Technical criteria and their best values for CO2 storage alternatives.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7564",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Stainless Steels and Alloys",title:"Stainless Steels and Alloys",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Materials science is the magic that allows us to change the chemical composition and microstructure of material to regulate its corrosion-mechanical, technological, and functional properties. Five major classes of stainless steels are widely used: ferritic, austenitic, martensitic, duplex, and precipitation hardening. Austenitic stainless steels are extensively used for service down to as low as the temperature of liquid helium (-269ºC). This is largely due to the lack of a clearly defined transition from ductile to brittle fracture in impact toughness testing. Steels with ferritic or martensitic structures show a sudden change from ductile (safe) to brittle (unsafe) fracture over a small temperature difference. Even the best of these steels shows this behavior at temperatures higher than -100ºC and in many cases only just below zero. Various types of stainless steel are used across the whole temperature range from ambient to 1100ºC. This book will be useful to scientists, engineers, masters, graduate students, and students. I hope readers will enjoy this book and that it will serve to create new materials with unique properties.",isbn:"978-1-78985-370-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-369-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-021-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76956",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"stainless-steels-and-alloys",numberOfPages:158,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9a9d0d51670e197f855d03bed672e493",bookSignature:"Zoia Duriagina",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7564.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10244,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:37,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:58,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 11th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 2nd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 1st 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 19th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 18th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"205149",title:"Prof.",name:"Zoia",middleName:null,surname:"Duriagina",slug:"zoia-duriagina",fullName:"Zoia Duriagina",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205149/images/system/205149.jfif",biography:"Zoia Duriagina , Sc.D., Prof., Head of the Department of Applied Materials Science and Materials Engineering, NULP, Ukraine. She is a professor, dr.hab. of the Lublin Catholic University, Poland. Her scientific and research interests include: stainless steels and functional alloys, surface engineering: application of functional coatings, creating new thermoelectric materials, and investigation the properties of Ti-powders alloys. She has authored and co-authored 268 scientific publications, including 52 articles in journals indexed in Scopus and Web of Science (Author ID: 6507291021, http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2585-3849, h-index:6), 8 scientific monographs, 4 textbooks, and 16 patents. Awards received included the Golden Medal of Scientific Society of Materials Science and Diploma of International expert in the field of materials science, China. Sh is a member of the Academy of Higher Education of Ukraine and a member of the World Academy of Materials and Manufacturing Engineering.",institutionString:"Lviv Polytechnic National University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Lviv Polytechnic National University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ukraine"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"944",title:"Metallurgy",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals-metallurgy"}],chapters:[{id:"63686",title:"Phase Transformations in Duplex Stainless Steel: An Assessment by In Situ X-Ray Diffraction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81128",slug:"phase-transformations-in-duplex-stainless-steel-an-assessment-by-in-situ-x-ray-diffraction",totalDownloads:1078,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Duplex stainless steels (commonly known as DSS) are a class of stainless steels with a microstructure formed by two main phases: ferrite and austenite. They are used in a wide range of applications, such as chemical processing, in maritime environments and in the oil and gas industries. In most cases, DSS are chosen based on their strength and corrosion resistance for various environments. When exposed to temperatures above 600°C though, the balance of alloying elements can be modified due to precipitation of various secondary phases, such as sigma (σ) and chi (χ). The sigma phase is typically enriched with Cr and Mo, so its formation can lead to a drastic deterioration in toughness, corrosion resistance, and weldability of duplex stainless steels. To prevent damages to these steels due to the formation of sigma phase, the understanding of such transformation becomes mandatory, not only during the development of these steels but also during their processing. In this research, samples from a lean duplex steel UNS S32304 are subjected to a temperature of 800°C and analyzed in situ by X-ray diffraction. Thus, the kinetics of phase transformations occurring in duplex stainless steels are observed in real time.",signatures:"Adriana da Cunha Rocha, Andrea Pedroza da Rocha Santos and\nGabriela Ribeiro Pereira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63686",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63686",authors:[{id:"254876",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Da Cunha Rocha",slug:"adriana-da-cunha-rocha",fullName:"Adriana Da Cunha Rocha"},{id:"268235",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Santos",slug:"andrea-santos",fullName:"Andrea Santos"},{id:"268237",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriela",surname:"Ribeiro Pereira",slug:"gabriela-ribeiro-pereira",fullName:"Gabriela Ribeiro Pereira"}],corrections:null},{id:"64470",title:"Machining of Stainless Steels and Alloys Using Non-Traditional Machining Processes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81611",slug:"machining-of-stainless-steels-and-alloys-using-non-traditional-machining-processes",totalDownloads:1274,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Stainless steels and alloys are characterized primarily by their corrosion resistance, high strength, ductility, etc. used for various advanced applications like automotive and aerospace, sugar refineries, construction materials, etc. Many advanced high-speed machineries /systems need fine quality of parts to provide good performance in its working conditions. The machining of stainless steel and its alloys is of interest, because, of its excellent mechanical properties. Stainless steels and alloys are machined generally by traditional machining processes. But complex shapes and features on products are difficult task with the use of traditional metal cutting techniques. To machine the advanced materials to produce high dimensional accuracy and generation of intricate shapes in difficult-to-machine materials like stainless steels and alloys, nontraditional machining (NTM) techniques are now attractive the viable choices. To attain improved machining performance of the NTM processes, it is always necessary to find the optimal combinations of various process input parameters of those processes. In the present chapter, some aspects of machining of stainless steel and alloys using NTM processes such as electric discharge machining (EDM) and wire EDM, are discussed and some concluding remarks have been drawn from the study.",signatures:"Ramesh Rudrapati",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64470",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64470",authors:[{id:"234889",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramesh",surname:"Rudrapati",slug:"ramesh-rudrapati",fullName:"Ramesh Rudrapati"}],corrections:null},{id:"61910",title:"Low Temperature Plasma Nitriding of Austenitic Stainless Steels",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78365",slug:"low-temperature-plasma-nitriding-of-austenitic-stainless-steels",totalDownloads:1285,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A low temperature plasma nitriding process has become one of the most promising methods to make solid-solution hardening by the nitrogen super-saturation, being free from toxicity and energy consumption. High-density radio-frequency and direct current (RF/DC) plasma nitriding process was applied to synthesize the nitrided AISI304 microstructure and to describe the essential mechanism of inner nitriding in this low temperature nitriding (LTN) process. In case of the nitrided AISI304 at 673 K for 14.4 ks, the nitrided layer thickness became 66.5 μm with the surface hardness of 1550 HV and the