swiss Albino | \n\t\t\t6-8 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x2 wks | \n\t\t\t[116] | \n\t\t
C3H/HeJ female | \n\t\t\t8 wks | \n\t\t\tshrimp tropomyosin | \n\t\t\tIG | \n\t\t\tCT | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x4 wks | \n\t\t\t[34] | \n\t\t
BALB/c female | \n\t\t\t18-22g | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\tSEB | \n\t\t\t3/wk, x1 wk | \n\t\t\t[115] | \n\t\t
C3H/HeJ female | \n\t\t\t5 wks | \n\t\t\tpeanut extract | \n\t\t\tIG | \n\t\t\tCT | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x8 wks | \n\t\t\t[35] | \n\t\t
BALB/c male | \n\t\t\t7 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x2 wks | \n\t\t\t[83] | \n\t\t
C3H/HeJ female | \n\t\t\t5 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIG | \n\t\t\tCT | \n\t\t\t3/wk then 1/2wks, x2 | \n\t\t\t[72] | \n\t\t
C3H/HeOuJ female | \n\t\t\t3 wks | \n\t\t\twhey protein | \n\t\t\tIG | \n\t\t\tCT | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x6 wks | \n\t\t\t[74] | \n\t\t
BALB/c | \n\t\t\t8 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\tCT | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x3 wks | \n\t\t\t[112] | \n\t\t
C57BL/6 female | \n\t\t\t8 wks | \n\t\t\tpeanut extract | \n\t\t\tIG | \n\t\t\tCT | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x4 wks | \n\t\t\t[30] | \n\t\t
C3H/HeJ female | \n\t\t\t3 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIG | \n\t\t\tCT | \n\t\t\t3/wk then 1/2wks, x2 | \n\t\t\t[33] | \n\t\t
Sprague-Dawley male | \n\t\t\t150-180g | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIG and IP | \n\t\t\tFreund | \n\t\t\t4/wk then 1/wk | \n\t\t\t[44] | \n\t\t
Brown-Norway female | \n\t\t\t3 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIG | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t7/wk, x6 wks | \n\t\t\t[45] | \n\t\t
Brown-Norway female | \n\t\t\t3-4 wks | \n\t\t\tpeanut extract | \n\t\t\tIG | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t7/wk, x6 wks | \n\t\t\t[43] | \n\t\t
Yorkshire | \n\t\t\tbirth | \n\t\t\tovomucoid | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\tCT | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x3 wks | \n\t\t\t[54] | \n\t\t
Protocols of sensitizations in food allergy
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
GF BALB/c female | \n\t\t\t8 wks | \n\t\t\tBet v 1 | \n\t\t\tSC | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/2wks, x3 | \n\t\t\t[60] | \n\t\t
BALB/c female | \n\t\t\t5 wks | \n\t\t\tcedar pollen | \n\t\t\tSC | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t5/2wks | \n\t\t\t[70] | \n\t\t
GF BALB/c | \n\t\t\tbirth | \n\t\t\tBet v 1 | \n\t\t\tSC | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/2wks, x3 | \n\t\t\t[59] | \n\t\t
BALB/c female | \n\t\t\t6 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x2 wks | \n\t\t\t[91] | \n\t\t
BALB/c male | \n\t\t\t20-25g | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x2 wks | \n\t\t\t[104] | \n\t\t
BALB/c female | \n\t\t\t6-8 wks | \n\t\t\tDer p | \n\t\t\tSC | \n\t\t\tFreund | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x2 wks | \n\t\t\t[62] | \n\t\t
BALB/c female | \n\t\t\t6-10 wks | \n\t\t\tBet v 1 + | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/2wks, x3 | \n\t\t\t[58] | \n\t\t
BALB/c male | \n\t\t\t5 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIP and IN | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/2wks (IP) then 3/wk, x4 wks (IN) | \n\t\t\t[69] | \n\t\t
BALB/c female | \n\t\t\t3 wks | \n\t\t\tcedar pollen | \n\t\t\tSC | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t4/wk then 1/wk | \n\t\t\t[71] | \n\t\t
