Fiber bundle surface parameters of three processing methods [27].
\\n\\n
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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Fiber woven composites (FWCs) are a kind of new fiber composites. The fibers inside are woven to form a preform, and then the matrix grows on the preform to generate the final composites. The woven fibers can heighten the reinforcing effect of the fibers and improve the mechanical property of the composite. Therefore, FWCs could perform better than other fiber composites.
\nAmong FWCs, woven ceramic matrix composites (WCMCs) are star materials, widely used in aerospace, military, national defense, and some other advanced fields [1, 2, 3, 4], because of their high specific strength and rigidity, corrosion and wear resistance, and other excellent characteristics [5, 6]. For the industrial application of WCMCs, it is of vital importance to objectively evaluate the surface processing quality and, on this basis, judge the type and degree of processing damage. To do so, it is essential to measure the surface topography both accurately and efficiently and select proper indexes to evaluate the surface process quality. However, WCMCs are far more complicated than traditional materials. On the one hand, their surfaces are anisotropic and inhomogeneous and have obvious directionality and complex structures, which means that there are difficulties and challenges in measuring and evaluating their surfaces. Traditional surface measurement and evaluation approaches for isotropic materials are no longer suitable to WCMCs [7, 8, 9]. On the other hand, the surfaces of an WCMC present more types of processing damage than isotropic materials, including fiber pullout, debonding, and matrix cracking [10]. Each shows a different influence on the composite application, and thus judging the type and degree of processing damage to a WCMC is a new but difficult task.
\nTo date, there have been no uniform measurement standards to ensure that undistorted WCMC surface features are obtained or proper evaluation approaches accurately assess the surface damage [11, 12]. It is widely believed that only 3D measurements can obtain the complete surface information [7, 13, 14]. However, a traditional evaluation method used to assess the isotropic materials is limited to a quantitative description of the entire surface through some typical surface topography parameters, which ignores the subtle details of the surface. Such judgment standards are brief with respect to the direct relation to the surface damage. Moreover, to date, a majority of composite surface evaluations still use the profile arithmetic mean error
As such, the complexity of a WCMC surface calls for a newer and more targeted methodology that is tightly connected with the topography characteristic. When we look into the WCMC surface, it is obvious that its composition sequence is as follows: fiber -fiber bundle -cell body -whole surface [21]. Here, a fiber is the smallest composing unit, a fiber bundle is the smallest structural unit, and a cell body is the smallest repeatable unit. A cell body is made up of fiber bundles and matrix and has a nearly fixed surface microstructure. The material surface is formed through its repeating copy and translation [22, 23]. Thus, fiber damage influences the fiber bundle surface, damage to the fiber bundle surface influences the cell body surface, and damage to the cell body surface influences the whole surface property. Merely depicting the entire surface at one time without considering the surface structure composition of a WCMC is inadvisable.
\nIn this chapter, it is proposed that the measurement and evaluation of a WCMC surface should adopt a grading evaluation system based on its complex surface structure, which includes the four levels: fiber, fiber bundle, cell body, and the whole surface. On the fiber level, the typical forms of fiber damage and their effects on the surface morphology of WCMCs are analyzed, which lays a foundation for the measurement and evaluation methods on the next three levels. On each subsequent level, the system proposes a set of surface measurement sampling parameter determination methods and surface quality evaluation methods based on the principle of statistics.
\nAccording to the common fabrication process of WCMCs (shown in Figure 1), single fibers are surface modified to improve the bonding strength between fibers and matrix, and then several fibers are twined to form a fiber bundle. Multiple fiber bundles are woven in a certain way to a preform. The preform is then immersed into an environment with the elements or components of the matrix. The matrix can grow on the preform to generate the final WCMCs.
\nThe fabrication process of an WCMC.
The schematics of the WCMC surfaces of different woven methods (shown in Figure 2(a–c)) and process angles (shown in Figure 2(d,e)) indicate that there exists a minimum repeatable unit, which is marked with a red block in the figures. The unit is composed of the fiber bundles of every directions and the ceramic matrix. The whole surface can be formed through its repeating copy and translation. The unit is defined as the “cell body” in this chapter. It is obvious that the shape of a cell body is not uniform for a WCMC. In fact, the appearance of a cell body can change with different woven methods and process angles.