surface nitrogen content of 9 mass%. This inner nitriding process was governed by the synergetic interrelation among the nitrogen super-saturation, the lattice expansion, the phase transformation, the plastic straining, the microstructure refinement, and the acceleration of nitrogen diffusion. When this interrelation is sustained during the nitriding process, the original austenitic microstructure is homogeneously nitrided to have fine-grained microstructure with the average size of 0.1 μm. Once this interrelation does not work anymore, the homogeneous microstructure changed itself to the heterogeneous one. The plastic straining took place in the selected coarse grains so that the parts of them were only refined. This plastic localization accompanied with the localized phase transformation.",signatures:"Tatsuhiko Aizawa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61910",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61910",authors:[{id:"251217",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatsuhiko",surname:"Aizawa",slug:"tatsuhiko-aizawa",fullName:"Tatsuhiko Aizawa"}],corrections:null},{id:"62907",title:"HAZ Phase Transformation and Thermal Damage for Laser Remanufacturing a High-Strength Stainless Steel",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79910",slug:"haz-phase-transformation-and-thermal-damage-for-laser-remanufacturing-a-high-strength-stainless-stee",totalDownloads:1050,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It briefly introduced laser remanufacturing, which was an advanced repairing method to refabricate damaged components based on laser forming technologies. The possible factors in determining the performance of the laser remanufacturing FV520B were studied by numerical simulation and experimental methods. First, the results of free dilatometry test showed that the volume effect of phase transformations were corresponding to the transformation temperatures and heating rate of the laser process had remarkable effects on the kinetics of phase transformation. In addition, the evolution of temperature fields of the single-pass and multi-layer laser cladding processes were analyzed by numerical simulation method based on deactivate and reactivate element theory. A combined method of dilatometry and metallography was conducted to reveal the effect of cooling condition and phase transformation on the microstructure of HAZ. The maximum temperature of thermal cycle had a dominating effect on the microstructure, microhardness and phase transformation temperature rather than cooling rate. Thermal cycles had a significant effect on the metallographic transformation and consequently decided the mechanical performance. Microhardness and tensile tests were conducted and the results showed that strength and ductility of laser remanufacturing FV520B were equivalent to that of forgings.",signatures:"Shi-yun Dong, Xiang-yi Feng, Jin-xiang Fang and Shi-xing Yan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62907",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62907",authors:[{id:"212604",title:"Prof.",name:"Shiyun",surname:"Dong",slug:"shiyun-dong",fullName:"Shiyun Dong"},{id:"231566",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiang-Yi",surname:"Feng",slug:"xiang-yi-feng",fullName:"Xiang-Yi Feng"},{id:"265587",title:"Dr.",name:"Jin Xiang",surname:"Fang",slug:"jin-xiang-fang",fullName:"Jin Xiang Fang"},{id:"265588",title:"Dr.",name:"Shixing",surname:"Yan",slug:"shixing-yan",fullName:"Shixing Yan"}],corrections:null},{id:"63143",title:"Duplex Stainless Steels: Effect of Reversion Heat Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80007",slug:"duplex-stainless-steels-effect-of-reversion-heat-treatment",totalDownloads:1779,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Duplex stainless steels present good corrosion resistant and mechanical properties hence they are being used in various pressure boundary components of nuclear power plants such as primary coolant pipes, valves and pump bodies because of the presence of the dual microstructure which consists of equal amounts of austenite and α-ferrite phases. The ratio of austenite and α-ferrite phases mainly depends on the chemical composition. However, when DSS are subjected to the service temperature range of about 300–500°C they undergo embrittlement due to spinodal decomposition of highly alloyed ferrite matrix into iron rich (α) phase and chromium rich (α′) phase. The embrittlement significantly affects impact toughness, tensile strength, ductility, fracture toughness and fatigue behavior limiting the industrial applicability of this steel to temperatures below 280°C. In this chapter, the basic overview of duplex stainless steels and the effect of reversion heat treatment on the thermally embrittled duplex steel is discussed.",signatures:"V. Shamanth, K. S. Ravishankar and K. Hemanth",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63143",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63143",authors:[{id:"257201",title:"Dr.",name:"Shamanth",surname:"Vasanth",slug:"shamanth-vasanth",fullName:"Shamanth Vasanth"},{id:"257432",title:"Dr.",name:"Hemanth",surname:"K",slug:"hemanth-k",fullName:"Hemanth K"},{id:"264246",title:"Dr.",name:"Ravishankar",surname:"K S",slug:"ravishankar-k-s",fullName:"Ravishankar K S"}],corrections:null},{id:"64403",title:"Abrasion-Corrosion of Ferritic Stainless Steel",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81913",slug:"abrasion-corrosion-of-ferritic-stainless-steel",totalDownloads:1358,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Several studies have measured abrasion-corrosion for biomaterials, alloys, and stainless steel. Despite the considerable effort to understand the synergy between abrasion-corrosion resistance of stainless steel, they have mainly focused on more traditional materials, such as AISI 304 and AISI 316 stainless steel, and, more recently, on AISI 2205 duplex stainless steel. Little progress has been made to understand this phenomenon for cost-effective ferritic stainless steel. In this chapter, we first show the great potential of the use of ferritic stainless steel in the sugar cane biofuel industry. The influence of their crystallographic texture on the corrosion resistance of 16% Cr ferritic stainless steel (both niobium-stabilized and non-stabilized) is presented and discussed. We also analyses the microabrasion-corrosion performance of ferritic stainless steel with different chemical compositions (11%wt Cr with and without Ti stabilization; 16%wt Cr with and without Nb stabilization) and, for comparative purposes, austenitic stainless steel (18%wt Cr-8%wt Ni) and carbon steel (0.2%wt C). For all materials tested, microabrasion wear coefficients were higher (4x) than those measured under abrasion-corrosion conditions. Friction coefficients could also be measured by a 3D load cell strategically positioned in the specially developed microabrasion-corrosion device, showing a strong reduction (2x) in friction coefficient under abrasion-corrosion conditions when compared with solely abrasion conditions.",signatures:"Wilian S. Labiapari, Miguel A. N. Ardila, Henara L. Costa and José\nDaniel B. de Mello",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64403",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64403",authors:[{id:"255923",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Jose Daniel",surname:"Biasoli De Mello",slug:"jose-daniel-biasoli-de-mello",fullName:"Jose Daniel Biasoli De Mello"},{id:"272026",title:"Dr.",name:"Wilian",surname:"Labiapari",slug:"wilian-labiapari",fullName:"Wilian Labiapari"},{id:"272027",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel Angel Narvaez",surname:"Ardila",slug:"miguel-angel-narvaez-ardila",fullName:"Miguel Angel Narvaez Ardila"},{id:"272028",title:"Prof.",name:"Henara Lilian",surname:"Costa",slug:"henara-lilian-costa",fullName:"Henara Lilian Costa"}],corrections:null},{id:"63376",title:"Microstructure-Tailored Stainless Steels with High Mechanical Performance at Elevated Temperature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80468",slug:"microstructure-tailored-stainless-steels-with-high-mechanical-performance-at-elevated-temperature",totalDownloads:1299,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Stainless steels are widely used in chemical, structural and automotive applications due to their high room-temperature mechanical properties, toughness, corrosion resistance and low cost. However, tendency and rise in industrial demands for components to be used at high temperature with good mechanical performance and corrosion resistance limit their usage in many applications and narrow down their service criteria. Tailoring the microstructure, tuning the chemistry, adjusting the phase composition and introducing a dense 3D network of dislocations can tailor and develop stainless steels with high performance for extreme conditions, such as elevated temperatures. In this chapter, the effect of the microstructure of additively manufactured and thermo-mechanically processed stainless steels on the high temperature mechanical performance is