Recent studies on UAV sprayer application and spray deposition performance.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8737",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",title:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Despite significant worldwide progress in fighting rabies, a zoonotic viral disease, it remains an important public health concern, causing approximately 50,000 human cases per year. This book summarizes current knowledge regarding rabies, the prevalence and genetic diversity of the rabies virus, and modern approaches to rabies diagnosis, prevention, and treatment. It is a useful resource for scientists, doctors, and students.",isbn:"978-1-83969-230-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-229-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-231-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80154",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"rabies-virus-at-the-beginning-of-21st-century",numberOfPages:98,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"49cce3f548da548c718c865feb343509",bookSignature:"Sergey Tkachev",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1301,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:1,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 28th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 1st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 30th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 20th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 19th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"79919",title:"Introductory Chapter: Rabies in the 21st Century",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101899",slug:"introductory-chapter-rabies-in-the-21st-century",totalDownloads:31,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Sergey Tkachev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79919",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79919",authors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],corrections:null},{id:"76468",title:"The Early Development of the Vaccinia–Rabies Recombinant Vaccine Raboral®",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97344",slug:"the-early-development-of-the-vaccinia-rabies-recombinant-vaccine-raboral-",totalDownloads:262,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The recombinant vaccinia–rabies vaccine, now known as Raboral®, has been widely used in Europe and North America to control/eliminate rabies in the principal wildlife vectors, and thus prevent human transmission. The origins of this vaccine are sometimes forgotten, although the formulation has not changed substantially in almost four decades. This groundbreaking vaccine was assembled by a team at a very young (at that time) genetic engineering company, Transgène, in Strasbourg, France. The joint leaders of the rabies vaccine team reflect, 36 years later, on the trials and tribulations that went hand in hand with the construction of the vaccine.",signatures:"Richard Lathe and Marie Paule Kieny",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76468",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76468",authors:[{id:"340277",title:"Prof.",name:"Richard",surname:"Lathe",slug:"richard-lathe",fullName:"Richard Lathe"},{id:"340278",title:"Dr.",name:"Marie-Paule",surname:"Kieny",slug:"marie-paule-kieny",fullName:"Marie-Paule Kieny"}],corrections:null},{id:"76642",title:"The Diagnosis, Clinical Course, Treatment, and Prevention of the Rabies Virus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97691",slug:"the-diagnosis-clinical-course-treatment-and-prevention-of-the-rabies-virus",totalDownloads:241,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Rabies, despite available vaccines, causes approximately 55,000 deaths every year. Diagnosing relies on noting physical behaviors such as hydrophobia, vomiting, fever, behavior changes, paralysis, and consciousness, as well as, using several methodologies to molecularly detect the presence of the virus. RABV often enters through a bite wound given that it is transmissible through saliva. Infection spreads from muscle fibers into the peripheral nervous system traveling to the central nervous system. Infection of the central nervous system can lead to encephalitis (furious rabies) or acute flaccid paralysis (paralytic rabies). Treatment relies heavily on the time of exposure. If the patient is diagnosed prior to being symptomatic, post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) can be administered. However, once the patient has begun displaying symptoms, therapy success rates sharply decline. Prevention includes vaccinating during both pre- and post-exposures, as well as utilizing Stepwise Approach towards Rabies Elimination (SARE) to aid impoverished countries in declining their rabies mortality rates.",signatures:"Jaida Hopkins, Samantha Sweck and Sean Richards",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76642",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76642",authors:[{id:"44936",title:"Dr.",name:"Sean",surname:"Richards",slug:"sean-richards",fullName:"Sean Richards"},{id:"346309",title:"Ms.",name:"Jaida",surname:"Hopkins",slug:"jaida-hopkins",fullName:"Jaida Hopkins"},{id:"346310",title:"BSc.",name:"Samantha",surname:"Sweck",slug:"samantha-sweck",fullName:"Samantha