\nSchematic diagram of different woven patterns of WCMC. (a) 2D, (b) 2.5D, (c) 3D, and (d) 2D woven style with a processing angle of 90° and (e) 2D woven style with a processing angle of 45°.
In summary, fiber is the minimum characteristic of a WCMC, which forms fiber bundle. Fiber bundles are woven to different directions. The cell body consists of fiber bundles of every directions and the matrix. Eventually, the whole surface is generated by copy and translation of the cell body. Therefore, fiber is the minimum evaluable unit of WCMCs. Its damage form can influence the surface state of fiber bundles. Fiber bundles build a bridge between the “microscale” of the fiber and the “macroscale” of the cell body. Their surfaces include the information of the fibers and impact the surface quality of the cell body. Cell body is a key feature. On the one hand, its components are as complicated as the whole surface, which means that the evaluation results of a cell body can be used to represent and estimate a certain range of a whole surface. On the other hand, it is obviously affected by the fiber bundles and matrix inside; thus the analysis of fiber and fiber bundle can be used to evaluate the cell body.
\nIn this chapter, it is believed that the measurement and evaluation of WCMCs should employ a grading system. The evaluation of fiber, fiber bundle, cell body, and the whole surface should be separately researched and then integrated. On the fiber level, the typical damage forms of fibers should be identified and classified, and how the damage influence the using properties should be research. On the subsequent levels, two tasks should be accomplished. The first one is to select proper sampling methods to acquire the undistorted surface information. And the second one is to propose and test reliable evaluation indexes to quantitatively estimate the main damage type and degree of the surfaces. With all the work above, a grading measurement and evaluation system for the surface of a WCMC can be eventually built. The following parts of this chapter introduce the methodologies on each level.
\nWhen processed by machining tools, the surfaces of WCMCs interact with the cutting edges, leading to fiber damage. The damage of fiber on the one hand causes the removal of fibers and, on the other hand, turns into the machining defects on the surfaces. The multifarious types of the damage of WCMCs are the main feature of difference to the traditional homogeneous materials and, meanwhile, are the main source of technological difficulty of the evaluation of WCMCs.
\nThe typical forms of damage on the surfaces of WCMCs are the following:
\nFiber fracture, which is caused by the cutting edges directly cutting the fibers off, often happens when the fibers at the cutting area are tightly fixed by the matrix or by other fibers nearby. The cutting section of fiber fracture is V-shape, and the bottom of the V often appears plastic deformation, which is caused by the friction and squeezing between the fibers and the cutting edges. Fiber fracture is the most common material removal form of WCMCs. If the materials are mainly removed by fiber fracture, the finished surfaces are always of good quality and with low roughness.
\nFiber pulled-off is caused by the cutting edges breaking the matrix without cutting off the fibers or the cutting edges pulling the fibers out of matrix without cutting them off. This type of damage can leave fibers exposed or form holes on the finished surface, which decreases the surface quality. When the finished surface is assembled with another part, the raised fiber can act as a tiny cutting edge, harming the counterpart surface. When the finished surface performs as a friction surface, the holes may help contain lubricating oil and wear debris, alleviating three-body wear, thus improving its tribological performances.
\nFiber debonding, which is caused by the cutting edges removing the entire layer of fibers, often occurs when the fibers at cutting area are poorly connected with the matrix. Fiber debonding can result in collapses of large areas on the surface and greatly reduce the surface quality.
\nFrom the analysis above, it is clear that the machining process can cause manifold types of damage on the surface of WCMCs. Each kind of damage can affect the quality and performance of the surface in its own way. Therefore, the evaluation technology of WCMCs is required to recognize the main type of damage on a surface and quantitatively estimate the degree of the damage.
\nMoreover, fiber bundles, cell bodies, and the whole surface are, basically speaking, made up of fibers. Because of the directional arrangements of fibers, the height of the surface of WCMCs could fluctuate with the period of fiber diameter. The fiber diameter acts as an obvious fundamental frequency on the surface of WCMCs. It can influence the sampling parameters, such as sampling step, sampling length, and sampling area, on other levels. Meanwhile, the direction of fibers determines the direction of the fundamental frequency and can eventually influence the sampling direction. Thus, the direction and diameter of fibers are tightly connected with the surface measurement technology of WCMCs.