discussed and a comparison is made with conventional steels. Moreover, new mechanisms are introduced and discussed co-relating the microstructure and properties.",signatures:"Kamran Saeidi and Farid Akhtar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63376",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63376",authors:[{id:"192206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Farid",surname:"Akhtar",slug:"farid-akhtar",fullName:"Farid Akhtar"},{id:"254688",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamran",surname:"Saeidi",slug:"kamran-saeidi",fullName:"Kamran Saeidi"}],corrections:null},{id:"64555",title:"Entropic Alloys for Cryogenic Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82351",slug:"entropic-alloys-for-cryogenic-applications",totalDownloads:1121,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The entropic alloys can be categorized into four types of alloys, e.g., high-entropy alloys, medium-entropy alloys, low-entropy alloys, and pure metals. The high-entropy alloys are a new kind of materials where the mixing entropy plays an important role in the phase formation. Because of the unique structures, the entropic alloys exhibit many outstanding properties, which even break the performance limits of traditional materials, including the excellent low-temperature properties. The mechanical properties of the entropic alloys serving at low temperature are mainly introduced in this chapter, including strength, plasticity, fracture behaviors, and impact resistance, and the reasons for these behaviors reported in recent years are also summed up.",signatures:"Rui Xuan Li and Yong Zhang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64555",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64555",authors:[{id:"203937",title:"Prof.",name:"Yong",surname:"Zhang",slug:"yong-zhang",fullName:"Yong Zhang"},{id:"206541",title:"Ms.",name:"Rui Xuan",surname:"Li",slug:"rui-xuan-li",fullName:"Rui Xuan Li"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3817",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ff86fac7ac8bce142fdc3c0e5a79f30",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",bookSignature:"M. 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\r\n\tPhylogenetics, studies based on morphological features (phenetics) or molecular sequence data (genetic) of species, help to depict a diagram of relatedness, which is known as a phylogenetic tree. Phylogenetic tree helps to explain complex knowledge of relatedness, evolution and divergence of life in a simple pictorial level, where topology, rooting, nodding and branching patterns of a tree carry very important information on relatedness estimates that requires a skill of arts to extract needed information with application of appropriate validation tools. The emergence and advances of ‘omics’ directions together with the development of computing tools of large-scale biomedical data have shifted Phylogenetics studies to a new level that are helping to solve many uncertainty cases in fundamental taxonomy and complex evolutionary processes. Here, we invite chapters covering a wide range of topics including but not limited to cover historic development, basics and use, methodology and tools, and latest advances in Phylogenetics.
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Depleted oil or gas fields have been well researched due to the associated industrial and economic value of these emplacements. While deep saline aquifers are among the most promising emplacements, since theoretically these structures offer the highest value in terms of capacity [2],[3], the risk associated with the exploration of these potential sites is greater than that for already investigated depleted oil or gas fields. In such cases, it is likely that multicriteria algorithms can facilitate evaluation to find the best option under consideration, so the results of this process will help the decision-maker to decrease the risk associated with the exploration of these potential emplacements.
The site selection phase comprises the identification, characterization and selection of emplacements that could be suitable for CCS among a list of candidates [4]. This phase is generally completed by the definition of the qualification criteria and the provision of the evidence concerning the reliable functioning of the emplacement according to these criteria. The selection of a suitable site also depends on the scale of the assessment. In this regard, every scale will be related to a different resolution and detail of information. It is possible to differentiate at least three levels, namely, basin level (identifying and quantifying large potential storage areas), regional level (increased level of detail, identifying areas to prospect) and local level (very detailed structures, pre-engineering site selection).
While the main mechanisms for CO2 storage have been identified, and a series of criteria for site assessment and selection have been developed [5],[6],[7], a multicriteria algorithm to quantify and rank the potential areas under consideration has, to our knowledge, never been applied in an absolute mode, meaning that any alternative will be compared against a pattern. Thus, the objective of this study was to develop a methodology based on multicriteria algorithms for assessing the best emplacement for CCS within a range of alternatives.
In general, most of the areas which could be suitable for storing CO2 are not well explored geologically. As a result, further exploration of the subsurface must be carried out, which implies higher cost and risks. In order to reduce the risk of failure, it is necessary to define a previous phase, which should be based on (1) data collection, and (2) the definition of a criterion and multicriteria decision tool.
The collection of data is independent of each country or region. It involves the study and processing of existing data, such as from geophysical surveys along with existing wells (shallow and deep) developed for oil and gas exploration, water resources and exploration, mining activities (exploration and extraction), exploration for nuclear waste deposits and underground natural gas storage activities. The data from these industrial activities can be complemented by other academic evaluations, including postgraduate theses and/or peer reviewed scientific articles.
Work flow proposed for basin screening (Definition phase)
Figure 1 represents a proposed work flow [4]. The screening phase could be differentiated by the Data Recompilation task and the Multicriteria Decision Tool. It is integrated as a preliminary phase, and it is connected with a second phase called
It is not only necessary to evaluate specific sites with a technical point of view. Sometimes problems can involve economic aspects or social acceptance, which could make a CO2 storage site much more difficult (and costly). Therefore, it is necessary to establish a high level differentiation between technical and socioeconomic criteria (later we call this differentiation the 1st criteria level of the Analytical Hierarchy Process).
There is no standardization in this aspect, so the selection of the criteria should be as careful as possible, and should include all aspects that can make an area suitable or not. The criteria proposed in this chapter are based on the direct experience of the research group involved in this publication and on the evaluation of several publications and projects that focus on site selection methodology [10],[4].
Even though the criteria may be as described in the next sub-chapters, it is convenient to consider another type of classification, which is based on time scale and the possibility of modifying each criterion along that scale. Moreover, we can describe:
Geological, geothermal and hydrodynamic criteria are considered fixed, because they do not change, except in geological scale.
Knowledge of the basin is a criterion variable, because information can be increased over time.
Economic, political and social criteria are often variable because they change in a short time period.
These criteria relate to scientific aspects or parameters to provide confidence in the findings about the subsurface structure. Deep subsurface exploration implies higher risk because the exploration techniques available are expensive and the probability of success is not high. In order to reduce the technical risk, it is necessary to define those criteria relevant for considering every critical issue.
An additional sub-criterion that should be considered is the quality of the fluid under consideration. In this regard, it is mandatory to consider the principle of sustainability, whereby present actions cannot compromise future generations. Fluid quality is measured in Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), which define drinkable water (TDS < 3000 ppm). Thus, when drinkable water is present, the aquifer is not suitable for CO2 storage. On the other hand, TDS higher than 10,000 ppm should be considered suitable for CO2 storage operations, as the quality of this water makes it not suitable for any other activity.