BALB/c female | \n\t\t\t6-8 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/2wks, x4 | \n\t\t\t[82] | \n\t\t
BALB/c male | \n\t\t\t5-8 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x2 wks | \n\t\t\t[81] | \n\t\t
C57BL/6 female | \n\t\t\t6-8 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/2wks, x2 | \n\t\t\t[31] | \n\t\t
BALB/c male | \n\t\t\t20-25g | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t2/wk, x1 wk | \n\t\t\t[111,117] | \n\t\t
C57BL/6 female | \n\t\t\t3-4 wks | \n\t\t\tDer p2 | \n\t\t\tEC | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t1/2wks, x3 | \n\t\t\t[32] | \n\t\t
BALB/c | \n\t\t\t20-25g | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\tCT | \n\t\t\t2/wk, x1 wk | \n\t\t\t[112] | \n\t\t
BALB/c | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\tDer p1 | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x3 wks | \n\t\t\t[61] | \n\t\t
BALB/c female | \n\t\t\t6 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x2 wks | \n\t\t\t[110] | \n\t\t
BALB/c female | \n\t\t\t4 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/2wks, x2 | \n\t\t\t[106] | \n\t\t
BALB/c female | \n\t\t\t8 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t3/wk, x2 wks | \n\t\t\t[118] | \n\t\t
BALB/c female | \n\t\t\t6-8 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/2wks, x2 | \n\t\t\t[119] | \n\t\t
BALB/c female | \n\t\t\t8 wks | \n\t\t\tPar j 1 | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/3wks, x2 | \n\t\t\t[101] | \n\t\t
Duroc x Landrace | \n\t\t\t3 wks | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tSC et IT | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/2wks, x3 (SC) then 1/2wks, x2 (IT) | \n\t\t\t[55] | \n\t\t
Protocols of sensitizations in asthma
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
NC/Nga | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\tFITC | \n\t\t\tEC | \n\t\t\tdibutyl phtalate | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x3 wks | \n\t\t\t[92] | \n\t\t
NC/Nga male | \n\t\t\t6 wks | \n\t\t\tDNCB | \n\t\t\tEC | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t2/wk, x2 wks | \n\t\t\t[120] | \n\t\t
NC/NgaTnd | \n\t\t\t8 wks | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t[105] | \n\t\t
SKH-1/fr female | \n\t\t\t4 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tEC | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t1/3wks, x3 | \n\t\t\t[90] | \n\t\t
NC/Nga | \n\t\t\t6 wks | \n\t\t\tDf | \n\t\t\tEC | \n\t\t\tSDS | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x5 wks | \n\t\t\t[95] | \n\t\t
NC/NgaTndCrlj female | \n\t\t\t10 wks | \n\t\t\tDf | \n\t\t\tEC | \n\t\t\tSDS | \n\t\t\t2/wk, x4 wks | \n\t\t\t[88] | \n\t\t
BALB/c female | \n\t\t\t8-10 wks | \n\t\t\tOVA | \n\t\t\tIP and EC | \n\t\t\talum | \n\t\t\t1/2wks, x2 then 7/2wk, x3 | \n\t\t\t[94] | \n\t\t
NC/NgaTnd | \n\t\t\t5 wks | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t[42] | \n\t\t
NC/Nga male | \n\t\t\t4 wks | \n\t\t\tDF | \n\t\t\tIP | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t1/wk, x14 wks | \n\t\t\t[121] | \n\t\t
NC/Nga female | \n\t\t\t6 wks | \n\t\t\tDNCB | \n\t\t\tEC | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t2/wk, x3 wks | \n\t\t\t[89] | \n\t\t
NC/Nga female | \n\t\t\tbirth | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t[122] | \n\t\t
NC/Nga | \n\t\t\t6 wks | \n\t\t\tDf | \n\t\t\tEC | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t3/wk, x5 wks | \n\t\t\t[66] | \n\t\t
NC/Nga male | \n\t\t\t6 wks | \n\t\t\tPCl | \n\t\t\tEC | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t1x | \n\t\t\t[93] | \n\t\t