\nIn conclusion, fiber, as the minimum evaluable unit of a WCMC surface, significantly influences the grading surface measurement and evaluation system of WCMCs. On the one hand, when considering whether an evaluation index is appropriate for WCMC surface, it should be checked whether this index can help recognize and estimate the type and degree of damage. On the other hand, when determining the proper sampling parameters, the directionality and the diameter of fibers must be taken into consideration.
\nThe measurement of a surface is a process that obtains the height information of the surface. Surface measurement methods are divided into two classes: contact measurement, which uses a probe to measure the height data of points on the surface, and non-contact measurement, which uses light to measure. It was always believed that contact measurement could achieve higher measurement accuracy, although its efficiency was quite low and the measurement process was time-consuming. However, thanks to the development of optical theories and technologies, the non-contact measurement technology based on white light interferometry can get extremely high level of accuracy now as well. NANOVEA ST400 (shown in Figure 3), an optical non-contact measurement system, is used to measure the surface micro-topography in the research of this chapter.
\nThree-dimensional non-contact surface morphometer.
Because the measurement of a surface is in fact the measurement of the points on the surface, it has to be determined which points are chosen to be measured. This topic is related to the sampling strategy, which means how to choose a proper set of points to measure, in order to make the measurement results of these samples able to reflect the information of the entire surface. The first question is to use 2D measurement or 3D measurement.
\nIf a 2D measurement is adopted, points in a line are measured and calculated as one data set. In this term, sampling step (the length between two adjacent sampled points), sampling length (the length of the entire sampling line), and sampling direction (the angle between the sampling line and the structure of the surface) should be determined. In most instances of 2D measurement, one line of sampling is not able to reflect the entire surface because of the measuring error and the random surface damage. Several lines should be selected and measured in order to improve the stability of the measurement results. Therefore, sampling number (the number of the sampling lines) is also to be determined.
\nIf a 3D measurement is adopted, an array of points inside the entire surface are measured and calculated as one data set. That’s to say, the sampling area is the area of the entire surface. When sampling step is determined, the points to be measured are selected. It was believed that 3D measurement was more adaptable for complex surfaces because it could get more information of the surfaces. However, the research of this chapter proved that, if the surface to be measured is obviously directional, 3D measurement will lose its advantages and 2D measurement should be adopted. On the other side, 3D measurement always means long sampling time, huge data processing work, and, thus, low efficiency.
\nSelecting proper sampling parameters, including sampling step, length, direction, number of 2D measurement, and sampling step of 3D measurement, is a complex work. Small step and large length and number are always related to higher measuring accuracy but low efficiency and vice versa. Proper sampling parameters balance both two sides, maintain undistorted sampling, and, on this basis, reduce sampling points.
\nThe task of surface evaluation technology is to select proper statistical characteristics (defined as evaluation indexes in this chapter), which can be calculated from the measurement data of the heights of the sampling points. The following are the indexes adopted in the research of the chapter:
\nFor 2D measurement data:
\nFor each sampling profile
where the height of every sampling point is defined as
Based on the above, the four 2D evaluation indexes used in the chapter are profile arithmetic mean error
Here,
The normalized
According to the definition of
On the other hand,
For 3D measurement data:
\nThe four 3D evaluation indexes used in the chapter are surface arithmetic mean deviation
where the height of every sampling point is defined as
In order to illustrate the measurement and evaluation method, several materials were measured and evaluated as examples in this chapter. The information of the materials is shown as follows:
\nThe carbon fiber-reinforced silicon carbide ceramic matrix composite (Cf/SiC) was fabricated through chemical vapor infiltration (CVI) combined with a liquid melt infiltration process (LMI) [24]. The preform was prepared using a 3D needling method and densified using CVI to form a porous carbon/carbon (C/C) composite. Next, the porous C/C composite was converted into Cf/SiC during LMI, in which silicon carbide (SiC) matrix was formed through a reaction with carbon and melted silicon [25]. The density of the Cf/SiC composite is 1.85 g/cm3.
\nThe fiber diameter of the material is about 7 μm, and size of the cell body is about 1.6 mm × 1.6 mm.