Sweck"}],corrections:null},{id:"76894",title:"Occurrence of Dog Bites and Rabies within Humans in Srinagar, Kashmir",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98227",slug:"occurrence-of-dog-bites-and-rabies-within-humans-in-srinagar-kashmir",totalDownloads:190,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Open garbage dumps and dog bites are major public health problems in the Kashmir region. In Srinagar city, there are more than 91,000 dogs, or about one dog for every 12 citizens. The mounting street dog population is leading to increasing fright in the city due to the fear of rabies. Although treatable, rabies can be deadly without access to vaccines and treatment. Unfortunately, Kashmir is experiencing a shortage of the anti-rabies vaccine. More than 80,000 dog bites and 20 deaths due to rabies were reported in the Kashmir valley in the period 2008–2012. We conducted our study of dog bites in Srinagar, which has a large stray dog population, perhaps due to mismanagement of garbage. We obtained our data from Shri Maharaja Hari Singh (SMHS) Hospital. We found that most dog bite victims were males aged 30–40 years presenting with category 3 bites to the legs. The majority of victims were bitten in the evening and reported to the hospital the same day. Most victims received immunoglobin treatment. We suggest that proper garbage control can help to curb the stray dog population in the area and thus reduce the incidence of rabies.",signatures:"Namera Thahaby, Afzal Hoque Akand, Abdul Hai Bhat, Shabeer Ahmed Hamdani and Mudasir Ali Rather",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76894",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76894",authors:[{id:"339059",title:"Dr.",name:"Namera",surname:"Thahaby",slug:"namera-thahaby",fullName:"Namera Thahaby"},{id:"348665",title:"Dr.",name:"Afzal",surname:"Hoque Akand",slug:"afzal-hoque-akand",fullName:"Afzal Hoque Akand"},{id:"348666",title:"Dr.",name:"Shabeer",surname:"Ahmed Hamdani",slug:"shabeer-ahmed-hamdani",fullName:"Shabeer Ahmed Hamdani"},{id:"348667",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul",surname:"Hai Bhat",slug:"abdul-hai-bhat",fullName:"Abdul Hai Bhat"},{id:"417258",title:"Prof.",name:"Mudasir",surname:"Ali Rather",slug:"mudasir-ali-rather",fullName:"Mudasir Ali Rather"}],corrections:[{id:"81456",title:"Corrigendum to: Occurrence of Dog Bites and Rabies within Humans in Srinagar, Kashmir",doi:null,slug:"corrigendum-to-occurrence-of-dog-bites-and-rabies-within-humans-in-srinagar-kashmir",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,correctionPdfUrl:null}]},{id:"77118",title:"Rabies Virus Infection in Livestock",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98228",slug:"rabies-virus-infection-in-livestock",totalDownloads:444,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Rabies is a lethal zoonotic encephalomyelitis and a major challenge to public and animal health. Livestock are affected by rabies mostly through bites of rapid dogs or wildlife carnivore\\'s species. They are considered as ‘dead-end’ hosts that do not transmit the virus. Rabies in livestock has been endemic in many developing countries for many years and diagnosed through clinical signs and dog-biting history. An introduction on rabies situation in farm animals will be given then subchapters including `rabies in bovines, rabies in small ruminants, rabies in swine and rabies in camelids. In each subchapter we shall discuss, epidemiology, modes of transmission, diagnosis and prevention and control measures.",signatures:"Abdelmalik I. Khalafalla and Yahia H. Ali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77118",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77118",authors:[{id:"339195",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelmalik I.",surname:"Khalafalla",slug:"abdelmalik-i.-khalafalla",fullName:"Abdelmalik I. Khalafalla"},{id:"339196",title:"Prof.",name:"Yahia H.",surname:"Ali",slug:"yahia-h.-ali",fullName:"Yahia H. Ali"}],corrections:null},{id:"78534",title:"Rabies Virus in Sierra Leone: Challenges and Recommended Solutions for Elimination by 2030",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99691",slug:"rabies-virus-in-sierra-leone-challenges-and-recommended-solutions-for-elimination-by-2030",totalDownloads:134,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The objective of this write-up is to find possible solution control canine rabies virus in Sierra Leone and other low-income countries in the world. Rabies is a viral disease affecting both humans and animals in Sierra Leone. The country has no policy on dog ownership and management, two veterinarians, limited access to rabies vaccines and human immunoglobin, and a lack of information about the disease in the country despite increasing dog bite cases and death. There is no wildlife specialist to initiate wildlife vaccination. Continuous vaccination increased awareness, trained personnel in veterinary and wildlife, development of policies on responsible dog ownership and by-laws and increase financial support from the government and private sector will help Sierra Leone eliminate rabies in the first half of the twenty-first century.",signatures:"Roland Suluku, Emikpe Benjamin Obukowho, Abu Macavoray and Moinina Nelphson