Ea values over several Ni-based catalysts for DRM reaction.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8938",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Inhibitory Control Training - A Multidisciplinary Approach",title:"Inhibitory Control Training",subtitle:"A Multidisciplinary Approach",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Inhibitory control is a critical neurocognitive skill for navigating cognitive, social, and emotional challenges. It rapidly increases during the preschool period and is important for early cognitive development, as it is a crucial component of executive functioning, self-regulation, and impulsivity. Inhibitory control training (ICT) is a novel intervention in which participants learn to associate appetitive cues with inhibition of behavior. It is being considered a promising approach in the treatment of psychopathology and appetitive behaviors. This book aims to bring together knowledge on the topic, considering research, clinic, and forensic field of intervention. Indeed, this book can be considered an excellent synopsis of perspectives, methods, empirical evidence, and international references.",isbn:"978-1-78985-982-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-981-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-527-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82899",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"inhibitory-control-training-a-multidisciplinary-approach",numberOfPages:146,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"bd82354f3bba4af5421337cd42052f86",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo and Massimo Bartoli",publishedDate:"April 22nd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8938.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4920,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:18,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 18th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 23rd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 22nd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 10th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 10th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233998/images/system/233998.png",biography:"Sara Palermo has an MSc in clinical psychology and a PhD in experimental neuroscience. She is specialty chief editor of Frontiers in Psychology, Neuropsychology, and scientific director of the Italian National Institute of Philanthropy, Filantropolis. She is a member of the Italian Society of Neuropsychology, the Italian Association of Psychogeriatrics, the Italian Society of Neurology for Dementia, and the Society for Interdisciplinary Placebo Studies. She was a member of the European Innovation Partnership on Active and Healthy Ageing (EIP AHA), for which she was involved in Action Group A3: Action for Prevention of Functional Decline and Frailty. Dr Palermo works as a researcher at the Department of Psychology - University of Turin (Italy) and as Scientific Consultant at the Fondazione IRCCS, Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta (FINCB), Milan, Italy.",institutionString:"University of Turin, Italy & The Foundation of the Carlo Besta Neurological Institute IRCCS",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"University of Turin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"295081",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Massimo",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoli",slug:"massimo-bartoli",fullName:"Massimo Bartoli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/295081/images/system/295081.png",biography:"Massimo Bartoli graduated in Criminal and Forensic Psychology at the University of Turin (Italy) and has a 2nd level Master's degree in Psychopathology and Forensic Neuropsychology (University of Padua, Italy).\r\n\r\nHe has worked with The Italian Society of Sexual Psychopathology (S.I.S.P.Se) on research projects concerning the psychopathological and neuropsychological characteristics of sexual offenders and the assessment of static and dynamic risk factors of sex-crime recidivism.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he is a PhD student in Neuroscience at the University of Turin. One of the main aims of his PhD project is to investigate the possible association between executive dysfunctions and behavioural and functional aspects, including the capacity to act in the elderly in normal cognitive ageing and with neurocognitive disorders, and criminal recidivism.",institutionString:"University of Turin",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Turin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1180",title:"Cognitive Neuropsychology",slug:"cognitive-neuropsychology"}],chapters:[{id:"69720",title:"A View from the Start: A Review of Inhibitory Control Training in Early Childhood",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88700",slug:"a-view-from-the-start-a-review-of-inhibitory-control-training-in-early-childhood",totalDownloads:892,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Young children’s capacity to monitor and control their thoughts and behaviors is influenced largely by inhibitory control, which grows rapidly during this age due to brain maturation. This capacity has important implications for children’s development, including academic and social outcomes, and has been shown to be influenced by culture and exposure to adverse life events such as poverty. Research suggests that this capacity, importantly, may be largely trainable, with appropriate training programs.",signatures:"Erin Ruth Baker, Qingyang Liu and Rong Huang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69720",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69720",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"71277",title:"Musical Training Enhances Inhibitory Control in Adolescence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91288",slug:"musical-training-enhances-inhibitory-control-in-adolescence",totalDownloads:733,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Music production is a complex activity that involves nearly every function in the brain. Whether skills transfer from musical training to other cognitive abilities is a growing area of research. There is evidence to suggest that musical training in children and adult musicians is associated with an improvement in a variety of executive functions (EFs). This study examined whether those associations are also present during adolescence, and whether there is a relationship between the time spent in musical training and EF. Adolescents between the ages of 14 and 18 completed three tests of EF: Tower of Hanoi to assess working memory, Wisconsin Card Sort Test to assess cognitive flexibility, and Stroop Color Word Task to assess inhibition. They also completed a musical experience questionnaire, including their lifetime musical practice hours. Adolescent musicians were found to have improved inhibitory control (as measured by the Stroop Task) relative to nonmusicians and inhibition correlated with musical practice time. No other elements of EF were found to be associated with musical training. These findings suggest that the impact of musical training may not be the same for all EFs, and that there may be unique associations between this type of training and inhibitory control.",signatures:"Claudia L.R. Gonzalez, Frank Robertson and Robbin L. Gibb",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71277",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71277",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68856",title:"Addiction: Brain and Cognitive Stimulation for Better Cognitive Control and Far Beyond",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88869",slug:"addiction-brain-and-cognitive-stimulation-for-better-cognitive-control-and-far-beyond",totalDownloads:812,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Addiction behaviors are characterized by conditioned responses responsible for craving and automatic actions as well as disturbances within the supervisory network, one of the key elements of which is the inhibition of prepotent response. Interventions such as brain stimulation and cognitive training targeting this imbalanced system can potentially be a positive adjunct to treatment as usual. The relevance of several invasive and noninvasive brain stimulation techniques in the context of addiction as well as several cognitive training protocols is reviewed. By reducing cue-induced craving and modifying the pattern of action, memory associations, and attention biases, these interventions produced significant but still limited clinical effects. A new refined definition of response inhibition, including automatic inhibition of response and a more consistent approach to cue exposure capitalizing on the phase of reconsolidation of pre-activated emotional memories, all associated with brain and cognitive stimulation, opens new avenues for clinical research.",signatures:"Xavier Noël, Antoine Bechara, Mélanie Saeremans, Charles Kornreich, Clémence Dousset, Salvatore Campanella, Armand Chatard, Nemat Jaafari and Macha Dubuson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68856",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68856",authors:[{id:"90814",title:"Dr.",name:"Xavier",surname:"Noel",slug:"xavier-noel",fullName:"Xavier Noel"}],corrections:null},{id:"68459",title:"Binge Drinking and Memory in Adolescents and Young Adults",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88485",slug:"binge-drinking-and-memory-in-adolescents-and-young-adults",totalDownloads:804,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The binge drinking (BD) pattern of alcohol consumption, characterized by intermittent consumption of large quantities of alcohol in short periods, is currently prevalent during adolescence and early youth. This period is characterized by critical changes to the structural and functional development of brain areas related with memory, as well as other executive functions. As a result, BD has been associated with undermined learning and memory ability in adolescents and youths of both sexes. One distinctive contribution of this chapter is to evaluate, together, the impact of an acute BD episode, the sample’s history of consumption, and its effect on learning and memory performance and as potential gender differences. The main findings of the published research show that BD has differential effects on several types of memory and confirm that women are more vulnerable to these detrimental effects of alcohol than are men. These cognitive differences between men and women seem to be overridden as the blood alcohol concentration progressively increases. As BD pattern of consumption has been associated with inhibitory control deficits, future research also should investigate long-term implementation of inhibitory control training, emphasizing the importance of this training as part of the intervention strategies focused on this at-risk group.",signatures:"Concepción Vinader-Caerols and Santiago Monleón",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68459",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68459",authors:[{id:"117841",title:"Dr.",name:"Santiago",surname:"Monleon",slug:"santiago-monleon",fullName:"Santiago Monleon"},{id:"117857",title:"Dr.",name:"Concepción",surname:"Vinader-Caerols",slug:"concepcion-vinader-caerols",fullName:"Concepción Vinader-Caerols"}],corrections:null},{id:"68697",title:"Life Stress and Inhibitory Control Deficits: Teaching BrainWise as a Neurocognitive Intervention in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88642",slug:"life-stress-and-inhibitory-control-deficits-teaching-brainwise-as-a-neurocognitive-intervention-in-v",totalDownloads:834,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter describes inhibitory control in the context of broader and related constructs, executive function and self-regulation. We discuss the adaptive functions of inhibitory control, as well as evidence that life stress, such as poverty, maltreatment, homelessness, and mental illness, negatively impacts individuals’ inhibitory control and overall self-regulation skills. Moreover, these stressors are known to disrupt the development and functioning of crucial brain systems underlying inhibitory control. Following this review, we discuss a critical thinking skills intervention, BrainWise, which is designed to teach inhibitory and self-regulation skills to children, youth and adults. We describe the implementation of the program, and review evidence for its effectiveness with various populations, including our recent study that demonstrated the success of BrainWise in teaching these skills to homeless men living in transitional housing. Finally, we describe our proposed future applications of this intervention to veterans suffering serious mental health challenges. Our overarching goals are to highlight the importance of inhibitory control and overall self-regulation, the vulnerability of these important skills to life stress, and the promise held by one neurocognitive intervention for improving inhibitory control in high-risk populations.",signatures:"Marilyn Welsh, Patricia Gorman Barry and Jared M. Greenberg",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68697",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68697",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69748",title:"When Aggression Is Out of Control: From One-Person to Two-Person Neuropsychology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89803",slug:"when-aggression-is-out-of-control-from-one-person-to-two-person-neuropsychology",totalDownloads:845,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"From a neuropsychological perspective, impulsive aggression and its treatment are usually conceptualized in most research as a closed executive functioning system, as though the behavior was the product of the person’s cerebral functioning only. However, recent studies in social cognitive neuroscience have emphasized the influence of social factors on cognitive processes and cerebral functioning for the development and maintenance of impulsive aggression. This chapter will review studies that highlight the relevance of initiating a shift of paradigm from a one-person-cerebral functioning model to a social interactive-cerebral functioning model of impulsive aggression. First, the influences of an aversive environment on a child’s cognitive processes and executive functioning will be discussed with the aim of explaining the development of impulsive aggressive behaviors in early childhood. Second, we will review studies that have shown how the link between social information processes and executive/inhibitory functioning serve to maintain behaviors. Finally, strengths and weaknesses of existing inhibitory control strategies will be discussed with the intention of proposing some novel ideas that incorporate a two-person neuropsychological approach.",signatures:"J. Gagnon, J.E. Quansah and W.S. Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69748",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69748",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6876",title:"Behavioral Neuroscience",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"61887111f05b16c8fe4aaa7826fdf39f",slug:"behavioral-neuroscience",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo and Rosalba Morese",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6876.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7821",title:"Criminology and Post-Mortem Studies",subtitle:"Analyzing Criminal Behaviour and Making Medical 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This increase in energy demand over the years has changed the energy scenario through manufacturing [2]. Furthermore, even with the current low oil price, the world’s energy demand is anticipated to continue to rise in the future according to the international energy agency’s new policy situation [3], from 13.2% in 2011 up to 17.6% in 2035 as shown Figure 1.
