Semiquantitative analysis of two representative 3D structures (BTCM and BST-C).
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\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
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\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
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\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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Kosyachenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4479.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6262",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonid A.",surname:"Kosyachenko",slug:"leonid-a.-kosyachenko",fullName:"Leonid A. Kosyachenko"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"71410",title:"Innovative Hybrid Materials with Improved Tensile Strength Obtained by 3D Printing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91296",slug:"innovative-hybrid-materials-with-improved-tensile-strength-obtained-by-3d-printing",body:'Bone defects occur due to malformations, traumatic lesions, and tumor resections. Biomaterials for bone defect reconstruction consist of osteosynthetic materials that are placed in the cavity left behind by osteotomies or traumatic lesions. Other applications refer to dental implants with functional or aesthetic role in the facial region. The results of bone reconstruction are dependent on the surgical skills, the quality of the adjacent tissue, the size and location of the bone defect, as well as the method of repairing the bone defect. Current methods of reconstruction include simple or vascularized bone grafts, the use of biomaterials, and, more recently, the use of growth factors to induce osteoinduction [1].
The use of autologous bone for orthopedic reconstruction may be restricted due to the limited amount of donor bone from the sampling areas. It is possible that the bone tissue taken may require reshaping into custom shapes, which may complicate the surgical operation. Also, complications in the case of simple bone grafts include graft resorption and increased mortality associated with the sampling area [1].
The benefits of alloplastic materials have been reported in the literature, being used as such or in combination with bone transplants or osteoinductive cytokines. The procedure can be used not only to replace the missing bone but also to stimulate osteoinduction, acting as a scaffold material for bone regeneration. The implanted materials should be biocompatible, without any side effects or toxicity. However, over time complications and toxicities of implanted biomaterials used in orthopedic surgery have been reported, often leading to inflammation associated with leukocytosis and fibrosis.
For osteosynthesis, titanium alloy prostheses offer major advantages in terms of biocompatibility, stability, and individual implant placement. Removal of asymptomatic prostheses and screws after fracture healing is still controversial due to the fact that the removal procedure could damage the bone [1].
The large variety of biomaterials for bone defect reconstruction makes it difficult to choose the right material for surgical areas and specific applications. An optimal biomaterial meets all the requirements: biocompatibility, stability, intraoperative matching, product safety, and low costs; in reality, the perfect material has not yet been found. The development of future materials aims to improve the physical and biological properties, especially regarding surface interactions [1].
While the popularity of hydroxyapatite-based ceramic materials as filler for critical bone defects is known in the community of specialists in bioengineering, materials science, and orthopedic and dental surgery, only a few studies address piezoelectric materials for bone regeneration, such as barium titanate (BT) [BaTiO3] and barium strontium titanate (BST) [Ba0.7Sr0.3TiO3]. The potential effect of this class of materials in bone tissue engineering is due to its dielectric properties, low dielectric loss, and polarization. Sr2+ ion can increase a dielectric constant, and it is a trace element in the human body that plays a dual role in bone formation and regeneration [2].
On the other hand, barium titanate-based ceramic with perovskite structure has been widely used as a ferroelectric material for its attractive properties, such as high piezoelectric coefficient (d33 = 191 pC/N) as well as excellent biocompatibility and bone regeneration capacity in the complex physiological environment, and is further considered as an intelligent material for tissue reconstruction [2, 3, 4].
Since 1954, it has been reported that natural bone is a piezoelectric material [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. In 1957, Fukada et al. [8] observed that the stress-induced piezoelectric effect in bone was due to the slipping of collagen fibers past one another. The bone tissue exhibited a very low piezoelectric coefficient of 0.7 pC/N [13] and was demonstrated to be biologically active and would respond to micromechanical stress such as the movement of the body itself, leading to the generation of an electrical dipole [14, 15]. Piezoelectric materials can provide the electrical stimulation characteristic for natural bone environment as it has been asserted that bone growth and repair are promoted by the electrical signals produced when the bone is mechanically stressed [16]. Due to their parallel features with the real bone, piezoelectric materials for bone tissue reconstruction may become the next generation of bone grafts [17]. Piezoelectric property of barium titanate could be used as a charge supply to stimulate the bone implant healing process. So far, all the piezoelectric ceramics used in vivo and vitro were in the dense bulk form [18]. However, owing to the interconnected pores to provide a favorable environment for bone ingrowth and osseointegration [19], a functional bone implant should be porous [15], to create strong bonds with the host natural tissue by allowing cellular penetration and encouraging new cells for tissue regeneration.