Kallon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78534",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78534",authors:[{id:"267849",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Roland",surname:"Suluku",slug:"roland-suluku",fullName:"Roland Suluku"},{id:"339758",title:"Prof.",name:"Benjamin",surname:"Emikpe",slug:"benjamin-emikpe",fullName:"Benjamin Emikpe"},{id:"339759",title:"Mr.",name:"Abu",surname:"Macavoray",slug:"abu-macavoray",fullName:"Abu Macavoray"},{id:"339760",title:"Mr.",name:"Moinina Nelphson",surname:"Kallon",slug:"moinina-nelphson-kallon",fullName:"Moinina Nelphson Kallon"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:{id:"19",series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",issn:"2632-0517",editor:{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}}},tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3310",title:"Encephalitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"628dc11c26c442f1d4667cccef7762e7",slug:"encephalitis",bookSignature:"Sergey Tkachev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3310.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"825",title:"Current Topics in Tropical Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef65e8eb7a2ada65f2bc939aa73009e3",slug:"current-topics-in-tropical-medicine",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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Efficient use of pesticides can helpful to control plant pests and diseases to increase the crop yields [1]. The use of agrochemicals can effectively enhance the quantity and quality of crops, however, it increases the environmental risks in recent years [2]. Pesticide application utilizes the to a significant percentage of the production cost [3]. During chemical plant protection practices, over application of pesticide or inefficient spraying equipment may cause serious issues on human health and the environment [4]. Effective pesticide application is a critical activity during crop production season that requires efficient spraying machinery with proper calibration as well as relevant regulations to reduce off-target spray deposition. Thus, the significant among all the factors which are influencing the degree of off-target spray deposition is the design and application spraying technology [5]. Spray drift is not only the loss of spray but also risk for the environment and residents [6]. Spray drift may influenced of many factors such as equipment and technology, spray characteristics and operator skill and performance [7]. Some other microclimatic factors which also influence the degree of drift such as wind speed, direction, relative humidity and temperature [8]. Spraying technology aims to effectively and economically application of the precise quantity of the chemical to the set target with minimum threat for the environmental pollution [9]. Conventional agricultural pesticide application practices have developed a contradiction among the yield enhancement, cost effectiveness and environmental protection [10]. Therefore, pesticides have to be applied using suitable spraying systems to avoid adverse effects on environment as well as human health [11]. Thus, in recent decades, spraying methods and technologies have been undergoing continuous evolution [1]. Conventional sprayers were very laborious and require very heavy machinery to operating them in the field. They increase the application amount because of no proper application method for spraying nozzles, crop foliage detection, and weather parameters. The canopy and foliage vary from plant to plant and crop to crop. There were very serious issues in spray uniformity and spray loss in the form of spray drift which was not measured with conventional sprayers like backpack sprayers, and PTO driven boom sprayers. Geometric and structural parameters of plants and crops are conventionally attained using time-consuming and costly manual measurements approaches. But with the advancement in spraying technologies measurement of these parameters becomes very easy with using sensors technology. Advancement in spraying shifts the pesticide application technology on Variate rate sprayers, electrostatic sprayers, and UAV sprayers. These technologies change the pesticide application scenario with the use of IoT sensors for pest and weeds detection, plant canopy and foliage measurement, leaf structure calculation, and weather parameters sensing and apply measure amount of pesticide on required part of plant and crops. With the use of advanced sprayers, the effect of pesticide exposure on the environment, water, and soil contamination reduces with the reduction of spray drift and overdose of pesticide application by the control pesticide applied spray nozzles and quick detection of structure and geometry of crops and plants canopy. In conventional sprayers these flow control nozzles, sensor technology would not be used because of this these sprayers are not working efficiently in the field and produce more amount of drift and increase pesticide amount and less effective for pests, and insects. By changing this technology with sensor base variate rate and aerial spraying technology the life of agriculture framer improves with good production of crops, less and effective pesticide use, and real-time application of pesticides.