Primary energy demand in Mtoe (million tonnes of oil equivalent) (a) 2011, (b) 2035 “new policies scenario” and (c) 2035 “450 scenario” (adapted from Ref. [
Currently, dependence on fossil fuels such as petroleum, gas and coal to satisfy energy demand has caused environmental issues owing to anthropogenic greenhouse gas generation. Methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are the most abundant greenhouse gasses and have lately contributed significantly to climate change issues [4]. While the level of methane in the environment is smaller than that of carbon dioxide [5], it is surprising that around 20% of worldwide warming occurs is caused by it [6]. Conventionally, there are two main sources of methane emissions including nature occurring activities and anthropogenic activities. Examples of the first source are termites, grasslands, coal beds, lakes, wetlands and forest fires, while examples from the second source are landfills, oil and gas treatment, wastewater treatment plants, coal mining, rice production, livestock and agricultural activities [7]. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency [8], methane manufacturing from landfill sites accounts for almost one-third of all methane produced in the United States alone, where landfill gas consists of 40–45% methane and 55–60% carbon dioxide by quantity by volume [9]. Notwithstanding, the reality that methane is a significant element of natural gas, a big quantity of natural gas is burned globally owing to technological constraints and the high price of carrying this valuable gas from its reservoirs, which are often far from industrial fields and the prospective market [10]. These actions have wasted an important source of hydrocarbons and contributed to global warming by releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere [11]. Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) has been implemented globally to decrease carbon dioxide emissions due to pressure to combat global climate change and guarantee viable power sources [12]. In addition, renewable energy is required instantly to replace oil resources to decrease the heavy dependence on crude oil and its unwanted impacts on the atmosphere [13].
In the last few years, the resources of renewable energy, particularly, biogas, have gained massive attention around the world as a substitute for traditional fossil fuels [14]. In Southeast Asia, palm oil biomass is considered one of the most plentiful renewable resources and has enormous potential for the sustainable production of chemical substances and fuels. Liquid waste, known as palm oil mill effluent (POME) generated along with crude palm oil production, is one of Southeast Asia’s environmental problem due to its high pollution characteristics. Therefore, digestion, an aerobic treatment, is widely adopted in the oil palm industries as a reliable and effective treatment for POME. The biogas generated during POME’s anaerobic decomposition is not restored for use, but can be dissipated into the atmosphere [15]. The biogas produced contains two greenhouse gases: methane (60–70%) and carbon dioxide (30–40%) with traces of hydrogen sulfide which can be utilized after purification for heat generation, electricity production, bio-methane production and of synthesis gas (referred to as syngas, mixture of H2 and CO) [16]. In fact, POME could become a significant source for biogas production due to its high organic content [17]. According to the World Meteorological Organization [18], methane and carbon dioxide levels were reported at 1845 ppm (parts per million) and 400.1 ppm (parts per million) respectively in 2015. Methane levels in the environment have been revealed to be below carbon dioxide levels, but have caused about 20% of worldwide warming [19]. Methane production was estimated at 6875 million metric tons which equals the total amount of carbon dioxide from all anthropogenic sources in 2010 [20]. Methane is frequently considered an important natural gas component with small amounts of other hydrocarbons such as ethane, propane and butane containing inert substances such as molecular oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide [21]. When monitoring the negative impact of methane and carbon dioxide, it is paramount to reduce their concentrations so that to avoid the high concentration of the greenhouse gases that lead to negative environmental conditions and increased temperature.
A great deal of extensive studies has been conducted to discover efficient methods of converting methane and carbon dioxide into precious products and thus reducing their elevated atmospheric quantity. Because of its comparatively low price and stability relative to other methods, converting carbon dioxide and methane into syngas is one of the most prevalent technologies [22]. It is one of the most important processes to convert hydrocarbons in the chemical industries to produce syngas [23]. In many distinct applications, such as Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) petroleum synthesis and the manufacturing of methanol and other precious fluid fuels and chemicals, syngas can be regarded as a construction block [24].
Recently, there have been many attempts that have prompted interest in producing alternative fuels by using renewable and environmentally friendly sources of energy, one of the few alternative sources is biogas. Even so, it is not entirely greenhouse gas-free; it does not, however, lead to global warming. Biogas is an appealing alternative for converting fuel to transport and generate electricity [25]. The vital route that will be of benefit to the power generation industry is the direct conversion of biogas, composed of methane and carbon dioxide to hydrocarbons under catalytic decomposition processes.
The use of catalysts in the catalytic reaction is essential in growing syngas manufacturing, as they assist to alter and enhance the reaction rate without consumption in the process [26]. Catalysts operate by offering an alternative mechanism that decreases energy activation, which implies the system needs less energy to achieve the state of transition. While catalytic reaction needs elevated temperatures to operate due to its heat-absorbing nature, the existence of catalysts can significantly decrease the reaction temperature [27].
Recently, there have been many attempts to use monometallic catalysts such as Ni, Co, Fe and Cu in the catalytic process because they are cheap and have a strong magnetization ability [28, 29]. Furthermore, bimetallic such as Ni-Co, Ni-Fe, and Ni-Cu have become very attractive to researchers due to their properties and the diversity of applications when compared with their individual mono-metal counterparts. The incorporation of nickel into Co, Fe, and Cu metals decreases the use of expensive noble metals [30]. Bimetallic catalysts success is thought to be due to the synergy of their parent metals they consist of two separate metals that display elevated dispersion and active sites. Moreover, the physical and chemical properties of the bimetallic catalysts are enhanced due to the formation of the solid solution [31]. For example, Pudukudy et al. [32] and Pinilla et al. [33] revealed a greater carbon output from a bimetallic catalyst compared to a monometallic catalyst.
At the moment, the adverse effect on the environment from the burning of fossil fuels, coal and compressed natural gas has become one of the main global issues [34]. Climate change occurs when the greenhouse effect rises, as demonstrated by flash floods, wind storms, heat waves and sudden droughts in a number of nations [35]. In addition, worldwide demand for energy is growing while fossil-fuel energy sources are quickly declining. Fossil fuels are one of the non-renewable energy resources that will be depleted in several decades if large-scale sources of energy are continually used [36]. As shown in Figure 2, the world production of fossil oil is at the peak of the production, and it is expected to diminish by the year 2050 [37]. Because of these situations, it is essential to replace petroleum consumption, minimize future expenses and eliminate the adverse effect on health and the environment. Thus, the replacement of non-renewable energy source with renewable resources is imperative to fulfill the needs of the energy demand without causing harm to the environment and mankind [38]. Due to this crisis, various kinds of energy are used to meet the large demand for petroleum-based fuel such as wind turbines, river dams, solar panels, geothermal power and biofuels [39].
Oil and natural gas production in the NZE (adapted from Ref. [
The conversion of methane into liquid fuels or greater hydrocarbons has been performed extensively. Bradford and Vannice [40] studied the growth of methanol, formaldehyde, propanol, benzene and other aromatics through direct oxidative conversion of methane. Unfortunately, all the aforementioned processes produce low yields or they are not recommended for an industrial scale. Today, various technologies are available for the production of syngas from natural gas. This gas is a component of precious fluid fuels and chemicals like Fischer-Tropsch oil, methanol and dimethyl ether [41].
The most significant renewable energy sources in the globe are biomass and hydropower. However, the use of other renewable resources is necessary to minimize the negative climate impacts caused by the excessive use of fossil fuels. In that sense, biogas will play an important role in the future. The biogas primary energy has increased 70% between 2008 and 2013 [42] and its production is expected to double in 2022 up to 45 × 109 m3. Biogas is a gas consisting primarily of methane and carbon dioxide generated from anaerobic digestion of organic matter from agricultural waste, landfills, urban wastewater and industrial wastewater. It is considered, therefore, a renewable energy source [43].
Based on the residue, biogas can contain traces of other compounds that hinder its use in the production of energy, making it necessary to install costly purification systems. Among them, the most significant are H2S, NH3, halogenated hydrocarbons and siloxanes. Biogas has traditionally been regarded a non-value by-product usually burned in flares to avoid hazards to humans and the environment and then released into the atmosphere. Recently, various options for biogas use such as heat, electricity, mixed heat and energy or the manufacturing of bio-methane have been suggested. Nevertheless, from an economical point of view, all the previous biogas applications depend on government feed in tariff policies. Besides, different countries like Malaysia, Germany, Spain or Italy, have reduced or even removed the cost-based compensation creating an unstable scenario for the renewable energy producers [44]. Therefore, the manufacturing of fresh biogas products is not only interesting but essential in order to reduce the obstacles to profitability.
One of the alternatives considered is the manufacturing of syngas that consists of a blend of H2 and CO and is the basis of C1 chemistry [45]. Depending on the syngas H2:CO ratio, it can be used to produce methanol, dimethyl ether (DME), liquid hydrocarbons (Fischer-Tropsch process) or H2. Syngas can be acquired from several procedures such as methane steam reforming, partial methane oxidation or dry methane reforming.
Due to overdependence on fossil-based fuels and increasing environmental concerns, the resources of renewable energy, in particular biogas, have gained massive attention around the world as a substitute for traditional fossil fuels. Biogas is obtained from the process of the anaerobic digestion of organic compounds. Methane (40–70%) and carbon dioxide (30–60%) are the primary compounds of biogas [46]. One of its most common applications is the direct combustion for energy recovery through co-generation plants that produce electricity and heat. Nevertheless, the use of renewable sources of methane like the one contained in biogas (bio-methane) for different applications like the production of hydrogen is a more interesting option than the use of fossil methane [47].
In this context, the catalytic decomposition of methane (CDM) (Eq. (1)) is being studied as an alternative to steam reforming of methane (SRM) to produce CO2-free hydrogen. The CDM in a single step produces a mixture of hydrogen and unconverted methane, which can be directly used as fuel in internal combustion engines or, even directly used to power a fuel cell [47].
The catalysts traditionally used in the CDM consist of transition metals belonging to group VIII (Ni, Fe, Co) supported over different metal oxides such as Al2O3, MgO, La2O3, and CeO2 [48, 49]. These catalysts are characterized by promoting the formation of carbon nanostructures (carbon nanofibers or carbon nanotubes) varying their textural and structural properties as a function of the catalyst composition and the operational conditions [50]. These carbon nanostructures have very interesting properties for their use in applications where thermal and electrical conductivity of materials is a key factor. However, one of the problems of the CDM is the deactivation over time of the catalysts due to carbon deposition that encapsulates the metal particles disabling their active sites [51].
Co-feeding with CH4 different oxidizing agents such as H2, H2O or CO2, can increase the life of the catalyst. Co-feeding with H2, inhibits the deactivation of the catalyst at the expense of a desired product, which reduces the efficiency of the process while the use of CO2 as Co-feeding induces Boudouard reaction (Eq. (2)) thereby resulting in gasification of graphitic carbon produced during the CDM reaction.