One of the best ways to achieve this goal is to use an osteoconductive and porous structure to act as a three-dimensional (3D) porous scaffold [2]. Ideally, osseointegration of the grafted material would be accomplished on a long timescale by the progressive action of osteoclasts, osteoblasts, and osteocytes which remove the graft material and deposit new bone in place [20]. Having a structure that resembles the natural design and composition may not always respond to functional requirements of a medical application. Bioresorbable scaffolds to replace bone defects must have a high porosity—a pore size of 50–800 μm—to allow the infiltration of cells and nutrients into the implant [21]; the porosity of the material should accommodate new osteon growth, requiring 200 μm pore size, to allow growth of new capillaries, optimal for 50 μm pore size, whereas interconnected micropores lower than 10 μm improve the metabolic environment and fluid circulation through capillarity [22]. The apparent conflicting requirements are met with a 3D design that does not correspond to the natural structure of the bone. Furthermore, improving the osmotic or mechanical properties of the synthetic bone graft material by adding components that are not present in the natural bone may address the needs of some common bone diseases like osteoporosis [23], where graft resorption and replacement by native bone tissue may not be the best option.
In recent years, the development of 3D printing techniques for the manufacture of ceramic-based scaffold materials has shown promising outcomes [1, 2].
Bioprinting technologies have grown rapidly in the last decade, being also known as “additive manufacturing” or “extrusion bioprinting.” Bioprinting can be defined as a spatial method of stratified deposition of a biological material (or support for biological material), based on a computerized, layer-by-layer model, using a CAD-CAM system.
The structure of the computerized model can be modified and rearranged with the passage of each layer, so as to obtain a complex final model that mimics the tissue structure. The versatility of the technology allows the adoption of an unlimited number of material combinations for extrusion, thus ensuring the possibility of developing unique three-dimensional models, adapted from case to case. Extrusion bioprinting technology is a combination of an automated robotic system, controlled by software and an extrusion distribution system of the material in the custom 3D structure. This process ensures speed but also structural integrity due to the computerized continuous deposition system. 3D models can be obtained, generated, imported, and exported from any CAD system, including data obtained from medical imaging systems such as computer tomography (CT) and/or nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The material deposition system can be operated by means of a screw mechanism and stepper motor, pneumatically, by piston-compressed air mechanism, or by solenoid-electromagnetic system. Deposition systems by screw mechanism are more precise, can be better controlled, and also provide controlled deposition in the case of very viscous substances. These deposition systems can be assembled on a 3D bioprinting machine so that they work in synergy, especially if two different materials are deposited. Unlike other additive manufacturing processes, extrusion bioprinting does not require large amounts of energy and is an environmentally friendly method. In addition it has a high standardization capacity and does not require special auxiliary installations. A characteristic is that it can produce, under specific conditions, materials with a porous structure and shape similar to the anatomical one, likely to attain biocompatibility status.
The 3D printing technique allows the manufacturing of scaffold-type materials with complex internal structures and high resolution, designed according to the specific needs of each patient. The technology of extruding materials in the form of pastes, which are passed through a nozzle or hole to obtain fibers arranged as three-dimensional structures of different shapes, is suitable for the manufacture of hard tissue scaffolds in bone tissue engineering.
Scaffolds are of utmost importance in tissue engineering because they provide the necessary support for cell proliferation and differentiation. Also, the scaffold’s architecture defines the final form of the new organ. Biocompatibility of scaffolds made by 3D printing, as well as different aspects of their interaction with cells, has been explored in numerous studies by in vitro and in vivo tests [21].