This parameter is considered a technical criterion, but it is also relevant for economic reasons: it is necessary to define the CO2 emitter in order to relate CO2 emissions and capacity.
These criteria include both economic aspects and parameters related to the social acceptance of the emplacement and its activity.
The more information is available, the fewer characterization methods will have to be applied. In this case, the characterization program (geophysics and wells) will be less expensive, and the risk of failure of the geological exploration will be reduced.
Multiple criteria decision making (MCDM) is a methodology developed for making decisions in the presence of multiple, usually conflicting, criteria. Evaluation methods and multicriteria decisions include the selection of a set of feasible alternatives, the simultaneous optimization of several objective functions, and a decision-making process and evaluation procedures that must be rational and consistent. The application of a mathematical model of decision-making will help to find the best solution, establishing the mechanisms to facilitate the management of information generated by the various disciplines of knowledge.
Those problems in which decision alternatives are finite are called Discrete Multicriteria Decision problems. Such problems are most common in reality and this case scenario will be applied in solving the problem of
Assessment methods and criteria decision include selection among a set of feasible alternatives, optimization with various objective functions simultaneously, a decision-maker and rational and consistent procedures for assessment. Its principles are derived from matrix theory, graph theory, organizational theory, measurement theory, theory of collective decisions, operations research and economics.
The main evaluation methods are: linear weighting (scoring), multi-attribute utility (MAUT), overcoming relationships and hierarchical analysis (AHP).
Some of the advantages of AHP over other methods of Multicriteria Decision are:
It has a mathematical basis.
It enables breaking down and analyzing a problem in parts.
It allows measuring quantitative and qualitative criteria using a common scale.
It includes participation of different people or groups of interest to build consensus.
It enables checking the consistency index and making corrections, if applicable.
It generates a synthesis and provides the ability to perform sensitivity analyses.
It is easy to use and allows the solution to be complemented with mathematical optimization methods.
AHP is one of the most extensively used and powerful MCDM. Nowadays it is used by many companies in solving various multicriteria problems, ranking these in the following categories: selection, prioritization and assessment, provision of resources against a standard assessment, management and quality management and strategic planning. For example, AHP has been applied in the analysis of location, resource allocation, outsourcing, evaluation, manufacturing, marketing, supplier selection, finance, energy, education and risk analysis, [17]. This widespread use shows the suitability of AHP in solving various types of business decision-making problems.
The AHP overcomes the problems with a scoring approach by structuring complexity as a hierarchy and by deriving ratio scale measures through pairwise relative comparisons. Pairwise comparisons are basic to the AHP method. Hence, when comparing a pair of criteria, sub-criteria or alternatives, a ratio of relative importance can be established. The pairwise comparison process can be performed using words, numbers, or graphical bars.
AHP Components: Four steps to build a hierarchy or network structure.
Once the model is built, pairwise comparisons are made with all individual elements (criteria, sub-criteria and alternatives). This process allows giving numerical values to the judgments provided by people, which is also able to measure how each element contributes to each level of the hierarchy. Furthermore, the process is based on a well-defined structure consisting of arrays, and the ability of the eigenvalues to generate values or to approximate weights of each criterion [18], [19], [20]. The problem of finding a nonzero solution to this set of equations is very common in engineering and physics and is known as an
In order to carry out these comparisons, the AHP uses a fundamental scale of numbers that have proven absolute in practice and that have been experimentally validated for physical problems and decisions. This scale assigns mathematical values with respect to quantitative or qualitative attributes, homogenizing each valuable criterion.
Figure 4 illustrates the process followed for every criterion. As an example, Original Fluid Quality should be evaluated considering the Water Quality for different uses (agricultural sector, human use) and the European Directive for CO2 storage; it is possible to establish different mathematical values for each measurable criterion.
Scientific scale and translation into an AHP scale. This translation facilitates the evaluation of individual criteria (quantitative or qualitative) using a homogeneous scale.
As a major conclusion, a decision tree has been proposed. This model considers all the criteria described above, and they have been classified.
Analytical Hierarchy Process: criterion tree proposed to identify the best site for storing CO2.
Weight assessment has been defined considering the AHP method: each level of the criteria and sub-criteria has been compared, using a comparison matrix, which should be constructed considering the consistency principle (it should fulfill the transitivity and reciprocity rules).
In order to “recover” or find the vector of weights, [w1, w2, w3,..., wn] given to these ratios, the matrix product of matrix A with the vector w can be calculated and considered in an equation, which is described as the eigenvalue matrix equation. The problem of obtaining a nonzero solution to this set of equations is very common in engineering and physics and is known as an eigenvalue problem.
Where
Site (Sn) assessment is evaluated using the formula:
Where
AHP as an absolute mode
AHP is a multicriteria methodology which has been developed for use in two different ways: relative and absolute mode. In the first case, all the alternatives are compared between each other, but no more than seven alternatives are recommended for evaluation at the same time.
There are two reasons to justify this limitation: (1) consistency principle and (2) neurons. Pairwise comparisons errors increase due to inconsistent judgments. It is possible to distribute this inconsistency among all the alternatives under evaluation. If the number of alternatives/elements is low, the priorities will be less affected by this inconsistency. The neuronal explanation has its limits in the brain’s ability to identify simultaneous events: the more criteria exist for pairwise comparison, the greater the risk of inconsistent judgments will be.
For this study, we consider the AHP algorithm in absolute mode. It requires a standard with which to compare alternatives. The process leads to absolute preservation in the rank of the alternatives no matter how many are introduced. In this case, it is possible to define a standard considering the best values for each criterion (see Table 1and Table 2).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||||
Geo mechanical | \n\t\t\tLateral continuity | \n\t\t\tFractures | \n\t\t\tTDS | \n\t\t\tHydro-dynamic | \n\t\t|||
Stable domain | \n\t\t\tAnticline | \n\t\t\tWeakly fractured. Few faults | \n\t\t\t> 10.000 | \n\tRegional | \n|||
\n\t\t | \n\t\n\t\t | \n||||||
Porosity (%) | \n\tPermeability | \n\tThickness (m) | \n\tLithology | \n\tPlasticity | \n\tThickness (m) | \n\tPorosity | \n|
>25 | \n> 1 D | \n>100 | \nSandstone | \nDuctile | \n> 100 | \n< 5 | \n|
\n\t\t | \n\t\n\t\t | \n\t\n\t\t | \n|||||
\n\t\t | \n\t\n\t\t | \n\t\n\t\t | \n\t\n\t\t | \n\t\n\t\t | \n\t\n\t\t | \n||
>1.000 years | \n900~2.000 | \n> 150 | \nYes, huge volume | \nYes; deep 200~800m | \nBeds | \nExploitation permits | \n
Technical criteria and their best values for CO2 storage alternatives.
\n\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t|||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
Detail data (GIS) based on deep data (wells and seismic) | \n\t\t< 25 | \n\t\tImpurity content less than 1% | \n\t\t>50 | \n>20 | \n>20 | \nOnshore | \nModerate | \nAll | \nNone | \n
Socio-economical criteria and its best values for CO2 storage alternative.