\nThe Cf/SiC specimens were ground with four different processing angles. For 90° processing angle, the fiber bundles are divided into side fiber bundles and end fiber bundles, according to their directions (shown in Figure 4).
\nDefinition of the processing angle of Cf/SiC [
When measuring fiber bundle surfaces, 2D measurement should be adopted because of the obvious directionality of the surfaces. Here we take the surface of Cf/SiC with a processing angle of 90° as an example. Owing to the directionality of the fiber bundles, different sampling directions often result in different numerical characteristics, as shown in Figures 5 and 6. We can see that no matter what type of measurement direction is applied, there is no influence on the 3D surface topography. That is, a 3D sampling and evaluation method may not be able to reflect the surface details of the fiber bundle. The use of one or a group of 3D evaluation indexes based on a 3D sampled data fails to reflect the damage types related to the fiber orientation and machining direction.
\nSide surface topography of a fiber bundle with a scanning track perpendicular and parallel to the fiber direction [
End surface topography of a fiber bundle with a scanning track perpendicular and parallel to the machining direction [
On the side surface of a fiber bundle, the bonding strength between the fiber and matrix is weaker than that of the end surface. The most direct reflection of the machining direction is fiber damage such as fiber debonding, fiber fractures and delamination. The fiber direction scale is more notable than the machining direction scale, and the directionality of the surface topography mainly depends on the fiber orientation. On the end surface of a fiber bundle, the fiber is mainly subjected to a shear force. The main fiber damage is fiber shearing and fiber pullout. The machining direction scale is more notable than the fiber orientation scale, and the directionality of the surface topography mainly depends on the machining direction.
\nOn the side surface of a fiber bundle, as shown in Figure 5(c,e), when the scanning track is perpendicular to the fiber direction, the profile shows damage between fibers, whereas the profiles only show single fiber damage when the scanning track is parallel to the fiber direction (Figure 5(d,f)), which means that the profiles cannot reflect the machining effect on the whole fiber bundle surface. The same phenomenon occurs in the end surface of a fiber bundle. When the scanning track is perpendicular to the machining direction, the profile shows the integrated influence of the processing (Figure 6(c,e)); however, when the scanning track is parallel to the machining direction, the profiles simply show the effect of a single grain on the surface (Figure 6(d,f)).
\nFrom the analysis above, it can be seen that the 2D sampling and evaluation method is more suitable for a fiber bundle scale measurement. To guarantee measurement accuracy and consider the influence of the fiber orientation and machining direction on the surface topography, the scanning track should be perpendicular to the fiber orientation on the side surface of a fiber bundle and perpendicular to the machining direction on the end surface.
\nAccording to our research, it may be reasonably inferred that, for planes which are not truly along the fibers, the influence of the fiber orientation and machining direction should be considered. When the surface is full of processing traces and the fiber orientation is so obscure, the sampling direction should be perpendicular to the machining direction. In other cases, the sampling direction should still be perpendicular to the projection direction on the vertical plane along the fiber axis. However, a definite conclusion in this regard still requires further research.
\nThe side surface of Cf/SiC with processing angle of 90° is taken as an example to illustrate the determination method of sampling length when measuring a fiber bundle surface. Since the diameters of the fibers are approximately 7 μm, a set of candidate sampling length are chosen as the integral multiple of 7 μm, namely, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56, 63, 70, 77, 84, 91, 98, 105, 112, 119, 126, 133, 140, and 147 μm. In each sampling length, 1500 surface profiles are measured with a constant sampling step of 0.1 μm. And 2D surface roughness
According to the numerical values of 1500
The distribution of 2D surface roughness Ra under different sampling length [
The changing trends of
\nFigure 8 clearly shows the changing trends of standard deviation \n
Based on the results obtained above, a speculation is proposed that the mean value of a few number of
The changing trend of the maximum relative error under different number of Ra [
According to the analysis given above, the conclusion can be made that as long as extracting surface profiles averagely distributed on the side surface of Cf/SiC composite fiber bundle with the appropriate sampling length and sampling number, the mean value of Ra is steady and can estimate the whole surface roughness. For Cf/SiC composite used in the present work, the critical sampling length is 119 μm, which is about 17 times of the fiber diameter, and sampling number is 70.