Beagle | \n\t\t\tbirth | \n\t\t\tDf | \n\t\t\tEC | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t3/wk, x1 wk | \n\t\t\t[53] | \n\t\t
Beagle | \n\t\t\tbirth | \n\t\t\tDf | \n\t\t\tEC | \n\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t2/wk, x12 wks | \n\t\t\t[52] | \n\t\t
Protocols of sensitizations in atopic dermatitis
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tIG | \n\t\t\t3/wk, x4 wks | \n\t\t\t200µg or 2mg | \n\t\t\tsensitization | \n\t\t\t↘ | \n\t\t\t[80] | \n\t\t
VSL#3 | \n\t\t\tIG | \n\t\t\t7/wk, x5 wks | \n\t\t\t15.109 CFU | \n\t\t\tclinic sensitization | \n\t\t\t↘ ↘ | \n\t\t\t[28] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tIG | \n\t\t\t7/wk, x3 wks | \n\t\t\t2mg | \n\t\t\tsensitization | \n\t\t\tL1, L3, L4, ↗ L2 | \n\t\t\t[100] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tIG | \n\t\t\t4/wk, x2 wks | \n\t\t\t2mg | \n\t\t\tclinic sensitization | \n\t\t\t↘ LB, LC, BL ↘ LB, LC, BL | \n\t\t\t[73] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tIG | \n\t\t\t3/wk, x6 wks | \n\t\t\t109 CFU | \n\t\t\tsensitization | \n\t\t\t↗ LP, ↘ LS, LC | \n\t\t\t[57] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPO | \n\t\t\t7/wk, x1 (M) or 8 (P) wks | \n\t\t\t5.108 CFU/mL | \n\t\t\tclinic sensitization | \n\t\t\tP, ↘ M P, M | \n\t\t\t[75] | \n\t\t
Dahi | \n\t\t\tPO | \n\t\t\t7/wk, x1,2 or 3 wk(s) | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\tsensitization | \n\t\t\t↘ | \n\t\t\t[116] | \n\t\t
VSL#3 | \n\t\t\tIG | \n\t\t\t7/wk, x3 wks | \n\t\t\t7,5.108 CFU | \n\t\t\tclinic sensitization | \n\t\t\t↘ ↘ | \n\t\t\t[34] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tIG | \n\t\t\t7/wk, x1 wk | \n\t\t\t108 CFU/mL | \n\t\t\tsensitization | \n\t\t\t↘ | \n\t\t\t[115] | \n\t\t
ImmuBalance™ | \n\t\t\tPO | \n\t\t\t7/wk, x4 wks | \n\t\t\t0,5 or 1% | \n\t\t\tclinic sensitization | \n\t\t\t↘ ↘ | \n\t\t\t[35] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPO | \n\t\t\t7/wk, x5 wks | \n\t\t\t0,075% | \n\t\t\tsensitization | \n\t\t\t↘ | \n\t\t\t[83] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPO | \n\t\t\t7/wk, x7 wks (P) or 7/wk, x2 wks (M) | \n\t\t\t0,2% | \n\t\t\tclinic sensitization | \n\t\t\t↘ P, M ↘ P, M P > M | \n\t[72] | \n
Immunofortis (IF) \n\t\t symbiotic (SY) | \n\tPO | \n\t7/wk, x10 wks | \n\t2% | \n\tclinic sensitization | \n\t↘ IF, BB, SY ↘ SY, IF, BB | \n\t[74] | \n
\n\t\t \n\t\t \n\t\t | \n\tIG | \n\t7/wk, x5 wks | \n\t2.109 CFU | \n\tsensitization | \n\t↘ BL, BB, LS | \n\t[112] | \n
VSL#3 | \n\tIG | \n\t7/wk, x3 wks | \n\t7,5.108 CFU | \n\tclinic | \n\t↘ | \n\t[30] | \n
\n\t\t \n\t\t \n\t\t | \n\tPO | \n\t7/wk, x7 wks | \n\t0,2% | \n\tsensitization \n\t | \n\t↘ BB, LC, EC BB, LC > EC | \n[33] | \n
LGG \n\t\t | \n\tIG | \n\t7/wk, x4 wks | \n\t109 CFU | \n\t- | \n\t\n\t | [44] | \n
LGG + | \n\tIG | \n\t7/wk, x2, 3 or 10 wks | \n\t0,5.109 CFU | \n\tsensitization | \n\t↘ | \n\t[45] | \n
\n\t\t | \n\tIG | \n\t7/wk, x8 wks | \n\t109 CFU | \n\tsensitization | \n\t\n\t | [43] | \n
\n\t\t | \n\tIG | \n\t7/wk, then 3/wk then 1/wk, x3 wks | \n\t109 CFU | \n\tclinic sensitization | \n\t↘ \n\t | \n\t[54] | \n
Protocols of probiotic administration in models of food allergy
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t|