As described before, site selection is based on several criteria, values and weights. Even though the methodology proposed in this chapter allows selecting the best option in a quantitative and objective way, it is necessary to consider other points of view of the problem. Indeed, CO2 storage is a controversial way to remove CO2 from the atmosphere and even though it has been described a safe and affordable, there are many stakeholders who consider it unreliable.
For those reason, and to manage the huge amount of technical information and different weight definitions of each criterion, a specific program has been developed: CO2SITE ASSESS. This software has been developed in VISUAL BASIC© (easy in terms of programming and speed in obtaining results, robust integration with Data Base, allowing operations in read/write formats). It includes the AHP algorithm (weights and values), so its interaction with the end-user is easy. Many of the technical and socioeconomic parameters can be represented in a Geographical Information System (GIS), so the CO2SITEASSESS results also generate a file which allows representing the results and
It is possible to differentiate two different databases: the first one comprises the CO2 emitters and its data (location, CO2 emission, primary energy, date of commissioning, and others), whereas the second database includes the CO2 storage location. Data to be included in this form should be the technical and socioeconomic criteria previously described, and the tool can compare the alternatives using the AHP algorithm and decision tree described in this chapter.
The results classify each area into five levels: optimal, good, normal, poor and very poor. These values will help decision makers to evaluate which areas are the best considered and if it is reliable to go to the next stage.
CO2 storage site selection. A complex issue with different stakeholders
CO2SITEASSES is a program to evaluate multiple criteria and to obtain georeferenced information related to potential CO2 store areas.
This tool is useful to compare many structures – even if there are many alternatives – and since the algorithm implemented in its code is based on AHP absolute mode, it is possible to compare more than seven alternatives.
According to the Description of Work of the AVANZA CO2 project (national project supported by the Ministry of Industry and Tourism), the methodology proposed in this chapter has been applied to study specific geological structures. The company that supports this study (SACYR) considers bio-CCS technology as an option to decrease the CO2 emissions from its biomass plants located in the Guadalquivir basin (South of Spain). This study was carried out by the Technical University of Madrid, in collaboration with Gessal.
Guadalquivir basin: an area of potential interest
The Guadalquivir basin in southern Spain is an ENE–WSW elongated foreland basin developed during the Neogene and Quaternary between the external zones of the Betic Cordillera to the south and Sierra Morena (Iberian Massif) to the north [24], which respectively forms its active and passive margins. The external zones of the Betic Foldchain are made up of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments that include thick calcareous and evaporitic formations, as well as siliciclastic units.
Sediments of the basin can be divided into two main stratigraphic: the lower, which includes materials deposited prior to the collision and embodies a long sedimentary process ranging from Cambrian to Permian, culminating in a strong tectonic collision known as the Hercynian orogeny; and the upper, comprising materials of the foreland basin itself, which is known as the alpine stage and begins with an intensive erosional period (Hercynian discordance), and a new subsequent sedimentary period that spreads from Upper Permian to Quaternary. The latter constitutes the proper filling of the foreland basin. It can be divided into five depositional sequences (relatively consistent set of strata, genetically related and whose roof and wall are discontinuity or continuity sequences).
It is possible to individualize two main sub-stages, which are disconnected by the alpine tectonic stage, of Burdigalian age. These sub-stages are:
From Permian to Lower Miocene, sedimentation takes place over a passive or Atlantic type margin, which differentiates - from North to South- platform, talus and deep water facies. These paleogeographic realms are known as Prebetic, Intermediate Unit, Subbetic and Flysch.
The Alpine orogeny reached its main deformation phase during the lower Miocene. We interpret this phase under a classical deformation model –intra continent subduction type, taking place under NW-SE and E-W compressional vectors.
In the same way as many other alpine forelands, compressive deformation seems to have been established by following a classic model of piggy back or progressive tectonic propagation, from the early active Southern System’s Front to the Northern Passive Margin.
The selection of this area was made according to the following information:
The interest in the Guadalquivir Basin as a potential area for storing CO2 has been described in national and European Projects.
Technical conditions: Some structures were described in the Geocapacity Project, and others were proposed under the AVANZA CO2 Project.
Economic conditions: The specific area of interest is also defined due the interest of the company SACYR. This company has some power stations which use biomass as primary energy near this location. The interest of the company was evaluated in this area to develop the bio-CCS concept.
Detail of selected structures, and figures taken from previous studies by the IGME (Geocapacity project).
According to previous stratigraphic, petrological and petrophysical data obtained from exploration wells, it is possible to define preferred targets; both caprock and storage formations. The data include seismic reflection and refraction profiles, well logs, gravity and field observations.
Finally, structural definition was done based on the interpretation of the geophysical data in each area. These interpretations allow us to define specific structures and define the CO2 capacity of each structure. Well interpretation was used to identify storage and caprock properties.
Some of the structures considered were not evaluated for different conditions (shallow storage formations, lack of data or low thickness of the storage formations). These conditions should not eliminate these structures – indeed they have been included in the CO2SITEASSESS data base – but social or economic aspects will cause them to be considered the worst areas to develop CO2 storage.
For instance, A, B and C are the alternatives that have been considered. Even if the capacity calculated for each area is not enough for an industrial scale project, it could be considered for a pilot project or demonstration of the bio-CCS technology in Spain.
Moreover, CO2SITEASSESS was used in another region (Duero Basin, also in Spain), where the assessment of this structures are much better than in the Guadalquivir basin.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
1 | \n\t\tDuero | \n\t\tEl Gredal-Utrillas | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
2 | \n\t\tDuero | \n\t\tEl Gredal-Bunt | \n\t\t7.26 | \n\t\tGOOD | \n\t
3 | \n\t\tGuadalquivir | \n\t\tFuensanta de Martos | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
4 | \n\t\tGuadalquivir | \n\t\tGuadalquivir H1 | \n\t\t6.33 | \n\t\tNORMAL | \n\t
5 | \n\t\tGuadalquivir | \n\t\tNueva Carteya | \n\t\t6.54 | \n\t\tNORMAL | \n\t
CO2SITEASSESS results.
All the areas defined in the present chapter have been previously defined by several hydrocarbon explorations: geophysical surveys and wells were considered: more than 10 wells were evaluated and hundreds of seismic studies were evaluated. Indeed, this region has active natural gas reservoirs – in two different turbidite systems: the Arenas del Guadiana Fm. in the Poseidón Gas field, in the Gulf of Cadiz, and the Arenas del Guadalquivir Fm., which produces from several small fields that are located onshore, in the Guadalquivir basin.
Moreover, outcrops were analyzed to properly evaluate mineral composition, hydrogeology and maturity conditions.
Spanish geological map and detailed area under evaluation. Source: IGME and AVANZA CO2 project.
The anticlinal trap, from the data collected, is estimated to have a total area of 15 km2 of Structure A. The roof of the structure would be located at 1081 m.