In recent years variable spray technology has attract researchers as well as farmers and showed great advancement in the development and utilization of technology variable rate sprayers in terms of target detection technology, based on real-time sensors. Sensors are (Ultrasonic sensor, Infrared sensor, LiDAR sensor) used in variable sprayers for the feature detection of the target area. The process of spray device control unit adjusts the real-time application of spray rate and allows accurate sprays which are essential on canopy [10]. To enhance the spraying efficiency and droplet deposition for tree crops, the measurement of the plant canopy is a critical consideration because the geometry of the plant canopies variable in height and width [12]. Variable spraying technologies are most useful for orchard and vineyards as this technology increases the spray deposition rate in the target zone and reduces the off-target application. Variable-rate spray technology is growing rapidly because it reduces pollution during spray application. Electrostatic spraying system was firstly designed and developed in the early 1930s. The aim of Electrostatic sprayers to increase spray deposition and penetration in the canopy. Electrostatic sprayers technology consists of static electric charge in every drop which emits from the tip of the nozzle, which develop the force of attraction between the droplet and plant that has a neutral charge. In this spraying system air injects into the spray nozzle to the high energy charge of the drops causes them to reach the plant very fastly, before the volatilization of the drop. In addition, all the drops which emit from the spray nozzles have the same charge which causes repulsion between the drops and safely uniformly reached the plant leaf even in more hidden regions. This due to electrostatic sprayers has high spraying efficiency and save the amount of pesticide requirement. Electrostatic method of pesticide spraying decreases drift, environmental pollution, and human health risks. Electrostatic sprayers are also called ultra-low volume sprayers because it uses 5 L/ha pesticide solutions and produces fine drops with a diameter between 50 and 120 microns but on the other side in high volume spraying, the application rate is >400 L/ha, droplet sizes vary from 300 to 500 μm and gun sprayers are used and low volume spraying, the application rate is 50 to 400 L/ha and droplet sizes vary 125 to 250 μm. Electrostatic spraying in agriculture is not a new technique but is promoted to work on electrostatic spraying technique development in the technology of production and environmental concerns [13]. Thus, electrostatic spraying system is considered as most advanced spraying machinery for efficient application of pesticides to crops and orchards.
To avoid the health problems of humans with the manual spraying mechanism Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) aircraft are used. The equipment and labors difficult to operate but UAVs can be used easily operated in the field. UAVs now widely applied in field for purpose of precision agriculture in the developed countries. Before that, a variety of UAV models are utilizing for civilian and military purposes [14]. Addition of vision and sensor systems are also increase the potential of the UAVs [15] and reduces the spray loss in form of spray drift by accurate spray application on the required field with perfect target detection sensors and a good handling system. Advancement in spray application technologies increase crop production and increase pesticide efficiency on weed and insects in the field. Spray loss in the form of spray drift, weather effects, target detection, and control flow nozzles problem solved by advanced pesticide application technologies. The time-consuming problem for tank refilling is reduced with ultra-low volume sprayers and fine droplet spray nozzles. With time the crop maintaining technology advance from weeds and pest, detection to spray application nozzles. The objective of this chapter to highlight the advanced spraying technologies use for the agriculture pesticide application to improve the spray deposition penetration in the plant canopy, reduces the spray drift, and provide a comprehensive understanding of the spraying process from machine to target for improving fruits, vegetables, and cereals crop production.
The use of herbicides and pesticides has made sure to improve the yields from crops until now have been an overdose of pesticides and herbicides causing herbicide-resistant weeds and a very big decrease in biodiversity. At the early stage of the crop, when herbicide application takes place the detection of weeds is very difficult to identify because they are so small especially. Using conventional spraying (Knapsack, Boom sprayers) technology for the crops (Figure 1(a) and (b)), farmers lose money on herbicides and pesticides that are sprayed ineffective. Over spraying, of pesticides and herbicides put a squeezing impact on the agriculture farmers. Farmer spends a lot of money on pesticides, but a huge volume of these chemicals never reaches weeds and pests with the use of conventional sprayers. The maximum amount of spray not reached at the target and spray loss in the form of spray drift and field turns because of no path planning and GPS survey of the field. The reason for this inefficiency lies in the poor precision of broadcast sprayers. In old times farmers were in difficulty because the weeds a pest was damage the crop production. The technologies were not so fast to detect the accurate weed and pest target and apply the plant protection product inefficient way which causes the spray loss in the form of spray drift and environmental contamination. In recent past, a smart spraying technology (Variable sprayer, Drones Sprayers) has been introduces that uses sensors and artificial intelligence technology. This technology has a number of advantages such as when it detects plants, weeds, and pests, then selectively apply chemicals where needed. Firstly, the image is recorded using camera or detected plant by using the sensor, after that deep learning algorithms are used for identification of different plants and diseases which helps to decision support system to fix the target. The algorithms automatically choose the plant/herbicide to spray. Figure 1(c) shows a schematic diagram of a smart sprayer. The advance sprayer technologies are designed keeping in future crop production requirement under the sustainable agricultural goals along with protecting the environment and reducing costs for farmers and food production. The current technology (4G LTE, and 5G cellular) in agriculture protection change the conventional methods for crop monitoring and applications of pesticides and weedicides on the target area with high accuracy. In the spread field crops like (vegetables, wheat, rice, and cotton), weeds and pests have very good conditions to grow.