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\tIG | \n\t\t1x (parents before coupling) | \n\t\t2.108 CFU | \n\t\tsensitization | \n\t\t↘ | \n\t\t[60] | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\tIG | \n\t\t7/wk, x3 wks | \n\t\t60mg | \n\t\tinfiltration sensitization | \n\t\t\n\t\t | [70] | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\tPO | \n\t\t7/wk, x4 wks | \n\t\t2.109 CFU/mL | \n\t\tclinic sensitization | \n\t\t↘ \n\t\t | \n\t\t[59] | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\tIG | \n\t\t7/wk, x3 wks | \n\t\t109 CFU/600µL | \n\t\tinfiltration | \n\t\t↘ | \n\t\t[91] | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\tIG | \n\t\t7/wk, x4 wks | \n\t\t60mg | \n\t\tinfiltration | \n\t\t↘ | \n\t\t[104] | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\tIG | \n\t\t7/wk, x4 wks | \n\t\t1,2 or 4.106 CFU | \n\t\tsensitization | \n\t\t\n\t\t | [62] | \n\t
\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t | \n\t\tIN | \n\t\tday of sensiti-zation (M) or 3/wk, x2 wks (P) | \n\t\t5.108 CFU | \n\t\tsensitization | \n\t\t↘ M, P NCC3010 > NCC2461 | \n[58] | \n
\n\t\t LGG (LG) | \n\tPO | \n\t7/wk, x8 wks | \n\t5.107 CFU/g | \n\tclinic sensitization | \n\t↘ LC, LG ↘ LC, LG | \n\t[69] | \n
\n\t\t | \n\tIG | \n\t7/wk, x3 wks | \n\t30mg | \n\tsensitization | \n\t\n\t | [71] | \n
\n\t\t | \n\tIG | \n\t7/wk, x8 wks | \n\t2,6 or 5,5.106 CFU, or 3,6.107 CFU | \n\tinfiltration sensitization | \n\t↘ ↘ | \n\t[82] | \n
\n\t\t | \n\tIG | \n\t7/wk, x2 wks | \n\t109 CFU | \n\tinfiltration sensitization | \n\t↘ ↘ | \n\t[81] | \n
\n\t\t | \n\tIG | \n\tday of sensiti-zation (M) or 7/wk, x4 wks (P) | \n\t108 CFU | \n\tinfiltration sensitization | \n\t↘ M, P ↘ M, P | \n\t[31] | \n
\n\t\t | \n\tIG | \n\t7/wk, x1 wk | \n\t109 CFU | \n\tinfiltration sensitization | \n\t↘ ↘ | \n\t[111,117] | \n
\n\t\t | \n\tIG | \n\t3/wk, x4 wks | \n\t109 CFU | \n\tsensitization | \n\t↘ | \n\t[32] | \n
\n\t\t \n\t\t \n\t\t | \n\tIG | \n\t7/wk, x2 wks | \n\t2.109 CFU | \n\tinfiltration | \n\t↘ BL, BB, LS | \n\t[112] | \n
\n\t\t | \n\tIN | \n\t3/wk, x2 wks | \n\t109 CFU | \n\tsensitization | \n\t↘ | \n\t[61] | \n
\n\t\t | \n\tIG | \n\t7/wk, x3 wks (P) or 1 wk (M) | \n\t109 CFU | \n\tinfiltration sensitization | \n\t↘ P, M ↘ P, M | \n\t[110] | \n
\n\t\t \n\t\t | \n\tIN or IG | \n\t7/wk, x1 wk | \n\t109 CFU | \n\tinfiltration | \n\t↘ A, B IN > IG | \n[106] | \n
LGG (LG) \n\t\t | \n\tIG | \n\t4/wk, x8 wks | \n\t109 CFU | \n\tinfiltration sensitization | \n\t↘ LG, BB ↘ LG, BB | \n\t[118] | \n
\n\t\t | \n\tPO | \n\t7/wk, x7 wks | \n\t10.1010 CFU | \n\tclinic | \n\t↘ | \n\t[55] | \n
Protocols of probiotic administration in models of asthma
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t|
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\tCUT | \n\t\t1/wk, x4 wks | \n\t\t20% v/v | \n\t\tclinic sensitization | \n\t\t↘ \n\t\t | \n\t\t[92] | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\tIG | \n\t\t7/wk, x2 wks | \n\t\t5.109 CFU/mL | \n\t\tclinic sensitization | \n\t\t↘ ↘ | \n\t\t[120] | \n\t
ImmuBalance™ | \n\t\tPO | \n\t\t7/wk, x2 wks | \n\t\t1,8.108/g | \n\t\tclinic infiltration sensitization | \n\t\t↘ ↘ ↘ | \n\t\t[105] | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\tIG | \n\t\t7/wk, x8 wks | \n\t\t109 CFU/600µL | \n\t\tclinic infiltration sensitization | \n\t\t↘ ↘ ↘ | \n\t\t[90] | \n\t
\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t | \n\t\tPO | \n\t\t7/wk, x8 wks | \n\t\t1010 CFU | \n\t\tclinic infiltration sensitization | \n\t\t↘ A, B, C ↘ A, B, C ↘ A, B, C | \n\t\t[95] | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\tIG | \n\t\t6/wk, x4 wks | \n\t\t1,2.1017 CFU | \n\t\tclinic infiltration | \n\t\t↘ ↘ | \n\t\t[88] | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\tPO | \n\t\t7/wk, x4 wks | \n\t\t107 or 108 CFU | \n\t\tclinic infiltration sensitization | \n\t\t↘ ↘ \n\t\t | \n\t\t[94] | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\tPO | \n\t\t7/wk, x12 wks (P) or 7/wk, x7 wks (M) | \n\t\t5.108 CFU/mL | \n\t\tclinic sensitization | \n\t\t↘ P, M ↘ P, M | \n\t\t[42] | \n\t