\nIn this section, the side surface and end surface of Cf/SiC with processing angle of 90° are taken as an example to illustrate the determination method of sampling step, under the condition that the critical sampling length is 150 μm and sampling number is 200. It is clear that using a smaller sampling step can achieve more accurate surface data, whereas a too small step may cause an unnecessary sampling time and data processing cost. A method is proposed to determine the maximum sampling step (MaxSS) that can minimize the data size under the premise of undistorted surface sampling.
\nWe start from setting the data measured at the step of 0.05 μm as a certain type of real value
where
By looking up the table-α quantile of the t-distribution, \n
Here,
Changing trends of four evaluation indexes with increasing sampling steps on fiber bundle side surface [
Changing trends of four evaluation indexes with increasing sampling steps on fiber bundle end surface [
What needs to be mentioned is that the data used in Figures 10 and 11 are acquired using a sampling direction perpendicular to the fiber orientation on the side surface and the machining direction on the end surface. For each index, the upper and lower limits express the acceptance range. The measurement result that first falls out of range is marked with a red box, and the last sampling step before it is the MaxSS of this index. Combining all four indexes on each surface, the global MaxSS is 0.75 μm on a side surface and 1 μm on an end surface, which are approximately 1/10 of the fiber diameter.
\nThis chapter proposes four indexes for evaluating a fiber bundle surface, namely,
After measuring the six surfaces with the sampling length of 280 μm and sampling number of 200, the scanning track perpendicular to the fiber orientation and machining direction, and the sampling step of 0.5 μm, four indexes can be calculated for every surface. The results are shown in Table 1.
\nFiber bundle surface | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Side surface, ground | \n1.97 ± 0.03 | \n2.44 ± 0.03 | \n−0.55 ± 0.05 | \n3.29 ± 0.10 | \n
Side surface, sandpaper polished | \n0.98 ± 0.02 | \n1.41 ± 0.05 | \n−2.15 ± 0.09 | \n6.48 ± 0.59 | \n
Side surface, friction | \n0.56 ± 0.02 | \n0.78 ± 0.02 | \n−0.84 ± 0.07 | \n7.96 ± 0.44 | \n
End surface, ground | \n1.23 ± 0.02 | \n1.56 ± 0.03 | \n−0.31 ± 0.04 | \n3.60 ± 0.12 | \n
End surface, sandpaper polished | \n0.26 ± 0.01 | \n0.36 ± 0.01 | \n−1.39 ± 0.35 | \n12.80 ± 0.55 | \n
End surface, friction | \n0.20 ± 0.01 | \n0.24 ± 0.01 | \n−0.34 ± 0.19 | \n21.14 ± 2.88 | \n
Fiber bundle surface parameters of three processing methods [27].
The data in Table 1 reflect that, regardless of the surface processing method used, the side surfaces are rougher than the end surfaces, which can be indicated by all side surfaces having larger
As a comparison,
For both ground surfaces,
\nFigure 12 shows the fiber bundle surface topographies of three processing methods. Figure 13 shows the microscopic surface topography of six surfaces. It is clear that the values of the four proposed indexes have a strong and direct connection with the surface damage and, thus, have a good feasibility and interpretability for a surface evaluation.
\nTopographies of the six surfaces [
SEM images of the six surfaces [
Cell body contains different fiber bundle orientations, and the whole surface is composed of cell bodies; thus standard procedures designated to 2D profile sampling at fiber bundle are in general not applicable for 3D topography measurement for cell body and the whole surfaces, because 2D measurement is of directionality which mainly reflects the damage between fibers, the fiber, and the matrix. Whereas for cell body and the whole surfaces, the scales are bigger, thus the measurement and evaluation mainly reflect the damage between fiber bundles and the matrix, which cannot consider the integrated effect of the fiber orientation and the processing direction simultaneously. Therefore, a 3D surface measurement and evaluation method should be adopted at these two grades.
\nA proper sampling step can make the surface information of a cell body extracted accurately and meanwhile save the cost of data collection and processing. MaxSS refers to the balance point of the accuracy and sampling cost. If a sampling step larger than the MaxSS is adopted, the information of a surface is distorted; if a sampling step larger than the MaxSS is adopted, unnecessary data sampling cost is spent. Therefore, how to determine the MaxSS on a cell body surface is very important. This section proposes a method for this topic, based on the principle of residual estimation.