Cotton filed using Knapsack sprayer (a) wheat field using boom sprayer (b) schematic diagram of smart sprayer (c).
For the orchards and vineyards, a powerful and effective plant-protection method is extensively adopted to attain higher quantity and quality of the production [16]. For the orchard and vineyard, it was difficult to apply spray on the whole area of the plant because of the shape and size change from plant to plant. It was very difficult in old times when no proper sprayers design for orchard spraying. By the advances in mechanical equipment during the period from the 1890s to 1940, some improvement in sprayers such as steam power, gasoline engines, pressure regulators, and the adjustable spray gun use to apply pesticide sprays to trees [17] as shows in Figure 2. Tree structure such as size, shapes and density of canopy significantly vary during different growth periods and different locations [18] thus, it need special operating parameters of sprayer (flow rate and air flow) along the adjustment facilities to match the geometry of the plant [19]. These parameters cannot be calculated with conventional spraying equipment because Conventional orchard sprayers applied pesticides continuously and do not have variable rate capability which causes environmental pollution [20] and human health hazards with producing a huge amount of spray drift.
Old sprayers for orchard spraying (a) hand operated sprayer (b) steam power sprayer (c) pressure regulator engine sprayer (d) conventional VRT sprayer [
To enhance orchard sprayer performance a number of new mechanisms have been introduced such as, an automatic variable-rate (VAR), Electrostatic, air-jet, air assisted and air blast systems. Which facility the effective spray penetration in the plant canopy and reduced the spray loss [19]. Real-time sensor are used for the detection of canopy features (density, size, shape and height) for proper spraying fluid control [21]. Thus, the characterization of the plant and crop is the basic concern for pesticide applications. As the true information of the geometrical features of the crop allows enhancing spraying performance and to reduce environmental and economic impact [22]. For the detection of plant geometry, many sensors are used like ultrasonic sensors, Infrared sensors, LiDAR sensors, and computer vision-based technology used. Ultrasonic sensor detects the target distance from the sprayer however it is sensitive to environmental conditions such as humidity and temperature, and [19]. The infrared sensor is an electronic sensor that detects the target area with measures infrared light radiating from objects in its field of view [23]. LIDAR sensor technology is an accurate remote sensing technique for distance measurements It has good accuracy for the detection and quantification of biological and nonmetallic objects [24]. LIDAR sensor measures the distance of the elapsed time between the transmission of a pulsed laser beam and the reception of its echo from a reflecting object [23]. In computer vision-based technology, the cameras are inserted on sprayers which segregate the physical parameters of the plant-like area, height, density, and color of the plants as shown in Figure 3.
Sensor based VR sprayers. Ultrasonic sprayer (a) infrared sensor sprayer (b) LiDAR sensor sprayer (c) computer vision based spraying technology (d).
Several types of variable rate sprayers use for orchard sprayings like air-assisted variate rate sprayer, Tunnel sprayer, tower sprayers, axialf fan air blast sprayers, canon air blast sprayers, and Electrostatic sprayers are shown in Figure 4. These sprayers apply a measurable amount of pesticide with proper target detection and save the number of pesticides by reducing spray drift. Air assisted sprayers are mostly used for the fruit trees. Variable air assistance (VAA) system consists of incessant real-time air volume control attached on both sides of the sprayer. A double axial fan arrangement is used which permits remote adjustment of air volume. These sprayers apply pesticide parallel to the plant and cover the maximum area of the target but throw the spray with fan circulation away from the target which produces some airborne drift. Variable sprayers are not used in high humidity and temperature conditions. Tunnel sprayers are very famous in small fruit trees (apple, vineyard) growth for the last few decades. Tunnel sprayer technology has long been recognized as an important tool to reduce both airborne drift and soil contamination [26]. Tunnel sprayer is enclosed target spray application technology. Some tunnels sprayer work on the recirculation principle to recycle the extra spray from the target area. Tunnel sprayers are feasible for working in every weather condition. Tower sprayers are air assisted type sprayers that discharge the spray horizontally with the direction of airflow from the fan into horizontal conductus on the vertical level. Tower sprayers are used for very high plants. Canon air blast sprayers consist of cylindrical outlets that create high air velocity jets that break spray mixture into fine droplets and penetrate the spray into the canopy. The canon sprayer can cover the maximum spray area and often use in orchards where the conventional air blast sprayers are not feasible for the spray to the crops. Due to high air velocity in the air blast sprayer, throw spray can enter into the canopies and improve spray deposition on the plant leaf and reduce the spray drift. Variable rate sprayers produce very fine (150 to 250 μL/m) mist of spray from the nozzles which reduce the pesticide amount and increase spray coverage area, but this size of the droplet is very sensitive to weather parameters and air velocity. In high humidity and low temperature condition very, fine droplets not reached to the target and hanging in the air which cause airborne spray drift, and in low humidity and high temperature conditions these droplets are evaporate into the air before reaching to the target area and cause spray loss and increase pesticide amount which is hazardous for environmental and human health.