The extrusion-based additive manufacturing techniques are favorable for printing scaffold structures due to the ability to process a wide range of biomaterials with controlled porosity and to generate interconnected pores, which represent essential requirements for cell growth [22]. The topography of the surface of the biomaterial as well as its architecture on the micro- and nanoscale plays an important role in bone tissue engineering. Cao et al. have shown increased tissue regeneration and decreased inflammatory reactions in the case of aligned fiber scaffolds, compared to scaffolds whose fibers were randomly arranged [24].
Regarding 3D printing of barium titanate (BT) ceramics for medical applications, Schult et al. [25], have shown that BT powder can serve as a material for bone reconstruction, obtained by 3D printing cylindrical parts with 11.7 mm in diameter and 3.51 mm high, out of the three BT-based mixtures. The first mixture, M1, consisted of untreated BT powder, a stable polymer, and a flow additive—AEROSIL R8200. The second mixture, M2, has the same composition as the first, but BT was previously subjected to a heat treatment of calcination, using for this a fraction of the sieved powder of 60–80 μm and a flow additive. The third mixture, M3, also contains calcined BT, but in this case the fractions <125 μm and 125–250 μm were used in a ratio of 1:2, without adding flow additives, because the powder has good fluidity. To bond the material, a soluble polymer granulate with a mean grain size of 50 μm was used in all three mixtures. Solupor-Binder (Voxeljet AG, Germany) is used as a binder fluid. The binder partially dissolves the polymer granulate so that the ceramic particles glue together. The porosity was visible in all samples, being beneficial for cell growth. After sintering, the largest contraction was observed in the case of the M1 sample, of 75.53%, but the other two also recorded relatively high contractions, M2 of 40.55% and M3 of 29.51%. The results reported in their study confirm that porous barium titanate ceramics can be used as a 3D structure for bone tissue engineering and bone formation can be promoted by electrical stimulation [25].
In other study, a binder jetting additive manufacturing technology was used to fabricate robust geometric barium titanate specimens of 12 × 12 × 3 mm3 by using commercial BT powder [26]. The results presented in their work have shown that 3D printing allows the manufacture of custom, conformal, geometrically complex piezoelectric devices for next-generation industries such as biomedical ones. One example includes the possibility of an energy-harvesting active biomedical implant, the shape of which could be customized for patient-specific geometry corresponding to anatomical features and use (e.g., a bone implant that will eliminate the need for battery replacement and resulting follow-on surgeries).
Fractures occur in ceramics as a result of crack propagation. The science of design against fractures is based on the pioneering work of A.A. Griffith (1893– 1963) who proposed an energy balance approach to predict fracture strengths in materials [27]. Thus, crack growth is associated with the release of strain energy and absorption of energy to create the two flanking surfaces. In a succinct manner, we may calculate the stress level
where E is the Young modulus, γ is the surface energy, and a is the size of the crack or defect. This describes well very brittle materials, which do not exhibit plasticity domains before fracture. A more general description was developed based on the original Griffith equation by Irwin [28] and Orowan [29] as follows:
where critical strain release rate parameter,
The design of fracture-resistant materials by combining viscoelastic polymers with ceramic materials would be either as composites (separate components) or in the form of mixtures. A composite beam made of multiple layers of ceramics interrupted by polymer layers would be protected against catastrophic crack propagation across layers. Based on the Griffith energy balance approach, it is possible to find out the ceramic layer thickness that would maximize fracture resistance. Griffith equation was historically used to describe fracture resistance dependency on grain size (
Analogously, for a multilayered ceramic material (Figure 1) shaped as a beam with equally thick longitudinal layers, we plot fracture stress against layer thickness, considering the most unfavorable situation when the crack expands immediately across the whole layer. The relative units refer to maximal fracture stress and beam thickness for normalization. From the fracture stress curve, it results, at a first view, that very thin layers would provide the beam with maximal protection against fractures. Another criterion for optimization is provided by efficiency reasoning.
A proposed criterion for fracture-proof layer thickness in layered beams made of brittle ceramics exposed to longitudinal stretch. Intersection between curves describing ultimate tensile tension of a layer (orange), and beam fracture tension (blue) provides a point of optimal layer thickness to stand alone against the whole beam stretch load.