The use of CO2 in the CDM process has been studied by two approaches: some authors have suggested a cyclical process consisting of a methane decomposition step followed by another stage of gasification of the deposited carbon with CO2. Other authors have studied the decomposition of mixtures CH4:CO2 in conditions that favor the formation of nanostructured carbon. Nagayasu et al. [52] observed a slow deactivation of a Ni based catalyst to be used in the CDM in the presence of CO2. They also noted an increase in carbon accumulation capacity in the form of nanotubes by increasing the partial pressure of CO2 co-fed along with that of CH4.
Asai et al. [53] confirmed the inhibition of the deactivation of the catalyst studied in the decomposition of methane in the presence of CO2, suggesting a mechanism based on the gasification of graphitic carbon layers that encapsulate the catalyst particles, allowing the formation of carbon in the form of nanotubes. Indeed, co-feeding of CH4 and CO2, which are the main components of biogas as previously mentioned, modifies the reaction mechanism of methane decomposition into carbon and H2, to a process called dry reforming, which produces a mixture of H2 and CO. This is a highly endothermic reaction that takes place by way of a catalyst in the temperature range between 600 and 800
This syngas can be used in multiple applications such as fuel for solid oxide fuel cells or Fischer-Tropsch synthesis to produce environmental friendly liquid fuels, when using a renewable source such as biogas [55]. If the aim is to produce H2, then a water gas shift reaction followed by CO2-H2 separation should be accomplished. The practical implementation of the dry reforming of methane (DRM) faces many key challenges, which also apply to the biogas decomposition, and one of the most important is the deactivation of the catalysts due to the formation of carbon during the reactions of CH4 decomposition and CO2 disproportionation [56]. Also, Edwards and Maitra [57] reported that it is convenient to work at high temperatures and low ratios of CH4:CO2 (<1), to minimize carbon formation from a thermodynamic point of view. However, from the industrial point of view it would be much more desirable to work at moderate temperatures and CH4:CO2 ratios close to one, despite these are conditions under which carbon formation is thermodynamically favored.
Another issue that should be addressed is the high sulfur content of the biogas. This can provoke severe metal catalysts deactivation, therefore an exhaustive desulphurization of the biogas fed to the catalytic decomposition of biogas (CDB) reactor would be required when using a real biogas. The most commonly used methods for hydrogen sulphide removal can be found in [58]. The more active catalysts that promote the lower carbon deposition are precious metals, but its high price provokes that the most widely used catalysts for dry reforming are based on Ni, Co and Fe [59], which are the same catalysts traditionally used in the CDM.
Since the typical CH4:CO2 ratio in biogas composition is higher than 1 (CH4 concentration in biogas can be as high as 70% depending on its origin), avoiding carbon deposition in the biogas decomposition reaction is not a task easy to accomplish. Thus, as previously mentioned, the presence of CO2 along with the selection of optimum operating conditions for the deposition of carbon could prevent the rapid deactivation of the catalyst, resulting in a new biogas recovery process in which a gas with a suitable composition for its use in an internal combustion engine and carbon nanofibers (CNF) with multiple applications in sectors such as energy and transport are obtained. Direct decomposition of a gas simulating a typical biogas composition by means of metal catalysts under conditions that are favorable for carbon deposition has been studied by Muradov and Smith [60]. The problem associated to carbon deposition through decomposition of CH4:CO2 mixtures with ratio >1 was solved by adding small amounts of steam, prolonging the catalyst life. Some previous works by De Llobet et al. [61] focused on a study of CDB, conducted at moderate temperatures and using typical catalysts previously used in the CDM, promoting the formation of nanostructured carbon and syngas. As per their report, the Ni/Al2O3 catalyst exhibited high activity as well as stability, allowing them to obtain high CH4 conversion together with the high-yield production of fishbone-like nanocarbon.
Figure 3 illustrates a key aspect of the thermodynamics of any possible CO2 conversion. The figure also demonstrates the free emission of CO2 from Gibbs and its associated substances. It is evident that CO2 is an extremely stable molecule; it therefore requires significant energy input, optimized reaction conditions and (almost invariably) active catalysts for any chemical conversion of CO2 into a carbonaceous fuel.
Gibbs free energies of formation of selected chemicals (adapted from Ref. [
However, it is important to note that chemical reactions (conversions) arise due to the difference in the Gibbs free energy between the reactants and products of a chemical reaction (under certain conditions). This is illustrated by the Gibbs-Helmholtz relationship (Eq. (3)):
Therefore, the comparative stability of the ultimate response products must be taken into consideration in the effort to use CO2 as a chemical feedstock compared to the use of reactants. Both terms (Δ
Freund and Roberts [63] highlighted the significant contribution of CO2 surface chemistry. They claimed that any progress in the use of CO2 as a useful reactant can be achieved in relation to fuel synthesis by using novel catalytic chemistry wisely. They attempted to illustrate that the greatest potential impact lies in this area of material chemistry, physics and engineering. These researchers also pointed out that a positive change in free energy should not be considered as a reason enough not to pursue potentially useful CO2 reactions. This is because, Δ
Since the kinetics are favorable, CO2 decrease to CO (a key step in all conversion reactions), the primary step in all transformation responses, may also be feasible on metal surfaces or other catalytic materials, for instance on nano- and mesoporous metal particles [62]. Presently, a large number of industrial-scale chemical manufacturing processes worldwide operate on the basis of strong endothermic chemicals. The SRM to yield syngas and hydrogen is a classic example (Eq. (5)):
It is important to emphasize that the above-mentioned, highly endothermic reaction is used to produce large quantities of ‘merchant hydrogen’ in the gas, food and fertilizer industries worldwide. The corresponding DRM reflects the important reaction of CO2 with hydrocarbons, which will be central to our idea of converting CO2 into flue gases to produce chemical fuels (Eq. (6)):
The energy input for DRM requires about 20% more energy input than the SRM, but there is definitely no restricted additional energy cost for this chemical reaction. It is important that these two reactions lead to syngas with different H2:CO molar ratios. For the final production of liquid fuels, both are useful for the formation of horns.
Figure 4 shows the enthalpy of the chemical reactions of the CO2 conversion. This means that CO2 is thermodynamically much easier to use as a co-reactant, usually with a higher (i.e. less negative) Gibbs free energy, such as H2 or CH4. These hydrogen-containing energy carriers give their internal chemical energy to promote the conversion of CO2. Therefore, the heat of reaction (enthalpy of reaction) from CO2 to CO production is important and obvious as the individual reactive and CO2 energy as a key factor. Compare the thermal decomposition energies of CO2 (Eqs. (7) and (8)).
The enthalpy of reaction for syngas production and Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis of methanol and dimethyl ether (adapted from Ref. [
With that of the reaction of CO2 with H2 (Eq. (8))
This aspect may be further illustrated by the process of ‘oxyforming’, whereby the amount of oxygen in the dry reforming reaction is increased deliberately. In doing so, the reaction enthalpy of reaction is significantly reduced (Eqs. (9) and (10)):
The fundamental material challenge in this area lies in the fact that, generally, the reaction between CO2 and H2 occurs at high temperatures on multi-component heterogeneous catalysts [64].
Syngas is a blend of carbon monoxide and coal with a tiny quantity of methane and carbon dioxide. In the ever changing energy landscape, it is not only versatile, but also an increasingly important commodity. There are various carbon sources that happen through gasification or catalytic reformation for the manufacturing of syngas. Coal, natural gas (mainly methane), petroleum, and biomass could be the sources of carbon. The primary technical problem with fossil fuel syngas manufacturing is the complicated purification and conditioning procedures of syngas. The main reasons why the world has become more interested in the producing of biomass-derived syngas are therefore to decrease over-dependence on fossil fuels, to impose stricter CO2 emission standards and to verify the accessibility of resources. Roddy [65] claimed that biomass could originate from industrial, domestic, agricultural and urban waste sources as a feedstock for syngas production. The use of biomass or waste as the raw material for syngas manufacturing is theoretically two-pronged: the generation of clean energy and an effective way to reduce waste as reported by Markets and Markets [66], a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.7% is anticipated to achieve 117,400 MW (Megawatts) heat in 2018. Boerrigter and Rauch [67] estimated the future market for syngas to increase to 50,000 petajoules (PJ) per annum, equivalent to 13.9 × 109 MWh per annum in, 2040. This amounts to replacing an average 30% fossil fuel usage is 10% of the complete world power consumption. They also projected that syngas will be used primarily in gas-to-liquid (GTL) procedures, with 49% for gas-to-product (GTP) procedures and 39% for renewable gas and hydrocarbon manufacturing. In, 1993, Shell Malaysia built the world’s first commercial GTL plant in Bintulu, Sarawak. Since, 2003, as many as for 14,700 barrels of high-quality GTL products have been produced per day. This is clearly an upgrade in the production from its original capacity of 12,500 barrels per day. As reported by the Borneo Post, Shell’s GTL plant plans to invest RM (Malaysian ringgit) 48.36 million to rejuvenate its plant in Bintulu in, 2015. The world’s largest GTL plant is located in Qatar, with a production capacity of 140,000 barrels of product per day.
In short, the development of the market for syngas is accelerating, the important increase in syngas consumption is due to its use as an energy precursor. The presence of CO, H2 and CH4 gases, which possess certain heating value, makes it highly in demand. Syngas also includes approximately 50% of natural gas’s power density. Subramani et al. [68] reported that 1 kg of H2 contains the same amount of energy as 2.6 kg of CH4, which is equivalent to 3.1 kg of gasoline. H2 is used at low temperatures because of its elevated energy content; fuel cells are used to produce electricity, power cars or even in the synthesis of Fischer – Tropsch. In addition to serving as an energy carrier, it has traditionally been used as a feedstock for the mass production of significant chemicals, such as methanol, ammonia or fertilizers.
Carbon nanofilaments are nanometric filaments with diameters between 1 and 200 nm and lengths of up to several microns. These materials are composed mainly of graphite type carbon whose basic structural component is graphene [69]. Graphene can be defined as the combination of carbon atoms with sp2 hybridization, where each carbon atom joins three others forming a flat hexagonal tessellation (basal plane or graphene layer) [70]. The parallel stacking of several of these layers’ outcomes in graphite characterized by an elevated structural order and a distance of 0.3354 nm between the distinct graphene layers (crystalline domain or interplanar distance, d002) (Figure 5).
Representative scheme of crystal structures of graphene (adapted from Ref. [
On the other hand, carbon nanofilaments have a structural order inferior to that of graphite and according to the Franklin classification [72] correspond to turbostratic type materials, that is, they have crystalline domains greater than graphite and smaller than non-graphitic carbons (0.3354 < d002 < 0.344 nm).