VAA orchard sprayer (a) tunnel sprayer (b) tower sprayer (c) multi channel air blast sprayer (d) [
Ultra-low volume (ULV) spraying is a common and advanced spraying method [27] and considered a most effective and standard technique control of locust using chemicals and is also extensively used by farmers of cotton crops to control pest and insects. ULV sprayer is designed to create very small droplets (50 to 150 μL/m2), which help for uniform coverage with low spray volumes. Ultra-low volume (ULV) fungicide application sprayer was first developed as thermal fogging [28]. The objective of ULV sprayer to reduce the fluid application rate, drift, and wastage of chemicals while increasing insect and diseases control. Conventional tractor-mounted boom sprayers apply spray on the upper side of the leaves, However, mostly the sucking insects (aphid, whitefly, jassid, thrips, etc.) have their shelter houses on the bottom side of leaves of the upper half section of the cotton plant which not only get shield from sprays but also attain the shadow of leaves shadow as of umbrella coverage. Therefore, the chemical spray using conventional sprayer do not reach the definite target and cause wastage of the spray material to the ground and air. Various pests and insects need a different droplet numbers per cm2 [29] which can only apply using a ULV sprayer. Vehicle mounted ULV sprayer shows in Figure 5. Pesticide droplets deposit on the upper side of the leaf using conventional sprayers may be washed off by rain or in some cases by overhead irrigation. Some researchers have concluded that up to 80% of the total pesticide applied to the plant may finally reach the soil [30].
Vehicle mounted ultra-low volume sprayer.
Thus, conventional spray approaches are considered as mostly inefficient due to higher spectrum of the droplet size (150 to 250 μL/cm2) which do not go to the target surface and ultimately become the part of waste substance. Nevertheless, the use of ULV sprayers has drastically transformed spray technology as they develop relatively small droplets [29]. Due to this Volume Application Rate (VAR) of ULV sprayers utilize fluid less than 5 L/ha for field crops or less than 50 L/ha for tree/bush [29]. Electrostatic sprayers are the most emerging technology for ultra-low-volume pesticide application.
Air-assisted electrostatic sprayers are new development in plant protection machinery which enhanced the pesticides application efficiency to crops, vineyards, orchards, plants, and trees. Electrostatic spraying method spray decreases off-target drift, environmental issues, and human health risks [31]. It is assumed that electrostatic spraying technique has revolutionized the spraying machinery through higher droplet deposition and retention on the plant leaf [32]. It is assumed as one of the appropriate methods to overcome complications associated with agrochemical spraying in the conventional system such as volatility and drift of spray droplets from temperature and wind effects [33]. Electrostatic space charge and induced image charge forces increase the spray uniformity on the target surface, enhance the transfer efficiency, bio-efficacy and adhesion. These electrostatic forces minimize the effect of gravitational force which is the main cause of spray drift [34] as shown in Figure 6. The electrostatic spray application increases the spray retention time on leave. There is an interaction between formulation effects on the tenacity of a deposit and the surface of the leaf to which it adheres. Droplets often bounce on waxy leaves (a property that is often influenced by age) and poor retention may occur with water-based formulations, especially those with high dynamic surface tensions. But with the ULV electrostatic sprayers the droplet gets negative charge from the nozzles with air injection and repel each other and reached at the target separately without bonding each other and create a charge on plant leaf which produce adhesion force to the drops for retain for long time on the leaf and reduce spray drift.