\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t | \n\t\tPO | \n\t\t7/wk, x15 wks | \n\t\t1mg | \n\t\tclinic sensitization | \n\t\t↘ A, B, C ↘ A, B, C | \n\t\t[121] | \n\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\tPO | \n\t\t7/wk, x3 wks | \n\t\t1 or 2% | \n\t\tclinic sensitization | \n\t\t↘ \n\t\t\t 2% > 1% | \n[89] | \n
LGG | \n\tPO | \n\t7/wk, x10 wks | \n\t4.104 CFU/g | \n\tclinic infiltration sensitization | \n\t↘ ↘ \n\t | \n\t[122] | \n
\n\t\t | \n\tIG | \n\t2 days | \n\t1,5.1011 CFU/mL | \n\tclinic sensitization | \n\t↘ \n\t | \n\t[66] | \n
\n\t\t | \n\tPO | \n\t7/wk, x11 wks | \n\t0,03% or 0,3% | \n\tclinic sensitization | \n\t↘ \n\t\t 0,3% > 0,03% | \n[93] | \n
LGG Culturelle® | \n\tIG | \n\t7/wk, x6 months | \n\t20.109 CFU | \n\t- | \n\t\n\t | [53] | \n
LGG | \n\tIG | \n\t7/wk, x6 months | \n\t\n\t | clinic | \n\t↘ | \n\t[52] | \n
Protocols of probiotic administration in models of atopic dermatitis
Impact of probiotic by comparison with control mice, in term of clinical score (clinic); markers of sensitization, i.e. allergen-specific and total IgE and IgG1 (sensitization); and infiltration of inflammatory cells, i.e. lymphocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils and monocytes, in lung and/or bronchoalveolar fluid (infiltration).
↗ increase in symptoms or negative effect; ↘ decrease in symptoms or positive effect;→ no change in symptoms or no effect
Corn (
Corn is one of the staple foods and is used as an industrial by-product. The corn grain comes from the independent fruit called caryopsis that is inserted in the cylindrical rachis “ear”, each grain or seed is limited by the number of grains per row and rows per ear. The pericarp (wall of the ovary) and testa (seed coat) join to form the wall of the ear. The corn kernel is made up of 3 main parts: “embryo”, “endosperm” and “wall of the fruit”. The amount of kernels produced on each ear and the number of ears that grow is generally confirmed when pollinating [3, 4]. In addition to the different derivatives of corn such as corn oil, gluten, syrup, dextrose, ethanol among others. Corn starch provides ideal characteristics for various industrial applications in the textile, food, pharmaceutical, construction fields, among others. It is composed mainly of amylose/amylopectin in different proportions and polymeric organizations. These two components of starch represent approximately ≥99% of starch by dry weight. Commonly the conformation is 75% amylopectin and 25% amylose. The polymeric structure of amylopectin provides the morphology of the granule. Amylopectin is made up of -D-glucopyranosyl chains, which are highly branched and the chains are connected to each other by 1,4 bonds, with almost 6% of 1,6 bonds forming branch points. Amylose is found in small amounts compared to amylopectin. It is an unbranched unit with 1,4-linked glucopyranosyl units, although it does not have branches, but there are some molecules that are slightly branched with 1,6-linkages. Amylopectin is the main molecule that causes the various changes on the physicochemical properties of the starch granule, changing the rheological, hygroscopic, retrogradation and leaching properties of amylose, generating new structural conformations, glass transition and maximum viscosity. On the other hand, amylose (leaching) also has a directly proportional effect on the changes that amylopectin presents, due to the response factors applied to starch [5].