\nFor a cell body surface, the following steps can be executed to determine the MaxSS:
\nSample the surface using a small sampling step of the measurement device which is at least one third of the WCMC fiber diameter.
\nCalculate
Generally speaking, this standard value
Set
Since \n
Combining Eqs. (16) and (17) together,
\nBased on the analysis above, for a set of measurement results obtained from different sampling steps, the Residual Errors (
For every actual engineering question, it is reasonable to find an acceptable range of
When the sampling step is small enough, the measurement result is in the range above. However, if the sampling step grows larger, the measurement result will go out of the range sooner or later. The largest sampling step that holds the measurement result within the range of Eq. (20) can be defined as the MaxSS for cell body surface measurement.
\nHere we take the measurement of a cell body of the Cf/SiC with processing angle of 90° as an example. The sampling steps of 1–45 μm were adopted to measure the cell body. The measurement results of 1 μm were set as the standard values. The rest of the results were compared with the standard values to calculate the
The changing trends of the measurement results of the four evaluation indexes under different sampling steps are illustrated in Figure 14. The red and blue lines refer to the boundaries of the acceptable ranges calculated from Eq. (20). It is clear that when the sampling steps exceed a certain value (in red blocks), the corresponding results begin to go out of the ranges. Then the MaxSS can be determined for each index. Combining the four MaxSSs together, the MaxSS is available and for this material, it is 7 μm.
\nThe changing trends of (a) Sa (b) Sq (c) Ssk and (d) Sku with sampling steps on cell body surface [
It can also be proved that the MaxSS of a cell body is approximately equal to the diameter of its reinforcing fiber.
\nThe whole surface of a WCMC consists of many cell bodies. Some cell bodies nearby each other faced the same fabrication and machining process and may perform similar surface quality. Therefore, the measurement and evaluation of a cell body can be used to estimate the surface quality state of a certain area nearby it. It has been proved that, for the exampled Cf/SiC with processing angles of 0°, 30°, 45°, and 90°, the measurement results of the four indexes of one cell body have the similar values with the results of the nearby four cell bodies (shown in Figure 15).
\nEvaluation parameters with processing angles on cell body surface of Cf/SiC (a) Sa, (b) Sq, (c) Ssk, and (d) Sku.
This chapter aims at providing a grading surface measurement and evaluation system for woven ceramic matrix composites. The system contains four grading of fiber, fiber bundle, cell body, and the whole surface. The main conclusions are as follows:
The type and degree of the damage on fibers influence the processing quality and property of the surface. The diameter and the direction of the fibers determine the measurement parameters when sampling fiber bundle or cell body surfaces.
2D measurement should be adopted on fiber bundle surfaces. Sampling parameters, including sampling length, number, step, and direction should be determined carefully to balance the accuracy and the efficiency. Four evaluation indexes, namely,
3D measurement should be adopted on cell body surfaces. Maximum sampling step can be determined with the principle of residual estimate.
The whole surface is consist of many cell bodies. Therefore, a small number of cell bodies can be used to represent a larger area nearby. This idea can help reduce the workload when measuring and evaluating a large area of WCMC surface.
Special thanks the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 51375333 and 51805366) for financial assistance.
\nAll the authors listed have approved the manuscript, and no interest of any third parties is infringed.