Existence of water with low salt content has been confirmed (7 gr/l). Structure-Trap Anticline, elongated in EW direction, preserved under Subbetic materials in its western part, limited by a front thrust in its margin N, N-verging. structural closure to the "spill point" is around 400 milliseconds, which may involve around 700-800 meters.
Detailed description of the
Evaluation of alternative A, using the AHP model described above.
The trap is defined as a folding anticlinal; considering the data collected it is estimated to have a total area of 26 km2. The roof of the store formation would be located at 1668 m. However, the target (corresponding to the Oolític Dogger
For instance, it is possible to define a potential reservoir and a caprock.
Detailed description of the
Evaluation of alternative B, using the AHP model described above.
The trap is an anticline, with a total area of 30 km2 and estimated thickness of 160 m. The roof would be located at a depth of 1240 m.
Although a storage formation has been defined, it is necessary to study whether this structure is closed.
Detailed description of the
Evaluation of alternative C, using the AHP model described above.
The area under evaluation contains different features in the same region. For instance, while the socioeconomic parameters can be considered similar for all of them, other parameters are different slightly different (i.e., distance from CO2 sources, storage area and the nearest town). It was possible to estimate the values marked in the Figure 15.
Evaluation of socioeconomic parameters
The area was explored during the twentieth century, so there is enough information to build a GIS and to define some of the structures (conceptual or static model). As shown in Figure 8, there are industrial CO2 sources a short distance away and the quality of the flue gases is sufficient. Some of the emitters are biomass power stations, but close to this region it might be possible to identify a larger emitter (Puente Nuevo power plant, close to Córdoba).
There are towns and cities close to each structure, but the topography can be considered favorable, and there are no environmentally protected areas close to the structures under evaluation.
Protected areas (environmental conditions: white and green areas), and towns (red dots) in the area of interest.
Site selection for storing CO2 is a complex issue, especially when deep saline aquifers are under assessment. These geological structures used to be poorly characterized and the risk of unsuccessful geology exploration is high. For this reason, the Multicriteria Decision Tool can be used to evaluate related technical and socioeconomic data on different alternatives under consideration. In addition, there are different stakeholders with different points of view, so the decision maker needs to take these viewpoints into account.
AHP is the proposed multicriteria algorithm. It selects the best area in an objective way. Therefore, its use decreases the risk associated with the site selection phase, and it will easily show the strengths and weaknesses of the information or characteristics of the alternatives under study. Furthermore, it can help increase social acceptance by stakeholders.
An innovative program (CO2SITEASSESS) was been developed and validated, using some defined areas (at basin and regional scale) and structures (local scale). This software also allows obtaining georeferenced data; and the combination of both uses (georeferenced data and AHP algorithm) has never before been applied to select areas to store CO2. This combination has some advantages:
The results are obtained using a decision tree and multicriteria algorithm (Analytical Hierarchy Processes).
The results are objective – all the alternatives are compared with a defined standard (absolute measurements).
The results can be represented in a GIS, so the data can be referenced on a map, helping to make decisions.
This software easily allows different evaluations – considering different stakeholders with different points of view.
It saves a lot of time in decision-making, and generates a range of information useful for taking decisions.
In addition, some of the criteria can change during the pre-injection phase (i.e., data available, other formations of interest, etc.) and this tool can be useful to consider at which stage each alternative is during a period of time (pre-injection: selection, characterization, static or dynamic model and engineering).
The results obtained in the High Guadalquivir basin suggest that this area is not suitable for CO2 storage on an industrial scale, but some of the structures considered in this chapter could be useful for pilot scale, especially if bio-CCS technology is applied.
Nevertheless, the CO2SITEASSES methodology has been demonstrated as robust to identify the best alternative under evaluation, and it reduces the inherent risk associated with geological explorations.
The AHP is applied in this study in an absolute mode, so it allows the assessment of limitless alternatives. For instance, this method and software can be useful as a standard in different regions (i.e., Spain or Europe).
Another version of the CO2SITEASSESS will be developed in the near future to relate site selection and a program characterization of each alternative. This characterization program will consider the three characterization phases: outcrop, geophysics and wells.
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization on March 11, 2020 [1]. The infection rate caused by the virus increased exponentially in 2020 until March 13, 2021, registering 119,165,535 confirmed cases and 2,641,567 deaths [2].
Pregnant and puerperal women have been considered groups at risk of morbidity and mortality since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic because of the physiological and immunological changes that can increase the risk of complications in respiratory infections and the knowledge of unfavorable outcomes in pregnant women and their newborns in infections caused by other coronaviruses, SARS, Middle East respiratory syndrome, and influenza [3, 4, 5, 6].
Some adverse outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 infection observed during pregnancy include admission to the intensive care unit (ICU) or death. However, the clinical evolution of COVID-19 in most women is not serious, resembling the general population [7, 8].
Initially, there was no evidence of vertical transmission due to COVID-19 during pregnancy [3, 5, 6]. During the pandemic, several studies concluded that there was this possibility [9, 10], with one confirmed case of vertical transmission occurrence [11]. However, all of them suggested that further studies should be conducted on the subject, as it is a recent disease and the number of participants in the published studies is small.
There is strong evidence that other viral infections cause neurological and behavioral changes in the fetus, such as the influenza virus related to schizophrenia [12]. Other viral infections, such as the Zika virus (ZIKV), can cause malformations, including microcephaly [13].
Therefore, outpatient monitoring of children exposed to the SARS-CoV-2 virus during pregnancy is vital to understand the impacts of the disease on the growth and development of these children.
A narrative review was carried out using the keywords: COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, vertical transmission, perinatal infection and offspring. In addition to the search for other viral infections: influenza, herpes simplex, rubella, cytomegalovirus and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The authors searched the Pubmed, Medline, and Google Scholar databases, reviewed the available articles, and determined which articles were most relevant to the project.
Pregnancy is a risk factor for infection by the influenza virus. During the 1918 (Spanish flu) and 1957 (Asian flu) pandemics, mortality in pregnant women was high. During the 1918 pandemic, a 27% mortality rate was recorded, and in 1957, it corresponded to 50% of deaths in women of reproductive age [14]. In seasonal influenza periods, an increased risk of hospitalization was observed in pregnant women at any stage of pregnancy, even without associated comorbidities [15].
There were higher rates of premature births, small for gestational age newborns, and stillbirths in hospitalized pregnant women than those in outpatient treatment [16]. Regarding the occurrence of malformations in the fetuses, the possibility of its teratogenic effect with the occurrence of neural tube defects, cleft lip and palate, and congenital heart disease was evaluated. A direct effect of the virus was unlikely to be the cause of these malformations, since control of fever with antipyretics, and the use of periconceptional folic acid in pregnant women with influenza reduced the risk of these malformations in their offspring (Table 1) [17].