Starch in the native state (without amylose/amylopectin structural modification) is available as a reserve carbohydrate in many parts of plants, including roots, tubers, cereals, and seeds. Figure 1 presents a proposed scheme on the biosynthesis of corn starch. In general, the main enzymes for starch biosynthesis include mainly ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylases (AGPases), granule-bound starch synthases (GBSS), soluble starch synthases (SS), starch branching enzymes (BE) and starch debranching enzymes (DBE). AGPase catalyzes the first step reaction of starch biosynthesis by converting glucose 1-phosphate (Glc-1-P) and ATP to ADP-Glc and inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi) in amyloplasts. GBSS and SSS are responsible for synthesizing amylose and amylopectin, respectively. SBE introduces a branched structure by cleaving the internal chains of α-1,4-glucan and transferring the chain segment of six or more glucose units to the C6 position of a glucosyl residue of another glucan chain. DBEs, through their α-1,6-hydrolytic activity, act on highly branched pre-amylopectin, generating polymodal distributed end chains of amylopectin. However, recent research has shown that by modifying the plant gene, variations in the content, distribution, size and polymeric organization of amylose and amylopectin are obtained [6, 7, 8]. AGPase catalyzes the first key regulatory step in the starch biosynthetic pathways present in all higher plants that produce ADP-Glc and pyrophosphate (PPi) from Glc-1-P and ATP. Plant AGPases exist as a heterotetramer (α2β2) composed of two large (LSU) and two small (SSU) subunits with slightly different molecular masses [9, 10]. SSUs are responsible for the catalytic activity of the enzyme complex, while LSU is believed to modulate enzymatic regulatory properties that increase the allosteric response of SSU to 3-phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA) and inorganic phosphate (Pi) [9, 11]. AGPase activity is localized to both plastids and the endosperm cytosol of cereals, in contrast to other plant species where it has been reported to occur only in plastids [12]. In a previously reported subcellular fractionation experiment using corn endosperm, the highest AGPase activity was detected in the cytosol [13]. Furthermore, the genes responsible for the shrunk2 and brittle2 starch-deficient maize kernel phenotypes encode the endosperm-specific cytosolic LSU and SSU isoforms, respectively [14, 15]. This information is an indicator that plastid AGPase, by itself, is not sufficient to support normal starch biosynthesis processes in cereal endosperm, therefore, some researchers suggest that it is possible that plastid starch phosphorylase (Pho1) play an important role in the formation of primers to complete starch biosynthesis in the endosperm. Recent advances still trying to understand the functions of individual enzyme isoforms have provided new insights into how linear polymer chains (amylose) and branched bonds (amylopectin) are synthesized in cereals. Let us remember that both polysaccharides are made up of D-glucose chains linked by α (1–4) bonds. Amylose is essentially linear with α (1–4) bonds, while amylopectin is highly branched through α (1–6) bonds. Amylopectin forms type A and B polymorphic crystals that influence the arrangement of its double helices. Type A crystals produce relatively compact helices with a lower proportion of water, while type B crystals give rise to a more open structure containing a hydrated helical nucleus. X-ray diffraction studies allow us to know this type of crystal arrangements [16]. These conformations will always be different depending on the type of botanical source (TFB), as well as the enzymes involved in the formation of amylose and amylopectin.
Corn starch biosynthesis scheme.
The functional and physicochemical properties of corn starch are influenced by the amylose/amylopectin ratio, its chain length distribution and the presence of complexes in lower proportions with lipids/proteins. In its native form, corn starch has limited applications due to its low resistance to extreme processing conditions, shear, insolubility to water at room temperature, hygroscopicity among others, which are frequently found in the industry. Therefore, at present various modification techniques have been implemented that can be achieved by enzymatic, genetic, chemical, physical methods or a combination of some of these methods, which will allow a modification, mainly on the structure of amylopectin to obtain a functional starch that can overcome deficiencies and increase its usefulness for various industrial applications [17].