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Subsequently, the alteration in the shape or composition of the fine particles such as clay (water-wet solids), as a result of the stress on it, in the flow path of the second phase can lead to the permeability decline of reservoir. Consequently, the solvents such as surfactants (as demulsifiers) to lower the surface tension as a phenomenon associated with intermolecular forces (known as capillary action) during flowback are consumed to avoid the emulsions and sludge mostly in the near-wellbore zone or undertreatment and under-injection radius of the reservoir. However, in addition to surging or swabbing the wells to lower the surface tension, using solvents as the wettability changing agent along with base fluid is a common method in the water block elimination from the wellbore, especially in the low permeability porous media or the reservoirs latter its average pressure declined below bubble point. For more profitability, after using solvents in various reservoir characterizations, the trend of their behavior variations in the different lithologies is required to decide on the removed damage percentage. The investigations on this subject involve many experimental studies and have not been presented any mathematical formulas for the damage of water block in the water, oil, and gas reservoirs. These formulas determine selection criteria for the applied materials and increase variable performance. An integrated set of procedures and guidelines for one or more phases in a porous media is necessary to carry out the step-by-step approach at wellhead. Erroneous decisions and difficult situations can also be addressed in the injection wells or saltwater disposal wells, in which water block is a formation damage type. Misconceptions and difficult situations resulting from these injuries can increase water saturation in borehole and affect the fluid transmissibility power in reaching far and near distances of the wellbore, which results in injection rate loss at the wellhead. Accordingly, for the equations of water block here, a set of variables, of a particular domain, for defining relationships between rock- and fluid-based parameters are required. For these equations, at first, the structural classifications of fracture and grain in the layers (d1, d2, and d3) are defined. Afterward, the equations of overburden pressure (Pob) for a definite sectional area surrounding the wellbore for any lithology (in the three categories relative to porosity) are obtained by these structural classifications and other characteristics of rock and fluid. Naturally, prior to equations of overburden pressure in a definite layer or a definite sectional area around the wellbore, the overburden pressure of a point in a layer in the first four equations is expressed. In the second, the estimated overburden pressure equations are applied in driving the equations of removed water block (Bk). The equations of removed water block, themselves, are divided into two groups of equations, i.e., equations of oil wells and equations of saltwater disposal wells, and each group of equations is again classified based on the wettability of reservoir rock (oil-wet or water-wet) in the two ranges of porosity. In the third, after describing these equations (i.e., equations of Bk), the other new variable included in the equations of removed water block, that is, the acid expanding ability (Ik) for a definite oil layer around the wellbore, is presented, which is extracted from (1) the full characteristics of reservoir (including experimental and empirical equations of overburden pressure), (2) the history of producing well, (3) core flooding displacement experiments at laboratory, and (4) the acidic and alkaline solvent properties. Finally, the rate of forming water block (q) is calculated using the value calculated for the removed water block, and, additionally, the trend of using solvents is determined for different rocks using these sets of equations. The acceptance criteria are the nature of rock and fluid in the reservoir circumstances. Equations as a quick and cost-efficient method are also introduced, providing computational methods to determine how much and how the blocked fluid in the reservoir layers is removed from the definite strata around the wellbore after injection operation of acids and solvents, with various degrees of acidity, to the types of lithology during acidizing operations. Moreover, these equations can calculate the removed water block (Bk) after injecting solvents to the different acidic properties in the acidizing, for two categories of porosity which cover all lithologies. The equations also ascertain in the current reservoir conditions how much solvent for a type of lithology is to be mixed with other base fluids.",book:{id:"8229",slug:"oil-and-gas-wells",title:"Oil and Gas Wells",fullTitle:"Oil and Gas Wells"},signatures:"Mohammad Karimi, Mohammad Reza Adelzadeh, Mojtaba Mosleh Tehrani, Maryam Mohammadipour, Ruhangiz Mohammadian and Abbas Helalizade",authors:[{id:"298820",title:"Mr.",name:"M.",middleName:null,surname:"Karimi",slug:"m.-karimi",fullName:"M. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"1",type:"subseries",title:"Oral Health",keywords:"Oral health, Dental care, Diagnosis, Diagnostic imaging, Early diagnosis, Oral cancer, Conservative treatment, Epidemiology, Comprehensive dental care, Complementary therapies, Holistic health",scope:"
\r\n This topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. Subjects will include an overview of oral diseases and infections, systemic diseases affecting the oral cavity, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, as well as current clinical recommendations for the management of oral, dental, and periodontal diseases.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11397,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",issn:"2631-6218"},editorialBoard:[{id:"267724",title:"Dr.",name:"Febronia",middleName:null,surname:"Kahabuka",slug:"febronia-kahabuka",fullName:"Febronia Kahabuka",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZpJQAW/Profile_Picture_2022-06-27T12:00:42.JPG",institutionString:null,institution:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"82405",title:"Does Board Structure Matter in CSR Spending of Commercial Banks? 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