Within carbon nanofilaments we can distinguish two types: carbon nanotubes (CNT) and carbon nanofibers (CNF). The CNT can be considered as layers of graphene rolled into hollow tubes [73]. Depending on the number of layers that make up the CNT, they are classified as single wall CNT (SWCNT), formed by a single layer, or multiple wall CNT (MWCNT), formed by 2 or more concentrically coiled layers (Figure 6a) [73]. On the other side, the CNF can be hollow or strong and are categorized with regard to their longitudinal axis according to the angle they form graphene layers (α). The most common types of CNF are platelet, parallel (also named ribbon or tubular) and fishbone (Figure 6b) [73]. Platelet CNF are characterized by the fact that the graphene sheets are arranged perpendicular to the growth axis of the CNF (α ≈ 180°), while in the fishbone type the angle α is between approximately 20–160° [74].
Simplified representation of the different kinds of (a) carbon nanotubes (SWCNT and MWCNT), and (b) carbon nanofibers (platelet, tubular, fishbone) (adapted from Ref. [
They are also called Herringbone. Finally, the parallel types would be those in which the sheets are parallel to the longitudinal axis of the CNF (α ≈ 0°). Unlike Figure 6b, this sort of structure can also be tubular and therefore it is not feasible to distinguish them from MWCNT by using electronic microscopy methods. However, there is some controversy, parallel type CNF tend to present areas along their structure in which the graphene layers are not oriented in parallel (α > 0°) as well as numerous imperfections such as the union of the layers’ graphene inside the nanofiber (loops). Along with these three morphologies, in the CNF world there are other types of less common structures such as bamboo CNF, which are characterized by having internal holes that occur periodically due to the movement of the catalytic particle during the growth of the CNF, or the octopus-type NFCs that are generally produced when a Ni catalyst doped with Cu [75] is employed. Although there is a bibliography related to the formation of carbon filaments since the late nineteenth century, it was the discovery of the transmission electron microscope (TEM) in 1939 that really represented a breakthrough in this field since it allowed the observation in detail the morphology of this type of structures [76]. Initially, the interest in carbon formation derived from the problems that its accumulation caused in the processes of conversion of hydrocarbons (deactivation and destruction of catalysts or plugging of reactors) and therefore, the objective was to understand how and why it was generated in order to avoid their formation [77]. However, since the discovery of CNT by Iijima [78] in the 90s and due to the properties that carbon nanofilaments present (high specific surfaces and high electrical conductivities and thermal, the approach changed and numerous studies were initiated to optimize their production [79].
Numerous reform techniques have been created to fulfill the long list of demands required in downstream chemicals procedures. Dry Reforming of methane is the most prevalent technique used in the syngas sector through one of three reforming procedures: (1) steam reforming of methane (SRM), (2) partial oxidation of methane (POM) and (3) dry reforming of methane (DRM). The difference between the three techniques is based on the oxidant used, the kinetics and reaction energy, and the percentage of syngas produced (H2:CO).
The SRM approach produces a higher H2:CO ratio of 3:1 compared to the ratio required for Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) synthesis of 2:1 [80]. Due to its endothermic nature, SRM requires an extensive energy input so it is very expensive. In addition, a higher H2O:CH4 ratio is required to achieve a higher H2 output, making the SRM process less favorable and speeding up the activation of catalysis. Moreover, SRM faces corrosion problems and requires a desulfurization unit [81].
In the case of POM approach, this process is suitable for producing larger amounts of hydrocarbons and naphtha. Typically, POM has a very short residence time, high selectivity, and high conversion rates [82]. However, the exothermic nature of the reaction causes the induction of hot spots in the catalyst and makes it difficult to control the process. In addition, POM requires a cryogenic unit to separate oxygen from air. In the case of POM, this process is suitable for producing larger amounts of hydrocarbons and naphtha. POM typically has a very short period of residence, high selectivity and high conversion rates. The exothermic nature of the response, however, allows warm spots in the catalyst to be induced and makes the method hard to regulate and POM requires a cryogenic unit to separate oxygen from air [83].
DRM approach is the most promising of all techniques, as it utilizes two greenhouse gases (CO2 and CH4) to generate industry-significant syngas while at the same moment lowering excessive greenhouse gas emissions. The DRM method is also cheaper than other techniques, as it eliminates the complicated gas separation of finished products. It generates the ratio H2:CO that can be used to synthesize oxidized chemicals and F-T synthesis long-chain hydrocarbons. DRM can also be extended to biogas (CO2, CO, and CH4) as a raw material for cleaner and eco-friendly fuels. DRM syngas is also a solar or nuclear energy storage facility [84]. Since reaction is endothermic, the process is generally carried out at temperatures between 450 and 900°C. In addition, the utilization of a catalyst is required in order to obtain acceptable CH4 conversions. The practical application of the DRM faces many significant obstacles and one of the most significant is the deactivation of the catalysts due to carbon formation during CH4 decomposition and CO2 disproportionate responses. Working at elevated temperatures and low CH4:CO2 ratios (<1) is useful from a thermodynamic point of perspective to prevent carbon formation. From an industrial point of perspective, however, work at mild temperatures and CH4 would be much more desirable: CO2 ratios close to one. Nevertheless, circumstances under which thermodynamic carbon formation is favored [85].
In this context, the DRM’s attempts focus on developing a catalyst that demonstrates elevated activity and stability and low carbon formation and price at the same moment. In one of the first works related to the DRM, Fischer and Tropsch studied different metals belonging to groups 8, 9 and 10 (Ni, Co, Fe, Mo, W, Y, Cu). Among them, only Ni and Co showed a good activity (XCH4 ≈ 90%). Years later, Gadalla et al. [86] tested different commercial Ni-based catalysts, obtaining CH4 conversions near 100% during 70 h of operation. Nonetheless, in order to avoid carbon deposition and catalyst deactivation they used CH4:CO2 ratios below 0.5 and temperatures above 900°C. Due to their high activity and lower carbon formation as compared to Ni, noble metals have been extensively studied as catalysts for the DRM [87]. However, their high cost and low availability make other metals more attractive from an industrial point of view. Due to their reduced cost compared to noble metals, Ni, Co and Fe were also widely researched and in the last years, bimetallic catalysts have stood out.
In order to synthesize an enhanced catalyst, these catalysts aim to potentiate the features of both metals. Ni-Co bimetallic catalysts showed a very healthy conduct among them. In any event, carbon deposition issues are even more important when using biogas. Biogas usually has higher CH4:CO2 ratios than one that ultimately leads to bigger quantities of carbon depositions that quickly deactivate the catalysts. However, distinct types of carbon are created during the decomposition of hydrocarbons and luckily not all of them are directly liable for the deactivation of catalysts. The sort and location of carbon atoms is more important than the amount generated when considering catalytic activity, according to Pinilla et al. [88]. Generally, only carbon encapsulation is directly liable for deactivation of the catalyst owing to active center coverage, while other carbon structures, such as carbon nanofilaments, can only cause operational issues when manufactured in big amounts as reactor blockage.
Studies of DRM’s kinetics and mechanisms were conducted to determine an appropriate reaction rate model, either empirically or on the basis of a theoretical response mechanism to best suit the relevant experimental information and possibly describe the response rate and the chemical process. This understanding can further optimize the design and layout of the chemical system catalysts (the reactor), which can further improve DRM’s overall development with more cost-effective technology [89]. Although, from a mechanistic point of perspective, steam reforming has received much attention, there has been a resurgence of interest in dry reforming over the previous centuries. A series of catalysts for DRM were researched as a consequence. This has resulted in a number of mechanistic measures for DRM being published in the literature. The DRM reaction mechanism was explored by Aldana et al. [90] over a Ni-based catalyst.
Aldana et al. reported that H2 dissociates on Ni0 locations while carbon dioxide is activated on ceria-zirconia assistance to generate carbonates that can be hydrogenated into formats and then into methoxy species. This mechanism includes weak fundamental support sites for carbon dioxide adsorption and includes a stable interface between metal and support. Compared to Ni-silica, which activates both carbon dioxide and hydrogen on Ni0 particles, these characteristics lead in much better operations of these catalysts [90]. This mechanism is also supported by Pan et al. [91]. Meanwhile, Ayodele et al. [92] conducted a DFT analysis of the DRM over Ru nanoparticles supported on TiO2 (101).
Extensive research was carried out to study the impacts of altering process variables on catalyst performance for the DRM reaction. This inquiry is essential as various process factors may result in variable catalyst performance [93]. The notion of activation energy should be considered as it will determine the response rate. Table 1 tabulates the activation energy (
Catalyst | Preparation method | Total flowrate (mg) | Catalyst Amount (kJ/mol) | Ea(CH4) (kJ/mol) | Ea(CO2) (kJ/mol) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ni/Al2O3 (400–650°C) | Wet impregnation | 28 | 500 | — | 64.4 | [94] |
4.82Ni/Al2O3 (750–850°C) | Incipient wetness | 100–980 | — | 242.67 | 115.86 | [95] |
7Ni/MgO (550–750°C) | Incipient wetness-impregnation | — | 10 | 105 | 99 | [96] |
5Ni/MgAl2O4 (600–800°C) | Co-precipitation | 30 | 20 | 26.39 | 40.43 | [97] |
13.5Ni-2K/5MnO-Al2O3 (550–800°C) | Impregnation | 400 | 50 | 113.8 | — | [98] |
0.3Pt-10Ni/Al2O3 (580–620°C) | Sequential impregnation | 100 | 5 | 112.55 | 98.74 | [99] |
8%Ni/α-Al2O3 (550–750°C) | Wet impregnation | 360 | 40 | 89.1 | 88.6 | [100] |
Ea values over several Ni-based catalysts for DRM reaction.
In the meantime, Cui et al. [100] conducted a thorough study of the DRM mechanism over Ni/α-Al2O3 using steady-state and transient kinetic methods at 550–750°C temperatures. Their results show that the CH4 dissociation and CO2 conversion
According to Kathiraser et al. [93], distinct gas hourly space velocities (GHSVs) need to be tested to eliminate internal mass transport resistance. The aim of this experiment is to verify that the conversions have reached a stable value and that a further shift in GHSV does not influence the conversion of reactants. The contact time, which plays a significant part in CO2 and CH4 conversions, is another consideration. When the contact time value is high, CO2 or CH4 conversions stay unaffected. The particle size of the catalyst should be held as small as possible to eliminate inner mass transport resistance, so that a further reduction in size does not impact conversions.
Kim et al. [101], explored the use of a CO2-photoacoustic signal (PAS) to analyze kinetically the DRM reaction on a Ni catalyst supported on Al2O3 and TiO2. They discovered that the reason why mass flow rates low are used is because this method generates heat periodically because when a material absorbs a modulated laser beam, the photoacoustic signal is produced. It is essential to remember the characteristics of kinetic curves that act as the reaction mechanism’s blueprints. These include the point of inflection, a brief period of induction or breakpoints. No particular GHSV can be found from all the results to eliminate the impacts of constraints on mass transfer. This indicates that the development of inherent kinetic models is critical in preliminary research.