The use of different techniques to modify the polymeric structure of starch unfortunately have disadvantages, it can have high costs due to the use of reagents, some processes take long periods of time, low yields can generate residues that could affect the environment. Therefore, the proposals to use starch blends that promote new physicochemical characteristics that can replace conventional methods, trends that are diversifying unique properties by combining starches from different botanical sources [18]. Physical treatments are considered ecological friendly to the environment due to the absence of chemical agents and/or concentrated alkaline/acid solutions. It’s essential to know the physicochemical properties of each starch to obtain the best combination in order to focus on the application, innovation or continuous improvement of some industrial type product.
The blends of starches with different granule size and amylose content contribute to new molecular interactions between the amylose/amylopectin contents presenting significant changes in the physicochemical properties (e.g. rheological, swelling power, gel, solubility, viscosity among others), which are attributed to the content of amylose, chain length and retrogradation [18, 19, 20].
The biofilms that are formed from starch are a very promising option to avoid the excessive use of plastic (polyethylene, vinyl chloride, polystyrene and urea formaldehyde) and low and/or no deterioration on the environment. Unfortunately, with the population and industrial increase, the use of plastics continues to increase year after year, which generates millions of tons of waste after use. Polyethylene degradation is highly influenced by the biotic and abiotic environment, thus limiting effective degradation. Currently, through various investigations, the development of plastics for packaging from biodegradable materials is being promoted, using starch as the main raw material [21, 22]. The wide variety of research on the use of starches from various botanical sources (e.g. potato, corn, wheat, tapioca, rice and others) and its low cost together with comparable characteristics for film formation have shown that it is an efficient packaging raw material and a possible substitute for polyethylene, however, there are still physicochemical properties that are still under experimentation, taking into account the permeability to water vapor, mechanical properties, glass transition and hydrophobicity. The film formation process from starch granules has been described by different authors, the quality of the film is greatly affected by the amylose/amylopectin/plasticizer (glycerol) ratio, the latter being the most widely used. The content of amylose/amylopectin, a variation in the intrinsic properties of the film can be observed due to the deviation in the content of phosphorus, molar mass of starch and the biochemistry of amyloplast and chloroplast [23]. Corn is a predominant source of starch (65%) produces a film with a higher percentage of elongation, better oxygen barrier properties and a high elastic modulus, in addition [24]. The formation of biofilms from blends of cassava/corn starch with cellulose was shown to have a hydrophobic effect by reducing the affinity of starch films with water and considerably reduced the rate of permeability to water vapor, thus improving their properties. In addition, the amylose content promotes the production of a more hydrophobic film, due to the strong interactions of intermolecular bonds with glycerol [25]. New techniques for incorporating particles onto others, as reported by Farrag, et al. [26], I present reported that they prepared starch microparticles with donut-shaped morphology from two different botanical origins (type A and C for corn and pea starch granules, respectively) by means of a simple hydroalcoholic heat treatment. The donut-shaped microparticles were loaded onto films of the same botanical origin, generating greater thermal stability of the films produced. In addition, adjusting the percentage of microparticles in the thermoplastic films allowed to supply the desired amount of oxygen and water vapor to the packaged food. This is very important to keep packaged foods fresh and healthy for as long as possible. Emulsions are systems that are characterized by presenting small dispersed droplets of an immiscible liquid phase in another liquid phase, based on many applications in different industries (eg food, nutraceutical, cosmetic, hygiene, detergents, pharmaceutical and medical), however, to stabilize these emulsifying systems, synthetic surfactants (Tweens 20/60/80) or emulsifiers of animal origin (albumin/casein) are used [27]. However, they have disadvantages in their formulation because they generate foam retention due to the trapped oxygen and interactions with other suspended molecules and even the surfactant that is not compatible, an emulsion being key for the production of various food and pharmaceutical products, it is necessary to produce emulsions with solid particles of vegetable origin to stabilize the emulsions, which is called Pickering emulsions [28]. Compared to surfactant stabilized emulsions, Pickering emulsions tend to be more stable against Ostwald ripening and coalescence. Currently, starch and cellulose are used to create Pickering emulsions. Starch for its different physicochemical properties (generally recognized as safe, non-allergenic, abundant and cheap). Unfortunately, starches are still being modified to make Pickering-type emulsions, the most widely used is succinate with octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) reagent for emulsion production. So far, the information on Pickering starch emulsions is very scattered. The links between the manufacture of Pickering emulsions and their applications are largely absent. The lack of such links seriously undermines our research efforts to better utilize emulsions for practical applications [29]. Native starch granules are not suitable for creating stable Pickering emulsions. The starch is modified to be suitable for making a Pickering emulsion. However, future trends suggest using starch blends of granule size ≤10 μm that can be compatible with starch concentration, oil and water volume, pH, ionic strength, storage conditions, processing and presence of other components for obtain a drop size (1–100 μm) [29]. Amaranth starch has shown to have sizes ≤2 μ, which is a potential candidate to produce emulsifying systems without modifying the molecular structure by chemical agents, however, physical modifications will have to be used (e.g. temperature, pH, pressure, radiation, homogenization at high revolutions among others) to obtain favorable and applicable results [30].