Electrostatic spraying mechanism (a) variate rate multichannel electrostatic sprayer (b).
Although the aerial spraying has been used since middle of 20th century however, the innovation on unmanned aerial vehicle is assumed as most of are one important development in the field of agricultural spraying and plant protection engineering because of its tremendous merits over the conventional ground sprayers. The crop monitoring and the assessment of pesticide and fertilizer requirement at accurate time and location of crop area is an important parameter to effective utilization of the inputs for the purpose of yield enhancement [35]. Aerial spraying using UAV has gained great interest worldwide [36]. Thus, currently Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are known as most advanced spraying technology that is helpful for effective and precision spraying. Unmanned aerial sprayers are potentially supportive in decreasing negative effect pesticides to the environment and human during the application process of agrochemical at farm level [37]. The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) is facilitating the to ease plant production practices and also provide the conform to spray on the tall stalk crop such as maize, cotton and water ponding crop such as rice. In fact, UAV aerial spraying capability is not only limited to crop protection but it has also utilize for the fertilization practices [38]. The idea of aerial spraying by means of UAV is firstly developed founded on the technology of unmanned helicopters that had been developed by Yamaha Corporation (Japan) for rice cultivation [39]. Mostly, chemicals application such as pesticide and fertilizer is applied by using ground sprayers, chemigation, aircraft aerial spraying, and broadcasting method without the real time assessment of the specific conditions, [40]. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) sprayer develops the downwash airflow by the UAV rotor which interacts with the crop canopy and creates a conical vortex shape in the crop plant [41]. The droplet deposition efficiency is one of the major concerns in UAV spraying operation. During the spraying with UAV sprayer, the droplets pervade to the crop canopy However, some droplets drift often occurs, which wastes pesticides, decreases the control effect, and even causes environmental pollution and poisoning [42]. Spray system arrangements equipped on UAV have not yet been optimized to accompaniment spray pattern based on the proper nozzle selection, [43]. Droplet size, weather conditions, and operational parameters of sprayers influence the spray coverage, absorption, and attachment to the target [44]. The effect of climatic condition (temperature, wind direction, wind speed, humidity, etc.) on UAV spraying efficiency should clearly be understood to the applicators [45]. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV’s) are operated remotely either by using telemetry, where the operator holding visual contact with the aircraft, or autonomously along planned paths using GPS and inertial guidance [39]. UAV sprayers working on the proper path planning with GPS, 4G, or 5G network technology to the target area which provide the proper path to the drone to apply a precise amount of pesticides on plants which reduces the spray drift, save pesticide application amount, and high accuracy results. Old UAV sprayers were very large which was difficult in handling, transport issues, landing problems, and produces more downwash pressure with high air guests by the large size of wings which produce more off-target spray deposition as shows in Figure 7. Due to their large size, these types of sprayers do not use in trees and orchards, it was only used in broad field crops.
Rotor wings effect on spray drift (a) [
In comparison, small-size unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) crop protection operations provides the advantages of a low flight altitude, a flight velocity control, and well field adaptability, mainly for small fields and diversified crop planting zones [48]. Many small sizes of drones like Four-rotor, six-rotor, and eight rotors are used nowadays as shown in Figure 8 which is easily handled, transport, use senor technology more easily, use in orchards, trees, and crop very sufficiently. Based on the current UAV models, crop protection operation requirements, UAV loading capability, and flight duration, under an identical load, a six-rotor UAV is thought more stable than a four-rotor UAV and consumes less energy than an eight-rotor UAV. Small size drone sprayers provide us the efficient spray deposition on the target, reduce the airborne drift, and easily operate between the orchards and crops. UAVs have high control precision and fast response speed when using a variable spray system. Spray drift is a practical reality during the pesticide spraying operations. Figure 9 shows the flow field during the spraying operation of unmanned aerial vehicle. Recent studies on UAV sprayer application and spray deposition performance shows in Table 1.
Single rotor UAV sprayer (a) four rotor UAV sprayer (b) six rotor UAV sprayer (c) eight rotor UAV sprayer (d).