Numerous studies on the development of active and coking-resistant DRM reaction catalysts have been published [102, 103]. Common DRM catalysts are backed by noble metal catalysts like Ru, Rh and Pt and backed by transition metal catalysts like Ni and Co [104, 105, 106]. The calculations for the result showed that noble Ru and Rh metals exhibit greater activity than Ni as long as the particle sizes and dispersion are the same [106]. While noble metals such as Ru, Rh and Pt in the DRM response are very effective and more resistant to coking than other transition metals, they are not readily accessible and are also costly [104].
Ni-based catalysts are the most frequently used for commercial purposes on an industrial scale. In order to commercialize the industrial sector DRM response, the primary focus is on developing inexpensive and cost-effective catalysts with high activity and high carbon deposition resistance. Researchers performed research on the sort of assistance used and the impacts of adding promoters to Ni-based catalysts in order to define the most efficient way to enhance their coking resistance. In addition, latest efforts to enhance catalytic activity and inhibit carbon formation are aimed at combining two or three metals as active locations [105, 107]. Pre-treatment process preparation method and catalyst also play a crucial role in altering structural characteristics, implementing behavior decrease and enhancing catalytic efficiency [108]. Besides establishing the Ni-based catalyst with certain modifying agents in the catalyst preparation, the incorporation of Ni particles in the mesoporous aid could also enhance the conversion of reactants and the yield of products by preventing the sintering of metal particles and improving the metal-supporting connection. This metal produces desirable results due to the high specific region of mesoporous materials which can increase the dispersion of Ni particles on the supported catalyst [109].
In addition, the strong interaction between metal and support stabilizes the Ni particles incorporated in the mesoporous matrix. Multiple contact regions between the Ni particles and the support could improve thermal stability and support metal cooperation and support. The incorporation of Ni-based catalysts into mesoporous supports such as MCM-41, SBA-16, TUD-1, meso-Al2O3 and meso-ZrO2 has, as reported in the literature, demonstrated high catalytic activity and high carbon resistance in DRM. Catalyst supports can also be synthesized from plants, which is crucial for the effectiveness of DRM catalysts. The use of polymers from trees has been an interesting region among scientists in latest years with the aim of increasing the velocity of chemical reactions. In addition to generating high-quality chemicals, catalysts installed on commonly accessible cellulose incur low manufacturing expenses [110].
Abimanyu et al. [111] reported that the main steps to synthesize catalyst supports are pretreatment and hydrolysis. Ni-based catalysts have been used industrially as metal precursors in DRM, but the need to refine the metal to improve catalyst performance has recently attracted the interest of many scientists, as these particles demonstrated promising physical and chemical properties with elevated technological applications potential.
The preparation technique significantly affected a catalyst’s physico-chemical characteristics and efficiency, according to Jang et al. [112]. It has therefore been noted that impregnation and co-precipitation are the most commonly used standard techniques of catalyst preparing. Another less prevalent technique for preparing catalysts is sol-gel, which generates a distribution of fine size. This method reduces the deactivation rate, offers high thermal resistance to agglomeration and creates a product of high quality compared to conventional methods.
A new non-thermal glow discharge plasma method has recently been developed to improve metal support interaction, boost the distribution of Ni particles and improve the activity and stability of the catalyst [113]. However, in comparison with simpler preparation techniques, plasma therapy is comparatively costly. This would improve the activity and stability of the catalyst in the DRM response by combining novel catalytic material and techniques.
Supported bimetallic catalysts demonstrate increased DRM activity and stability based on Zhang et al. [114] study. The preparation technique is one of the main variables responsible for the bimetallic catalyst’s outstanding catalytic results. During catalyst preparing, the use of high calcining temperature outcomes in strong interactions between metal and support, which converts the catalyst into stable frame-like constructions. In particular, carbon formation is efficiently blocked during the catalyst decrease by using Ni-Co alloy compared to using single Ni sites. The synthesis method of different catalysts also affects the reaction effectiveness. For example, the method of co-precipitation may produce smaller sizes of metal particles compared to the use of wet impregnation.
There are focuses on the development of DRM catalysts for catalysts with the following features: greater activity and greater stability towards coke formation, sintering, the formation of inactive chemical species and metal oxidation [115]. The catalytic efficiency could be improved by changing the catalyst’s active sites by adding supports and promoters during catalyst preparing to increase conversion and selectivity [116]. Table 2 shows several catalysts that have been developed recently, including Ni-based catalysts applied to the DRM reaction.
Catalyst | Preparation method | GHSV (mL/gh) | Temperature (°C) | CH4 conversion (%) | CO2 conversion (%) | H2/CO ratio | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Co-, Cu- and Fe-doped Ni/Al2O3 | Fusion | 12,000 | 650 | 34–40 | NA | NA | [30] |
25–55%Ni/MeOx(Me = Al, Mg, Ti, and Si) | Evaporation-induced self-assembly | 48,000 | 600 | 76 | NA | NA | [50] |
Ni/Ce-Al2O3 and Ni/Ce-Zr-Al2O3 | Wet impregnation | 21,000 | 800 | 66.7–79.5 | 45.2–86.9 | NA | [58] |
5% Ni/MgAl2O4 | Microwave-assisted combustion | NA | 850 | 83 | — | ≈1 | [102] |
5,10,15%Ni/MgAl2O4 | Homogenous precipitation | 12,000 | 700 | 78 | 89 | NA | [103] |
K,Mg,Ce-2,8%Ni/Al2O3 | Wet impregnation | NA | 160 | 31.6 | 22.8 | 2.2 | [107] |
5–100%NiH-Ce | Co-precipitation | 20,000 | 550 | 35–55 | 35–45 | 0.55–1.60 | [115] |
5,10,15%NiMgAlCe | Co-precipitation | 29,000 | 750 | 33–48 | 57–69 | 0.78–0.96 | [116] |
Pd, Pt-55%Ni-Cu/MgO·Al2O3 | Wet impregnation | 48,000 | 675 | 84 | NA | 0.55–1.50 | [103] |
15%Ni/ZrTiAlOx | Sol-gel & impregnation | 45,000 | 600 | 85 | 95 | 0.95 | [117] |
10Ni + 3%Ce/8%PO4 + ZrO2 | Wet impregnation | 28,115.4 | 800 | 95 | 96 | NA | [118] |
Ni-Mo2C/MgO | Sol-gel | 30,000 | 850 | 90 | 85 | NA | [119] |
NiO–10Al2O3–ZrO2 | One-step synthesis method | 48,000 | 700 | 92 | 90 | 0.73 | [120] |
Ni-W/Al2O3-MgO | Co-precipitation | 36,000 | 777.29 | 87.6 | 93.3 | 1 | [121] |
Catalysts developed for the DRM reaction.
Deactivation of catalyst relates to loss of activity of catalyst during the response. It is the significant drawback of metal-based catalysts, as it not only creates product reductions that affect the response rate, but also costs industry millions of cash to replace the catalyst. Catalyst deactivation basically relates to three elements, according to Bartholomew and Farrauto [122] chemical, mechanical and thermal. Catalysts for metal reforming are frequently deactivated by coking, poisoning, fouling and sintering. Table 3 describes the mechanisms of catalyst deactivation.
Poisoning relates to the powerful adsorption in the feed of chemical substances such as impurities. Poisoning of catalysts may be reversible (temporary) or irreversible (permanent) [122]. The catalyst may be retrieved by air oxidation or steaming to wash its surface for reversible toxicity. For irreversible poisoning, however, the toxins cannot be removed, so replacing current catalysts with a fresh batch is essential. Sulfur species such as hydrogen sulfide are common poisons in all catalytic processes with reduced metals as the active site. S-poisoning, as in procedures of F-T synthesis and steam reform, is always a disaster.
In 2011, Bartholomew and Farrauto illustrated the mechanism of sulfur poisoning [122]. Firstly, the S atom adsorbs or blocks the reaction or active sites of the catalyst physically (geometric effect). Then, the S atom alters the metal atoms electronically. The metal ions subsequently alter their adsorbability or their capacity to dissociate with reactant molecules like H2 and CO. The S atom also alters the surface area and creates major catalytic characteristics alterations. This hinders the accessibility of adsorbed reactants to each other and thus slows down the adsorbed reactants’ surface propagation. Table 4 describes the typical poisons of industrial catalysts for different types of reaction. The avoidance of sulfur toxicity and sulfur strength can be improved by modifying the structure of the catalysts by incorporating certain additives, such as molybdenum and boron, which adsorb sulfur selectively or change the response circumstances. According to Bartholomew and Farrauto [122], reduction in the temperature of steam reforming over Ni/Al2O3 catalysts from 800 to 500
Mechanism | Type | Definition |
---|---|---|
Poisoning | Chemical | Strong chemisorption of species on catalytic sites, thereby blocking sites for catalytic reaction |
Fouling | Mechanical | Physical deposition of species from fluid phase onto the catalytic surface and in catalyst pores |
Thermal degradation (Sintering) | Thermal | Thermally induced loss of the catalytic surface area due to crystalline growth, support area and active phase support reactions |
Vapor formation | Chemical | Reaction of gas with catalyst phase to produce volatile compound |
Vapor-solid and solid-solid reactions | Chemical | Reaction of fluid, support, or promoter with catalytic phase to produce inactive phase |
Attrition/crushing | Mechanical | Loss of catalytic material due to abrasion Loss of internal surface area due to mechanical induced crushing of the catalyst particle |
Mechanisms of catalyst deactivation.
Reactions | Catalyst | Poisons |
---|---|---|
Steam reforming | Ni/Al2O3, Ni | H2S, As, HCl |
CO hydrogenation | Ni, CO, Fe | H2S, As, COS, NH3, HCN, metal carbonyls |
Automotive catalytic converters | Pt, Pd | Pb, P, Zn, S |
Ammonia synthesis | Fe | CO, CO2, H2O, O2, S, C2H2, Bi, Se, Te, P, VSO4 |
Catalytic cracking | SiO2-Al2O3, Zeolites | Organic bases, NH3, hydrocarbon, Na, heavy metals |
Poisons of the industrial catalysts.
Bartholomew and Farrauto [122], Christensen et al. [123], and Argyle and Bartholomew [124] describe the sintering of a heterogeneous catalyst as the loss of the catalytic layer, which is generally irreversible owing to the development of crystallite either on the supporting material or after thermal degradation in the active stage. Bartholomew and Farrauto [122] revealed two significant sintering parameters. The first is the sintering of temperature, including above the catalyst atmospheric temperature. The next is the sintering rate, which is impacted by the support structure and morphology, the metal particle size distribution, and the support’s phase transition. These two catalyst sintering processes are crystallite migration (coalescence) and nuclear or vapor transport (ripening of Ostwald). Christensen et al. [123] outlined that crystallite migration involves entire crystallite migration followed by collision and coalescence. In the meantime, Argyle and Bartholomew [124] addressed that Ostwald ripening relates to the migration of metal transport species emitted from one crystallite over the assistance or through the gas phase and caught by another crystallite. The author also stated that the sintering method is due to elevated temperatures and that owing to the presence of water vapor there is an increase in the sintering speed. Due to sintering impacts, Figure 7 demonstrates the conceptual models of crystallite development.