Viral disease | Clinical manifestation |
---|---|
Influenza | Premature birth, small for gestational age newborns, stillbirths, pregnant woman hospitalization, fetus malformation, schizophrenia |
Rubella | Congenital rubella syndrome (CRS), abortion, stillbirth, restricted urterine growth |
Herpes simplex | Triad: cutaneous, neurological and ophthalmic symptoms |
CMV | Intrauterine growth restriction, hepatosplenomegaly, microcephaly, chorioretinitis, petechiae, jaundice, thrombocytopenia, anemia |
HIV infection | Miscarriages, stillbirths, perinatal mortality, intrauterine growth restriction, low birth weight, chorioamnionitis |
Zika virus | Intrauterine growth restriction, small for gestational age, brain malformation, microcephaly, eye and hearing abnormalities, hypospadias, cryptorchidism, micropenis |
COVID-19 | Intense inflammatory response and placenta hypoxia can lead to abortions, pre-eclampsia, prematurity, IUGR |
Clinical manifestations of conceptuses resulting from the infection of pregnant women by viral disease.
Influenza infection in the first trimester of pregnancy increased the risk of schizophrenia by seven times. There was no increased risk in the other trimesters of pregnancy, according to a nested case–control study of 64 participants who were born from 1959 to 1966 and had psychiatric disorders 30 to 38 years later [12].
A cohort study of 196,929 children conducted in California did not find an increased risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in offspring of pregnant women with influenza. In addition, there was no statistically significant relationship of ASD in children whose mothers received influenza vaccination in the first trimester [18].
There are two types of herpes viruses: HSV-1 and HSV-2. The latter is predominantly sexual and the etiologic agent of 70–85% of neonatal infections. Although transplacental or upward transmembrane transmission of HSV from the mother to the fetus during pregnancy is uncommon (about 5%), the rate of perinatal transmission during labor and delivery is 80–90%. The risk of neonatal infection is higher in HSV infections that start in late pregnancy (30–50%) than in early pregnancy (1%) [19, 20].
Intrauterine infection is clinically present in the fetus as a characteristic triad of cutaneous (vesicles, erosions, and scars), neurological (intracranial calcifications, microcephaly, and meningoencephalitis), and ophthalmic symptoms (microphthalmia and chorioretinitis). The clinical manifestations of neonatal peripartum and postpartum infection are found in the skin, eyes, and/or mouth (45%) and central nervous system (CNS; 30%) or as disseminated infection (25%). Regarding mortality and neurological prognosis, mortality is higher in disseminated infection cases (approximately 30%), and a worse neurological prognosis occurs in cases with CNS involvement (50%). In the treatment of neonatal HSV, high doses of intravenous acyclovir are indicated, which improves the prognosis and reduces the occurrence of neurological sequelae and delayed child development (Table 1) [19, 21].
It is an acute viral disease caused by the RNA Rubella virus of the Togaviridae family. Its clinical characteristics in healthy adults are often self-limited and include low fever, maculopapular rash, lymphadenomegaly, and oropharyngeal pain. The rates of asymptomatic cases range from 25–50% [22].
In pregnancy, maternal infections can determine a poor prognosis for the conceptus, especially when it occurs in the first trimester of pregnancy, which can result in congenital rubella syndrome (CRS), abortion, stillbirth, congenital malformations, and restricted uterine growth of the conceptus. The chances of malformation are 81% and 25% in the first and second trimesters, respectively. Rubella immunization is considered the best measure to combat this infection in the world. CRS has already been significantly eliminated in the USA; however, it cannot be said that it has been completely controlled, since outbreaks are still reported around the world [14].
Rubella virus infection findings can be found from prenatal life to later manifestations after the child’s birth and development. Among them, it can cause ocular alterations (cataract, microphthalmia, glaucoma, pigmentary retinopathy, and chorioretinitis), cardiac malformations (peripheral pulmonary artery stenosis, patent duct artery, or ventricular septal defects), and CNS alterations (microcephaly). Children who survive the neonatal period may have severe developmental disabilities (e.g., visual and hearing impairments) and an increased risk of developmental delay, even autism. In the long term, congenital rubella infection may determine an increased risk of endocrinopathies, such as thyroiditis and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (Table 1) [23, 24].
CMV, like other viruses in the Herpesviridae family, causes a primary infection and remains latent in the body. Primary infection is generally harmless, but it can be fatal in immunocompromised patients and cause serious fetal damage due to vertical transmission, which can occur intrauterine during childbirth through cervical and blood secretions and postnatally through breastfeeding. Thus, identifying infection in pregnant women is important [25].
In 1–4% of pregnant women, seroconversion to CMV occurs, with most women being seropositive before pregnancy, which does not prevent the infection in about 60% of babies during pregnancy. In newborns, 0.2%–2.5% are infected in utero, and most are asymptomatic (90–80%). About 10–20% of neonates have symptoms at birth, such as intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), hepatosplenomegaly, microcephaly, chorioretinitis, petechiae, jaundice, thrombocytopenia, and anemia. Of them, 20–30% progress to death, mainly from disseminated intravascular coagulation, liver dysfunction, or bacterial infection. Even asymptomatic children at birth can present sequelae of neurological development, such as mental retardation, motor impairment, sensorineural hearing loss, or visual impairment (Table 1) [26, 27].
Vertical transmission by HIV can occur during pregnancy, childbirth, and during breastfeeding. Test implementation for HIV detection in prenatal care, antiretroviral therapy (ART) use during pregnancy and by the newborn after birth, elective cesarean delivery indication, and breastfeeding contraindication reduce the risk of HIV transmission to the baby from 40% to less than 1% in the USA [28].
Children exposed but not infected to HIV during pregnancy have a worse prognosis than those who are not since their mothers are more likely to have low CD4+ cell counts, detectable viremia, and higher morbidity. In addition, the effects on fetal development due to maternal immune dysfunction and the potential dysfunction of hereditary mitochondria in the fetus due to the exposure of women with HIV in early childhood to ART are unknown [29]. Adverse results in pregnancy associated with HIV infection can result in miscarriages, stillbirths, increased perinatal mortality, IUGR, low birth weight, and chorioamnionitis [30]. In symptomatic pregnant women, an increase in premature births has been observed (Table 1) [28].
ZIKV is a flavivirus transmitted by mosquitoes, mainly by
One cohort study evaluated 244 pregnant women with confirmed ZIKV infection during pregnancy and reported that 223 (91.4%) babies were born alive. Of these, 216 babies had clinical follow-up after birth, of which 130 (60%) children had blood and/or urine samples obtained for ZIKV detection using the real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) technique. Results revealed that 13% of the children who underwent brain imaging exams had structural brain abnormalities such as microcephaly, 5.5% who underwent ophthalmological evaluation had ocular changes, and 12.1% who underwent additive evaluation had an abnormal result. In addition, 7.7% were born small for gestational age, which may be associated with IUGR. Meanwhile, 19% who underwent neurological exams had an abnormality in the first 6 months of life. Neurodevelopment assessments carried out after 1 year of age showed that 13.2% had severe developmental delay (Table 1) [33].