Quad-rotor drone flow fields with different forward velocities and pitch angles (a) wake structure variations with flight speed (top view) (b) [
Reference | Study type | UAV type | Crop | Study Parameters |
---|---|---|---|---|
Shi et al. [47] | Numerical Simulation | Single rotor | — | Flight Hight, Spray deposition |
Teske et al. [50] | Numerical Simulation | Single rotor and octocopter | Flow field, Effective drift | |
Wang et al. [51] | Field study | Single rotor | Wheat | Spray volume, nozzle size, droplet deposition |
Wang et al. [52] | Filed and | Multirotor | Rice | Vision based crop detection, fuzzy logic application |
Sadam et al. [53] | Field Study | Multirotor | Nozzle opening, Operating height | |
Liao et al. [54] | Field Study | Multi rotor | Cotton | Volume rate spray adjuvants, flight altitude, flight speed |
Lv et al. [55] | Field study | Multi rotor | Flight speed, thermal imaging, | |
Martin et al. [56] | Field | Multi rotor | Eeed | Spray rate, spray efficiency |
Wang et al. [57] | Field | Multirotor | Wheat | Overage area, total deposition |
Zhang et al. [58] | Field study | Multirotor | Citrus | Tree shape and flight height |
Yanliang et al. [48] | Filed study | Multirotor | Electrostatic spraying, Spray altitude, Spray pressure | |
Yang et al. [59] | Numerical simulation | Multirotor | CFD simulation, Flow tubulance model |
Recent studies on UAV sprayer application and spray deposition performance.
Spray drift is a physical moment of the droplet during the application of spraying liquid to the off target area under influence of climatic factors such as wind speed and temperature [60]. Spray drift may occur to numerous forms as a droplet, dry particles, or vapor. Particle drift enhances when water and other pesticide carriers evaporate rapidly from the droplet lifting tiny particles of concentrated pesticide. Vapor may arise directly from the spray or by evaporation of pesticide from sprayed surfaces [61]. Spray drift is a complex phenomenon due to the accumulative effect of spraying equipment design, crop architecture, atmospheric conditions and the physicochemical properties of the spray mix [62]. Spray drift is occurred due to droplet characteristics infuse by the weather parameters, nozzles types, operating pressure, speed, and height. Drift corresponds to a modification of droplet trajectory induced by the drag force due to external air velocity. The expression of the drag force Fd is given by Eq. (1):
The safe, efficient and efficacious use of pesticides requires the management of pesticide drift and deposition. The sensitivity of drift to numerous factors, including atmospheric conditions and application equipment, makes it difficult to field test the full range of possible meteorological application scenarios. There are two approaches to aerial spray models: empirical and mechanistic [46].
The empirical models do not account for any physical basis and are generally applicable only to situations that are very similar to those for which they are developed. Mechanistic models based on Gaussian dispersion equations and particle tracking models. Gaussian modeling is a classical approach that is used in atmospheric dispersion modeling and lagrangian models track a cohort of droplets in a given drop size category and overlay a random component on the movement of the droplets to account for atmospheric turbulence [63]. Empirical models primarily include field testing and wind tunnel research. Compared with field testing, the wind tunnel environment can accurately control the test conditions, such as the wind speed, airflow direction, temperature. Mechanistic model include CFD, Gaussian modeling and Lagrangian model (AGDISP) [46]. The CFD model provides whole-flow field data, fast and reproducible results, repeatable and controllable conditions, reliable data, and rapid, economical and accurate means, but at the expense of incompatibility [64].
For the drift estimation three models use the German drift curve, Dutch IMAGE drift Calculator, and the Model Proposed by Meli. The equations of these models are discussed below.
German Drift
IMAGE Model
Meli Model
The graphical representation of drift model values shows in Figure 10. Its shows that which parameters should adopted for pesticide application for the spray drift man agent.
Graphical representation of drift model values with distance.
From the result it shows that spray drift increases with increasing the application distance, height and angle. By reducing the application distance drift reduce immediately and drift curve of three model’s constant after 5 m.
Plant protection practices are most important activities during crop production. Progress in spraying technology has been increase in recent past. Robotics and automatic spraying technologies like variable rate sprayers, UAV sprayers, and electrostatic sprayers has gained more attention to enhance. These advanced spraying technologies not only reduces the labor cost but also effective in environmental protection. Researchers are conducting experimental studies on the design, development and testing of precision spraying technologies for crops and orchards. Simulation modeling studies are also conducting by the researcher to increase the sprayer’s efficiency and to improve the design for better utilization. However, there is still needed to conduct further studies to reduce the spray loss and health risks during the pesticide application to the orchards.
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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