Conceptual models for crystallite growth due to sintering by (A) Ostwald ripening and (B) crystallite migration (adapted from Ref. [
Lif and Skoglundh [125] found that the co-impregnation of nickel catalysts with the oxides of alkali metals, alkaline earths or lanthanides suppresses the sintering effect. In addition, it was also shown that the catalyst preparation sequential impregnation technique improves the catalyst’s stability towards sintering. To conclude, it is extremely desirable that it possesses the following characteristics for the growth of a fresh catalyst: heat resistance, coking resistance and stability in syngas manufacturing.
Fouling is a physical (mechanical) deactivation that causes the loss of catalyst activity owing to coke deposition that blocks the reactive sites. Steam reforming utilizes catalysts primarily based on Ni. Coke deposition is a prevalent cause of deactivation of Ni-based catalysts. Temperature-programmed hydrogenation (TPH) and Temperature-programmed oxidation (TPO) methods are used to analyze carbon deposition on the used catalyst. The methods of TPH and TPO are used to define the features of the kinds of carbon species created during reaction on the catalysts [126]. According to Bartholomew and Farrauto [122], the types of carbon that may be formed during reforming are
No. | Structural type | Designation | Temperature of formation (K) | Peak temperature (K) for reaction with H2 | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Adsorbed, atomic (dispersed, surface carbide) | Cα | 473–673 | 473 | [127, 128] |
2 | Polymeric, amorphous films or filament | Cβ | 523–773 | 673 | [127, 129, 130] |
3 | Vermicular (polymeric amorphous)
| Cν | 573–1273 | 673–873 | [127, 131, 132, 133] |
4 | Nickel carbide (bulk) | Cγ | 423–523 | 548 | [127] |
5 | Graphitic (crystalline)
| CC | 773–823 | 823–1123 | [127, 128, 131, 132, 134] |
Forms and reactivity of carbon formed by decomposition of CO on Ni.
CH4 cracking (Eq. (1)) and CO disproportionation are the two primary reasons for coke deposition during DRM (Eq. (6)). There are three possible carbon fouling mechanisms for the metal catalyst. The first mechanism is carbon, which deposits reactive sites on the catalyst and impedes binding of the reactants to the active locations. The carbon would otherwise encapsulate the catalyst’s reactive site and deactivate the catalysts. Another deactivation option resides in the coke being deposited in the catalyst pores, thereby stopping the reactants from crystallizing on it. The third mechanism involves carbon-forming needle-like filaments in the active site of the nickel catalyst, to some extent breaking the catalysts. Figure 8 shows the conceptual model of the mechanisms of carbon fouling of a catalyst.
Conceptual models of fouling, crystalline encapsulation and pore plugging of a supported metal catalyst (adapted from Ref [
Quincoces et al. [135] used DRM catalyst Ni/γ-Al2O3. They found that there were no rises in carbon deposition while the molar ratio of the reactants, CH4/CO2, was maintained in unity. This finding shows that by changing the response circumstances, such as the molar ratio of reactant feed, carbon deposition can be minimized. In their research, they discovered that a filamentous or whisker-like morphology was shown by the carbon deposit on Ni/γ-Al2O3. This finding is comparable to Kępiński et al. [136] reporting. Meanwhile, on a backed metal catalyst, Toebes et al. [137] recorded carbon formation with metal crystallites in addition to carbon filaments. The growth of carbon filaments has pushed the metal crystallites from the surface of the catalyst support.
Ito et al. [138] also proposed that CO2 could reduce the impacts of the fouling system. While the increasing carbon filaments remove the Ni metal, the introduced CO2 responds to CO through a reverse-Boudouard response with the carbon whiskers. One of the findings of their study was that after the removal of the carbon whisker, there is a decrease in bulk Ni. This renders the catalyst to be inactive for carbon deposition. However, there is an increase in the reforming activity of CH4, which is due to the newly exposed Ni active sites from the bulk Ni.
Cheng et al. [139] report a reduction in the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area and the amount of pore used carbon catalyst. As a result of this phenomenon, catalyst activity is lost. Wagner et al. [140] noted that a vapor reforming catalyst’s acidity is proportional to its coke formation tendency. They also asserted that using basic support or basic mixed oxide support named K, the coking strength of the reforming catalysts could be improved. Li et al. [141] and Zanganeh et al. [142] also endorsed this argument, whereby nickel catalyst deactivation can be weakened if the nickel is backed by a strong Lewis base oxide like MgO, CaO, SrO or BaO.
Subsequently, the present research project introduces DRM to investigate the level of resistance of the catalyst towards carbon formation. Zanganeh et al. [142] suggested that an increase in the CO2/CH4 ratio during DRM and increasing the temperature to a high level may minimize carbon formation thermodynamically.
Ito et al. [138] also agreed that the increased CO2-to-CH4 feed ratio would eliminate the CH4 decomposition reaction. Koo et al. [143] found that introducing less than 1wt percent of Mg into the Ni catalyst would enhance their coking strength. Adding promoter like Mo could therefore allay the coke formation phenomenon on the Ni catalyst. Another proposal to reduce the carbon deposition of a catalyst with a small surface area is to reduce the Ni load of the assistance. A CO2/CH4 molar ratio of more than 3.0 should be used to prevent the boudouard reaction.
Throughout this work, it has been shown that biogas is a very interesting source of renewable energy. Because of its elevated CH4 content, biogas has excellent potential, as reflected in its year-over-year rise in production. This is because its manufacturing promotes the use of organic waste, prevents uncontrolled dumping and minimizes atmospheric CH4 and CO2 emissions. In addition, its use as an energy source is in some cases an alternative to fossil fuels and can help to minimize energy dependence. Another aspect of interest is that it can be used insitu, allowing agro-livestock farms or small industrial plants to achieve energy self-sufficiency. A lot of studies on DRM over Ni-based catalysts has been carried out in latest decades to better comprehend the mechanism and techniques of response to improve carbon deposition resistance. Several methods were suggested to minimize the trend of Ni-based catalyst coke formation. One is the use of the appropriate catalyst preparation technique. Another is the use of metal oxides with strong Lewis basicity as supports or promoters (since Lewis acidity is identified to encourage coke buildup). Future study in this area is likely to focus on the use of catalysts based on bimetallic nickel, such as the incorporation of Co with Ni catalyst.
The bimetallic catalysts showed stable activity and elevated inactivation resistance, although carbon deposition occurs. Catalyst activity should be considered, as the primary reason for catalytic inactivation is the encapsulating carbon, which is deposited directly in the catalyst’s active places instead of the carrier’s surface. Also, when it is generated in large quantities, it can cause clogging of the reactor. The problem of carbon formation is exacerbated when biogas is used for this process, because the CH4:CO2 ratio of biogas is greater than that which can lead to the formation of large carbon deposits in a short time. However, carbon atoms are more essential in type and place than the quantity of carbon generated. Averting the deposition of carbon is therefore a challenging task. Also, this problem can be addressed from a completely different perspective. Rather than trying to avert carbon formation, it can be promoted as carbon filamentous. Previously, many researchers have effectively accomplished the synthesis of carbon filamentous thru electric arc-discharge and laser ablation and chemical vapor deposition techniques. Nevertheless, the cost-efficient and the controlled synthesis of carbon filamentous with varies morphologies by those techniques has not been reported.
Given the broad range of applications and the growing demand for biogas in different areas, the superb characteristics of biogas indicate its growing potential as a source of syngas for a broad range of renewable energies, where high purity and low manufacturing costs are significant factors. Thus, producing high-purity syngas and the controlled production of value-added carbon filamentous over cheap, efficient, tunable and simply synthesized catalysts is very important and is the main interest in this subject.