Grinding on native starch granules to reduce the particle size, proved to be favorable to elaborate a Pickering emulsion system [31]. The high pressure treated starch chips and ground starch particles are partially gelatinized. They can represent a mixture of rigid particle and flexible polymer model systems in emulsions. The deformability of the starch particles can be modified in situ in Pickering emulsion systems. Heating Pickering emulsions can gelatinize starch granules to different degrees. Heating can make the boundaries between adjacent particles indistinct. During heating, some amylose and amylopectin molecules leak out of the swelling granules, causing a stabilizing layer of starch granules, becoming a layer of swollen granules interpenetrated with leached starch (amylose) polymers. In this type of emulsion systems with partially gelatinized starch granules, rigid particles (granules) and flexible polymers (leached starch molecules) coexist [32, 33]. In general, the droplet size of Pickering emulsions can be adjusted using compatible starch blends, different sizes, use of physical methods, suitable starch concentrations, and processing methods.
Extrusion is a continuous processing method, it involves high pressure and temperature in a short time. Its main function is to mix various components. The extrusion process allows the gelatinization of the starch, the denaturation of the proteins and even the molecular degradation due to the effects of high shear depending on the screw to be used, which in turn affects the physicochemical properties of the extrudates. Many studies have been conducted to explore the relationships between extrusion processing parameters and non-food starch characteristics in order to improve processing control [34]. However, little scientific evidence has attempted to understand the relationships between the physicochemical properties of extrudates and the molecular characteristics of starch after the extrusion process using starch blends, because using starches in the native state affects the bostwick flow (viscosity and/or consistency) on the extruder barrel causing a process obstruction, therefore, previous parameters for an excellent extrusion must be considered, such as the amount of starch moisture, the temperatures of each zone of the extruder, as well as the time and type shear stress, which is crucial to achieving product quality and developing novel products [35]. The use of corn starch/cassava blends provides different degrees of gelatinization and some existing air microcells in the extrudates, attributing this effect to the extension of the puff and the fine structures of the extrudates when they were exposed to different temperatures, residence times. in the extruder and the amount of moisture present in the starch sample [36].
The microencapsulation process by spray drying method allows the use of a large number of wall materials. It is essential to know the type of starch to use, it must present characteristics such as high solubility, low swelling power and viscosity, thus allowing effective encapsulation, since it can influence the properties of the emulsion, the retention of active principle, flavor and the end product shelf life. Currently there are no reports of works in which a mixture of two or more starches is implemented to be used as wall material due to the increase in viscosity, however, new trends such as using blends of porous starches, which are naturally derived from starch native by physical, chemical or biological methods. There are pores, holes and/or openings with diameters less than one micron in the structural lattices, through which molecules with smaller particle size can enter the polymeric structure and become encapsulated. The use of these possible starch blends will be an option and research topic to avoid conventional modifications on the structure of the starch, being an environmentally friendly option and without remnants of solutions with chemical reagents [37].
Corn starch is a natural biopolymer, it has multiple physicochemical properties, an option to replace most of the synthetic polymers in the future to reduce pollution and preserve the environment. The use of blends with other starches from different botanical sources and even other biopolymers of different molecular structure (e.g. pectin, cellulose, chitosan, gelatin, alginate, hydroxyapatite, protein) are tendencies to avoid the use and generation of chemical residues that affect the environment and increase production prices. These blends are promising that demonstrate in this chapter a biocompatibility and diversity of physical properties friendly with the environment without affecting third parties. The challenge to be overcome is to completely replace the most widely used synthetic polymers around the world, through the development of biofilms based on corn starch, and how to improve the mechanical, hydrophobic and permeable properties is still being investigated. In addition, cornstarch can be used to improve filtration materials, absorbents, transport, diffusibility, hydrogels, paper, adhesives, biofuels. Therefore, the future of cornstarch blends will continue to be an encouraging proposition to generate high-value products for novel applications in various areas.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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