At the beginning of the pandemic, the clinical manifestations of COVID-19 in pregnant women and babies were unknown. Some studies concluded that the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 infection in pregnant and nonpregnant women was similar [6, 34]. A case–control study compared the clinical evolution of COVID-19 between pregnant women with and without COVID-19 and observed that pregnant women with mild symptoms of COVID-19 have a similar evolution to those without the disease. However, pregnant patients with severe or critical illness have worse results. The risk factors for a worse maternal and neonatal outcome include black and Hispanic race, advanced maternal age, obesity, comorbidities (diabetes mellitus and chronic hypertension), and admission to the COVID-19-related antepartum [35].
Immune responses in pregnancy induce that pregnancy is a risk factor for SARS-CoV-2 infection. In both normal and COVID-19-infected pregnancies, maternal immune responses occur as a result of decreased lymphocytes, inhibitory natural killer cell receptor activation such as NKG2A, and increased inflammatory cytokines (interferon-ɣ, interleukin (IL)-2, IL-6, IL-7, IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor-α) [36, 37]. In addition, the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is the receptor for SARS-CoV-2 and is widely expressed in the female reproductive system (ovary, uterus, vagina, and placenta) and fetal tissues; therefore, vertical transmission of COVID-19 is possible [38, 39].
The fetuses of mothers infected with SARS-CoV-2 may be exposed to an intense inflammatory response, which can induce placental or fetal damage. Nonspecific anatomopathological changes were observed in SARS-CoV-2 infected placentas, and the most common finding was poor placental perfusion on the maternal side due to maternal hypoxia secondary to severe pulmonary infection by COVID-19. Both maternal immune response and poor placental perfusion can result in abortions, pre-eclampsia, prematurity, and IUGR [37, 40].
A study that evaluated the fetal inflammatory response in newborns of mothers infected with COVID-19 in the third trimester observed an increase in IL-6 in the fetuses, which may determine adverse sequelae of neurological development, including autism, psychosis, and long-term sensorineural deficits. However, longitudinal studies are needed to validate these associations (Table 1) [37, 41].
Only one study confirmed the vertical intrauterine transmission. In the case report described by Vivanti et al., the pregnant woman was in her last trimester of pregnancy (35 weeks) when she developed symptoms and was diagnosed with COVID-19. Cesarean delivery was indicated because of fetal distress. The conceptus was resuscitated at birth and transferred in invasive mechanical ventilation to the ICU. The virus was investigated and detected by RT-PCR from the amniotic fluid, placental tissue, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, blood, and nasopharyngeal and anal swabs. The conceptus evolved with neurological manifestations similar to those described in adult patients with COVID-19 [11].
A review study evaluated 108 pregnant women confirmed with COVID-19 and found that 86 had pregnancy resolution. Of the newborns, 75 were tested for SARS-CoV-2 using RT-PCR, and only one was positive (1.3%). The test was collected at 36 h of life. The patient presented a good clinical evolution with reports of lymphopenia and increased liver enzymes in laboratory tests. The average gestational age of the 86 pregnancies evaluated was 36 weeks and 1 day. One baby died at birth (1.1%), and one pregnancy resulted in intrauterine death (1.1%). In both cases, the mothers had severe COVID-19. Seven babies (8.1%) required admission to the neonatal ICU [42].
A study of nine case series and two case reports evaluated 65 mothers confirmed for COVID-19 and 57 newborns. The report revealed that 31% of cases had fetal distress, and 38% of pregnant women had a premature birth. Neonatal complications were breathing difficulties or pneumonia (18%), low birth weight (13%), skin rash (3%), disseminated intravascular coagulation (3%), asphyxia (2%), and perinatal death (3%). Twenty-seven newborns underwent RT-PCR for SARS-CoV-2 by nasopharyngeal swab. Of them, four were positive: one newborn was healthy, and three had pneumonia and positive results on nasopharynx and anal swabs on days 2 and 4 of life. The question remains whether some of the maternal and neonatal complications reported are due to the virus and not iatrogenic, for example, the indication for cesarean delivery determining premature birth [43].
The infection by the SARS-CoV-2 virus presents neurological manifestations, which can be a consequence of cardiorespiratory failure and metabolic abnormalities triggered by the infection, direct invasion of the virus, or an autoimmune response to the virus. Among the neurological symptoms observed were headache, ageusia, anosmia, dizziness, myalgia/myositis, and stroke [44, 45]. The effects of this neurotropism of the virus should be investigated in children, especially in newborns whose mothers were infected during pregnancy, since its consequences on children’s neurological development are unknown. In addition, the effects of infection according to the trimester of pregnancy are unknown, leaving doubt about the prognosis of children of mothers infected in the first trimester, in relation to other periods of pregnancy (Table 2).
COVID-19 study | Neonate clinical manifestation |
---|---|
Wong YP, Khong TY, Tan GC, 2021 | Poor placenta perfusion: abortions, pre-eclampsia, prematurity and IUGR |
Cavalcante M, Cavalcante C, Sarno M, Barini R, Kwak-kim J, 2021 | |
Wong YP, Khong TY, Tan GC, 2021 | Increase in IL-6: autism, psychosis and long-term sensorineural deficits |
Liu P, Zheng J, Yang P, Wang X, Wei C, Zhang S, et al., 2020 | |
Vivanti AJ, Vauloup-Fellous C, Prevot S, Zupan V, Suffee C, Do Cao J, et al., 2020 | Conceptus evolved with neurological manifestations similar to those described in adults patients with COVID-19 |
Zaigham M, Andersson O, 2020 | Outcome of death at birth and intrauterine death of fetuses from mothers confirmed for COVID-19 |
Zimmermann P, Curtis N, 2020 | Fetal distress, premature birth, breathing difficulties, pneumonia, low birth weight, skin rash, disseminated intravascular coagulation, asphyxia and perinatal death |
Studies that evaluated the clinical manifestations in newborns born to mothers confirmed with COVID-19.
International Health Security, also called “global health security” or “public health security”, has as its main objective to maintain humanity’s well-being through prevention. Its focus is not only on diseases (infectious, chronic), it also encompasses social determinants of health, bioterrorism, climate change, cybersecurity in health and other situations.
COVID-19 is a threat to international health security, as it has repercussions in all aspects of human health, physical, social and mental well-being, as the disease causes death, sequelae, compromised mental health and social of individuals.
In children, in addition to the impact of the absence of face-to-face classes in schools and social interaction, the impact of intrauterine SARS-CoV-2 infection on their neurological and body development is still uncertain. Being an item of extreme importance to International Health Security.
It is vital to monitor the growth and proper development of children exposed to COVID-19 during pregnancy since whether or not vertical transmission occurs is still uncertain, and if confirmed, fetal prognosis should be improved through diagnosis to determine early consequences. Several viral infections during pregnancy can compromise the health of the fetuses in the short, medium, and long term.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\n\nEven if you have an area of research that does not at first sight fit within a previously defined IntechOpen project, we can still offer support and help you in publishing your individual research. Publishing your IntechOpen book in the form of a Long Form Monograph is a viable alternative.
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He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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