The authors would like to acknowledge UKM, grant number (FRGS/1/2019/TK02/UKM/01/2), for financial support and for material analysis.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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by",editors:[{id:"99453",title:"Dr.",name:"Aise Seda",middleName:null,surname:"Artis",slug:"aise-seda-artis",fullName:"Aise Seda Artis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10494",title:"Erythrocyte",subtitle:"A Peripheral Biomarker For Infection and Inflammation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fa5f4b6ef59e28b6e7c1a739c57c5d2f",slug:"erythrocyte-a-peripheral-biomarker-for-infection-and-inflammation",bookSignature:"Kaneez Fatima Shad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10494.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"35140",title:"Dr.",name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7845",title:"Platelets",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d33b20516d6ff3a5b7446a882109ba26",slug:"platelets",bookSignature:"Steve W. Kerrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7845.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73961",title:"Dr.",name:"Steve W.",middleName:null,surname:"Kerrigan",slug:"steve-w.-kerrigan",fullName:"Steve W. Kerrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8450",title:"Beta Thalassemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"976f72013cd8e78d8f65bfb1f51f0146",slug:"beta-thalassemia",bookSignature:"Marwa Zakaria and Tamer Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8450.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"187545",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Zakaria",slug:"marwa-zakaria",fullName:"Marwa Zakaria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8316",title:"Normal and Malignant B-Cell",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a12608fa8d5fdb33c956f967974a4ef1",slug:"normal-and-malignant-b-cell",bookSignature:"Mourad Aribi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8316.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"40046",title:"Prof.",name:"Mourad",middleName:null,surname:"Aribi",slug:"mourad-aribi",fullName:"Mourad Aribi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7181",title:"Erythrocyte",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"267d215004c995048557176978208b15",slug:"erythrocyte",bookSignature:"Anil Tombak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7181.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202814",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Anil",middleName:null,surname:"Tombak",slug:"anil-tombak",fullName:"Anil Tombak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7874",title:"Germ Line Mutations Associated Leukemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cb407bb000c66ebe6172b9dc3d6f9fb4",slug:"germ-line-mutations-associated-leukemia",bookSignature:"Zhan He Wu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7874.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"226446",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhan He",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"zhan-he-wu",fullName:"Zhan He Wu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6905",title:"Blood Groups",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"545ab2a5b402edec6332c7d632eba398",slug:"blood-groups",bookSignature:"Anil Tombak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6905.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202814",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Anil",middleName:null,surname:"Tombak",slug:"anil-tombak",fullName:"Anil Tombak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7125",title:"Iron Deficiency Anemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"25d82a6ea6c9d80b195bb40aad06be49",slug:"iron-deficiency-anemia",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7125.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:40,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"39123",doi:"10.5772/50698",title:"Measurement Techniques for Red Blood Cell Deformability: Recent Advances",slug:"measurement-techniques-for-red-blood-cell-deformability-recent-advances",totalDownloads:7139,totalCrossrefCites:24,totalDimensionsCites:67,abstract:null,book:{id:"2607",slug:"blood-cell-an-overview-of-studies-in-hematology",title:"Blood Cell",fullTitle:"Blood Cell - An Overview of Studies in Hematology"},signatures:"Youngchan Kim, Kyoohyun Kim and YongKeun Park",authors:[{id:"143622",title:"Prof.",name:"YongKeun",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"yongkeun-park",fullName:"YongKeun Park"},{id:"143623",title:"Mr.",name:"Kyoohyun",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"kyoohyun-kim",fullName:"Kyoohyun Kim"},{id:"143624",title:"Mr.",name:"Sangyeon",middleName:null,surname:"Cho",slug:"sangyeon-cho",fullName:"Sangyeon Cho"}]},{id:"31178",doi:"10.5772/38961",title:"Physiological Factors in the Interpretation of Equine Hematological Profile",slug:"haematological-profile-of-the-horse-phisiological-factors-influencing-equine-haematology",totalDownloads:10747,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:null,book:{id:"1830",slug:"hematology-science-and-practice",title:"Hematology",fullTitle:"Hematology - Science and Practice"},signatures:"K. Satué, A. Hernández and A. Muñoz",authors:[{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo"}]},{id:"55356",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68617",title:"Neutrophils in Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Target for Discovering New Therapies Based on Natural Products",slug:"neutrophils-in-rheumatoid-arthritis-a-target-for-discovering-new-therapies-based-on-natural-products",totalDownloads:2057,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disorder with an important inflammatory component in joints. Neutrophils are the most abundant leukocytes in inflamed joints, and play an essential role in the initiation and progression of RA. Neutrophil effector mechanisms include the release of proinflammatory cytokines, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS), and granules containing degradative enzymes, which can cause further damage to the tissue and amplify the neutrophil response. Therefore, the modulation of neutrophil migration and functions is a potential target for pharmacological intervention in arthritis. The pharmacologic treatment options for RA are diverse. The current treatments are mostly symptomatic and have side effects, high costs, and an increased risk of malignancies. Because of these limitations, there is a growing interest in the use of natural products as therapies or adjunct therapies. Herbal products have attracted considerable interest over the past decade because of their multiple beneficial effects such as their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and immunomodulatory properties. This chapter focuses on the role of neutrophils in the pathogenesis of arthritis and the action of substances from natural products as putative antirheumatic therapies.",book:{id:"5834",slug:"role-of-neutrophils-in-disease-pathogenesis",title:"Role of Neutrophils in Disease Pathogenesis",fullTitle:"Role of Neutrophils in Disease Pathogenesis"},signatures:"Elaine Cruz Rosas, Luana Barbosa Correa and Maria das Graças\nHenriques",authors:[{id:"64332",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Das Graças",middleName:null,surname:"Henriques",slug:"maria-das-gracas-henriques",fullName:"Maria Das Graças Henriques"},{id:"197932",title:"Dr.",name:"Elaine",middleName:"Cruz",surname:"Rosas",slug:"elaine-rosas",fullName:"Elaine Rosas"},{id:"199677",title:"MSc.",name:"Luana",middleName:null,surname:"Correa",slug:"luana-correa",fullName:"Luana Correa"}]},{id:"46041",doi:"10.5772/57335",title:"An Insight into the Abnormal Fibrin Clots — Its Pathophysiological Roles",slug:"an-insight-into-the-abnormal-fibrin-clots-its-pathophysiological-roles",totalDownloads:3892,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3836",slug:"fibrinolysis-and-thrombolysis",title:"Fibrinolysis and Thrombolysis",fullTitle:"Fibrinolysis and Thrombolysis"},signatures:"Payel Bhattacharjee and Debasish Bhattacharyya",authors:[{id:"88185",title:"Prof.",name:"Debasish",middleName:null,surname:"Bhattacharyya",slug:"debasish-bhattacharyya",fullName:"Debasish Bhattacharyya"},{id:"170045",title:"Ms.",name:"Payel",middleName:null,surname:"Bhattacharjee",slug:"payel-bhattacharjee",fullName:"Payel Bhattacharjee"}]},{id:"39110",doi:"10.5772/48250",title:"Laboratory Reference Intervals in Africa",slug:"laboratory-reference-intervals-in-africa",totalDownloads:4489,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"2607",slug:"blood-cell-an-overview-of-studies-in-hematology",title:"Blood Cell",fullTitle:"Blood Cell - An Overview of Studies in Hematology"},signatures:"Clement E. Zeh, Collins O. Odhiambo and Lisa A. Mills",authors:[{id:"141066",title:"Dr",name:"Clement",middleName:null,surname:"Zeh",slug:"clement-zeh",fullName:"Clement Zeh"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66797",title:"Blood Transfusion Reactions",slug:"blood-transfusion-reactions",totalDownloads:2617,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Blood transfusion reaction/adverse transfusion reactions could be fatal/severe or mild, immediate or delayed, immunological or nonimmunological, and infectious or noninfectious, and attention is paid particularly to the incidence, possible causes and pathophysiology, clinical features, and management of each type with the aim of improving awareness and raising consciousness towards improving blood safety and judicious use of blood so as to forestall these blood transfusion reactions as much as possible. This chapter serves as a synopsis to adverse blood reactions, which are very common but apparently more often under-recognized and/or under-reported particularly in developing countries. This should sharpen the consciousness of all health practitioners involved in blood transfusion services towards taking measures at preventing transfusion reactions right from donor selection up to the infusion of blood into the recipients.",book:{id:"6905",slug:"blood-groups",title:"Blood Groups",fullTitle:"Blood Groups"},signatures:"John Ayodele Olaniyi",authors:[{id:"202764",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Olaniyi",slug:"john-olaniyi",fullName:"John Olaniyi"}]},{id:"49387",title:"Thalassemia — From Genotype to Phenotype",slug:"thalassemia-from-genotype-to-phenotype",totalDownloads:4877,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Thalassemia encompasses serious diseases with complex pathophysiology that is difficult to explain since it is considered a group of defects with similar clinical effects, still not a single disorder.",book:{id:"4729",slug:"inherited-hemoglobin-disorders",title:"Inherited Hemoglobin Disorders",fullTitle:"Inherited Hemoglobin Disorders"},signatures:"Ghada Y. El-Kamah and Khalda S. Amr",authors:[{id:"58735",title:"Prof.",name:"Ghada",middleName:null,surname:"El-Kamah",slug:"ghada-el-kamah",fullName:"Ghada El-Kamah"},{id:"176872",title:"Prof.",name:"Khalda",middleName:null,surname:"Amr",slug:"khalda-amr",fullName:"Khalda Amr"}]},{id:"51831",title:"Disorders Mimicking Myelodysplastic Syndrome and Difficulties in its Diagnosis",slug:"disorders-mimicking-myelodysplastic-syndrome-and-difficulties-in-its-diagnosis",totalDownloads:4511,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Myelodysplastic morphology of blood cells can be encountered not only in myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) but also in nonclonal disorders like viral, bacterial, parasitic infections, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, polyarteritis nodosa, immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), iron deficiency anemia, megaloblastic anemia, dysgranulopoietic neutropenia, congenital neutropenia, cases with microdeletion 22q11.2, malignant lymphoma, after administration of granulocyte colony stimulating factor, chemotherapy, steroids, smoking, alcohol, posttransplantation, copper deficiency also, together with or without cytopenia. Absence of cytogenetic abnormality in 50–70% of cases with MDS, some overlapping morphological and/or pathophysiological features make it challenging to differentiate between MDS and other diseases/disorders like aplastic anemia, refractory ITP, copper deficiency. Transient genetic abnormalities including monosomy 7 in megaloblastic anemia; increased immature myeloid cells in bone marrow of cases with copper, vitamin B12, or folic acid deficiency in the setting of cytopenia and dysmorphism may also lead to the misdiagnosis of MDS. On the other hand, there are also cases of transient MDS. In this chapter, a literature is be presented to draw attention of the readers on the disorders that mimic MDS. Additionally, our personal experiences are also be shared. Awareness of disorders mimicking MDS may prevent over- or underdiagnosis of MDS.",book:{id:"5276",slug:"myelodysplastic-syndromes",title:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes",fullTitle:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes"},signatures:"Lale Olcay and Sevgi Yetgin",authors:[{id:"184156",title:"Prof.",name:"Lale",middleName:null,surname:"Olcay",slug:"lale-olcay",fullName:"Lale Olcay"}]},{id:"64871",title:"Diagnosis and Classification of Myelodysplastic Syndrome",slug:"diagnosis-and-classification-of-myelodysplastic-syndrome",totalDownloads:3212,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) is a clonal hematopoietic stem cell disorder characterized by morphological dysplastic changes in one or more of the major hematopoietic cell lines. MDS can present with varying degrees of single or multiple cytopenias including neutropenia, anemia and thrombocytopenia. Presentation of MDS can range from asymptomatic to life threatening. MDS diagnosis and classification present important challenges, particularly in the distinction from benign conditions. French-American-British (FAB) classification proposed a classification based on easily obtainable laboratory information and was recommended in early and as modified by guidelines of new classification of World Health Organization (WHO). The strategy of diagnostic laboratory in MDS depends on morphological changes and is based on existence of dysplastic changes in the peripheral blood and bone marrow including peripheral blood smear, bone marrow aspirate smear and bone marrow trephine biopsy. The correct morphological interpretation and the use of cytogenetics, immunophenotyping, immunohistochemistry and molecular analysis will give valuable information on diagnosis and prognosis.",book:{id:"7138",slug:"recent-developments-in-myelodysplastic-syndromes",title:"Recent Developments in Myelodysplastic Syndromes",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Myelodysplastic Syndromes"},signatures:"Gamal Abdul Hamid, Abdul Wahab Al-Nehmi and Safa Shukry",authors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"},{id:"273724",title:"Dr.",name:"Safa",middleName:null,surname:"Shukry",slug:"safa-shukry",fullName:"Safa Shukry"},{id:"277511",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulwahab",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Nehmi",slug:"abdulwahab-al-nehmi",fullName:"Abdulwahab Al-Nehmi"}]},{id:"70780",title:"Laboratory Diagnosis of β-Thalassemia and HbE",slug:"laboratory-diagnosis-of-thalassemia-and-hbe",totalDownloads:1400,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"β-Thalassemia and HbE, each, is a syndrome resulted from quantitative and qualitative defects of β-globin chain, respectively. In addition to history retrieve and physical examination, diagnosis of these disorders requires laboratory information. Laboratory tests that are conventionally performed to diagnose the β-thalassemia and HbE are classified into two groups, based on the purposes, including the screening tests and confirmatory tests. The screening tests are aimed to screen for carriers of the β-thalassemia and HbE, while confirmatory tests are the tests performed to definitely diagnose these disorders. This chapter will explain all of these tests, the information of which will be useful for those who are working and interested in the β-thalassemia and HbE.",book:{id:"8450",slug:"beta-thalassemia",title:"Beta Thalassemia",fullTitle:"Beta Thalassemia"},signatures:"Thanusak Tatu",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"183",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82161",title:"Blood Groups More than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances: Susceptibility to Some Diseases",slug:"blood-groups-more-than-inheritance-of-antigenic-substances-susceptibility-to-some-diseases",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104593",abstract:"Blood group antigens represent polymorphic traits inherited among individuals and populations. The objective of this chapter is to review articles that have reported; the association between blood group antigens and susceptibility to some diseases. Findings showed that O blood group had a greater frequency of severe infections such as E coli, cholera and blood group A was associated with incidence of smallpox and some bacterial infections. These are principally based on presence or absence of “H-like” and “A and B-like” antigens markers. Antigens A, B and H are connected to N-glycans of vWF and reduces the half-life of the protein (10 hours) for group O while non-O groups, 25 hours. The loss of A, B, and H antigens as malignancy progresses was linked to potential metastasis. Similarly, some tumors have A or A-like antigens this explains the propensity of group A to develop tumors. Blood type incompatibility between mother and foetus sensitizes the mother to develop alloantibodies that could potentially cause death of the foetus in utero, a condition known hydrops. Reviewed articles have reported close link between blood group antigens and susceptibility diseases. More studies are required to rationalize the mechanism associated to this.",book:{id:"10728",title:"Blood Groups - More Than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10728.jpg"},signatures:"Williams Bitty Azachi and Kuschak Mathias Dakop"},{id:"80344",title:"RH Groups",slug:"rh-groups",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102421",abstract:"In 1939, a mother gave birth to a stillborn baby and underwent blood transfusion with ABO-matched blood from her husband. This resulted in a hemolytic transfusion reaction (HTR). Levine and Stetson postulated that a novel antigen was present in the baby and father, which was absent in the mother. Therefore, the mother’s immune system recognized this antigen and produced antibodies against it. This condition has been known as the hemolytic disease of the newborn for a long period of time. Since the antenatal management of the fetus has been developed, the term has been modified to hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN). This case led to the discovery of the antibody against the first antigen of the RH blood group system, the D antigen. To date, 56 antigens have been recognized within the RH blood group system. The five main antigens are D, C, c, E, and e. As observed in the above-mentioned case, the antibodies against these antigens are implicated in HTR and HDFN.",book:{id:"10728",title:"Blood Groups - More Than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10728.jpg"},signatures:"Amr J. Halawani"},{id:"80254",title:"Neutrophil-Specific Antigens: Immunobiology, Genetics and Roles in Clinical Disorders",slug:"neutrophil-specific-antigens-immunobiology-genetics-and-roles-in-clinical-disorders",totalDownloads:36,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102431",abstract:"Neutrophils are the most abundant nucleated cells in blood circulation and play important roles in the innate and adaptive immune responses. Neutrophil-specific antigens, only expressed on neutrophils, are glycoproteins originally identified in studies on neonatal neutropenia due to fetal-maternal incompatibility and autoimmune neutropenia of infancy. The most investigated neutrophil–specific antigens are the NA and NB antigens that their incompatibilities also cause transfusion-induced febrile reactions and acute lung injury, a potentially fatal reaction, and in bone marrow transplantation, causing graft rejection. NA antigens are members of the immunoglobulin superfamily and are low-affinity Fc-receptors FcγRIIIb (CD16b). Fc receptors connect the F(ab), the antigen-binding fragment of the antibody molecules, to neutrophils and lead them to recognize and phagocytize the targeted antigens. The NB (CD177) antigen belongs to the urokinase-type Plasminogen Activator Receptor Superfamily (uPAR, CD59, Ly6), but its specific functions have not been fully determined. It is known, however, that NB antigen binds proteinase-3 (PR3 to the neutrophil membrane), a serine protease. In clinical studies, it was also demonstrated that NB expression is highly elevated in Polycythemia Vera and is unexpectedly expressed in some cancer tissues. Neutrophil-specific antigens are examples of antigens that have important biological and clinical activities beyond antigenicity.",book:{id:"10728",title:"Blood Groups - More Than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10728.jpg"},signatures:"Parviz Lalezari and Behnaz Bayat"},{id:"80716",title:"The ABO Blood Group System and Plasmodium falciparum (Pf ) Infection in Three Ethnic Groups Living in the Stable and Seasonal Malaria Transmission Areas of Burkina Faso (BF)",slug:"the-abo-blood-group-system-and-plasmodium-falciparum-pf-infection-in-three-ethnic-groups-living-in-t",totalDownloads:92,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102475",abstract:"Genetic factors, including red blood cell polymorphisms, influence the severity of disease due to infection with Plasmodium falciparum (Pf). Studies show that these genetic factors associated with malaria susceptibility or resistance vary geographically, ethnically, and racially. We performed cross-sectional surveys in population living in rural villages from three ethnic groups. The blood group (BG) was determined genetically using two polymorphisms (rs8176719 and rs8176746). Out of 548 participants, 29.7% were Mossi, 38.2% were Fulani, and 32.1% were Rimaibe. The distribution of BG was, respectively, A: 25.5%, B: 26.6%, AB: 7.3%, and O: 40.5%. BG O was not only the common blood type overall, but was higher in Fulani (52.6%) than others. Fulani was associated with a reduced risk of infection and lower parasite densities than sympatric populations. The subjects with non-O blood were less susceptible to malaria infection. An association between ethnicity and malaria infection during the high transmission season as well as an association between the non-O blood group and malaria infections according to ethnicity was found. This was also true when ethnic groups were considered separately. Our results have demonstrated that the Fulani are not only less susceptible to Pf malaria infection, but when infected have lower parasite densities. Individuals with non-O blood are at lower risk of infection.",book:{id:"10728",title:"Blood Groups - More Than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10728.jpg"},signatures:"Edith Christiane Bougouma, Alphonse Ouedraogo and Sodiomon Bienvenu Sirima"},{id:"80474",title:"ABO Blood Group and Thromboembolic Diseases",slug:"abo-blood-group-and-thromboembolic-diseases",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102757",abstract:"Thromboembolic diseases are usually inherited in the family. The tendency to repeat in an individual is a phenomenon that allows it to be studied. The inheritance and recurrence of thromboembolic diseases, of course, have individual risk factors for this occurrence. In the past, the ABO blood group was only needed for transfusion and organ transplant therapy. Over time, scientists think that blood type is a risk factor for certain diseases, including thromboembolism. Many studies divide between type O and non-O blood groups, both of which are distinguished by the presence of antigens on the cell surface and antibodies in the plasma of individuals. Type O does not have A, B antigens but has antibodies against A, B antigens, and vice versa for the non-O type. Many studies have shown that the non-O blood group has a risk factor for thromboembolic diseases, commonly due to higher levels of von Willebrand factor (VWF) and factor VIII (FVIII). These thromboembolic events can occur in arteries or venous. Thromboembolic manifestations are often associated with cardiovascular diseases for arterial thrombosis; and deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE) for venous thromboembolism (VTE).",book:{id:"10728",title:"Blood Groups - More Than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10728.jpg"},signatures:"Yetti Hernaningsih"},{id:"78997",title:"ABO Blood Groups and Risk of Glioma",slug:"abo-blood-groups-and-risk-of-glioma",totalDownloads:59,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100566",abstract:"Gliomas are one of the most common primary brain tumors and the etiology of gliomas remains unknown in most cases. The aim of this case–control study was to investigate possible association between incidence in relation to glioma and certain blood groups. This study included 100 histopathologically verified cases of glioma and 200 age and sex-matched controls without malignant diseases that were admitted to the same hospital. The results revealed that the patients with group AB were at 3.5-fold increased risk of developing glioma compared to the patients with other ABO blood groups. In this particular study, there was more male patients with glioma with the blood group AB. However, mechanisms that explain the relationship between the blood groups ABO and a cancer risk are unclear. Several hypotheses have been proposed, including the one with a modulatory role of blood group ABO antigens. In addition, the blood group ABO system regulates the level of circulating proinflammatory and adhesion molecules which play a significant role in the tumorigenesis process. Additionally, the recent discovery that includes the von Willebrand factor (vWF) as an important modulator of angiogenesis and apoptosis provides one plausible explanation as regards the role of the blood group ABO in the tumorigenesis process. To our knowledge, this is the first study that examined the relationship of blood group in patients diagnosed with glioma among the Serbian population. Moreover, for the first time our study results suggested that blood group AB increased the risk of glioma. The results of this study suggested that the blood group AB could be one of hereditary factors which had an influence on the occurrence of glioma. The further research is needed on a larger sample, to confirm these findings and the possible mechanisms by which the ABO system contributes to the pathology of glioma.",book:{id:"10728",title:"Blood Groups - More Than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10728.jpg"},signatures:"Ana Azanjac Arsic"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:23,paginationItems:[{id:"82392",title:"Nanomaterials as Novel Biomarkers for Cancer Nanotheranostics: State of the Art",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105700",signatures:"Hao Yu, Zhihai Han, Cunrong Chen and Leisheng Zhang",slug:"nanomaterials-as-novel-biomarkers-for-cancer-nanotheranostics-state-of-the-art",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11405.jpg",subseries:{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering"}}},{id:"82184",title:"Biological Sensing Using Infrared SPR Devices Based on ZnO",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104562",signatures:"Hiroaki Matsui",slug:"biological-sensing-using-infrared-spr-devices-based-on-zno",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hiroaki",surname:"Matsui"}],book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82122",title:"Recent Advances in Biosensing in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104922",signatures:"Alma T. Banigo, Chigozie A. Nnadiekwe and Emmanuel M. Beasi",slug:"recent-advances-in-biosensing-in-tissue-engineering-and-regenerative-medicine",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82080",title:"The Clinical Usefulness of Prostate Cancer Biomarkers: Current and Future Directions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103172",signatures:"Donovan McGrowder, Lennox Anderson-Jackson, Lowell Dilworth, Shada Mohansingh, Melisa Anderson Cross, Sophia Bryan, Fabian Miller, Cameil Wilson-Clarke, Chukwuemeka Nwokocha, Ruby Alexander-Lindo and Shelly McFarlane",slug:"the-clinical-usefulness-of-prostate-cancer-biomarkers-current-and-future-directions",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Cancer Bioinformatics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10661.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6692",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6692.jpg",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",publishedDate:"July 4th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Robert Koprowski",hash:"e75f234a0fc1988d9816a94e4c724deb",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",editors:[{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",biography:"Michele Lanza is Associate Professor of Ophthalmology at Università della Campania, Luigi Vanvitelli, Napoli, Italy. His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6843",title:"Biomechanics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6843.jpg",slug:"biomechanics",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hadi Mohammadi",hash:"85132976010be1d7f3dbd88662b785e5",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Biomechanics",editors:[{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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