Subjected to tensile stress, the beam would distribute the load on individual layers according to their thickness. A maximal fracture-proof design of a multilayered beam would consider that even a single layer would be able to support the whole beam load, meaning that the tension applied on the layer is lower than the beam fracture tension. Intuitively, a beam consisting of two layers is a minimal backup mechanism, whereas more layers may look excessive for most applications. In the graph in Figure 1, the intersection between the two curves occurs for a number of 10 layers. In other words, for a beam designed to resist fracture, more than 10 layers would not provide reliance on single layer last standing (the initial premise), whereas less than this number lowers the fracture-safe tension limit. Therefore 10 longitudinal ceramic layers, uncoupled for fracture propagation, may already provide the safest design for tensile load fractures in a beam. The underlying supposition is that the ultimate tensile strength has the same order of magnitude as the fracture strength. Transversal loads on the beam would require a change in the design of the multilayered beam; still the reasoning example for longitudinal loads demonstrates how to look for the optimal grain size in order to build fracture-resistant polymer-reinforced ceramic materials. Thus, decreasing the grain size to nanometer level does not bring additional fracture resistance to millimeter-thick ceramic objects. The 3D printed material in Figure 5 is made of ceramic-collagen filaments ~0.6 mm thick oriented in two perpendicular directions and connected in the nodes. The filaments are made of globular grains 2–10 μm in diameter. This structure actually relies on the binder to hold the grains together. The space between grains is large enough to accommodate biopolymer filaments as binder; one way to produce such filaments in place is to populate the spongy structure with fibroblasts and grow them in culture, as we show here. Then a weak link will reside inside ceramic-polymer hybrid grains.
Adding a polymer to a ceramic material in 3D printing is in the first place a mean to modulate the viscosity of the printing paste and support complex 3D structures while they are raised by adding material. Keeping the polymer in place or removing it by post-processing of the printed object depends on the contribution of the polymer to the mechanical properties of the printed object. The brittleness of glasses and ceramic materials is usually addressed by reinforcing the brittle material with elastic fibers, either as composite or as mixture. In mixtures, nanoscale contact between ceramic materials and polymers intimately modulates the elasticity of the resulting material. Aragonite and hydroxyapatite have a very high elastic modulus, around 100 GPa, and a fracture toughness of ∼1 MPa/m1/2. With those values, based on some common assumptions, Chen et al. estimated [31] that the brittleness domain of the material is in the nanometer range. Biological structures based on aragonite (nacre) or hydroxyapatite (like bones) rely on elastic biopolymers as binders to increase their fracture resistance by dissipating the stress energy. Irwin and Orowan approach on fracture propagation assumes that stress energy is dissipated around fracture tip by plastic deformations, in which a purely entropic polymer does not accomplish. A mechanism for plastic deformations in nacre resides in micrometer-sized parallel platelets that are able to slide on each other. In this case, the binder breaks and forms attachments to the aragonite platelets while the stress is dissipated. This occurs at a micrometer range. On a nanometer scale, viscoelasticity inside the binding biopolymer may provide another mechanism for stress relaxation.
The idea of mixing collagen and ceramic powder in a paste for printing bone grafts or other bone-like structures for medical applications is based on similarity with the natural bone. Ideally, osseointegration of the grafted material would be accomplished on a long timescale by the progressive action of osteoclasts and osteoblasts which remove the graft material and deposit new bone in place. Having a structure that resembles the natural design may not always respond to functional requirements of a medical application. For example, the porosity of the material should accommodate new osteon growth, requiring 200 μm pore size, to allow growth of new capillaries, optimal for 50 μm pore size, whereas interconnected micropores lower than 10 μm improve the metabolic environment and fluid circulation through capillarity [32]. In a mixture, the viscoelastic polymer should significantly add toughness to effectively dissipate strain energy from initiating cracks in ceramics. A relevant group of biological polymers are the proteins involved in the elasticity of animal tissues. An impressive coordinated effort was made to understand the contribution of the giant protein titin to the elasticity of the striated muscle, detailed on structural, mechanical, and enzymatic description of the functional segments in titin molecules. A comprehensive review on the subject is provided by Prof. Wolfgang A. Linke [33].
The Ig domains in titin were described for their viscoelastic role, protecting titin from breaking under excessive stretch. In 1996, Improta, Politou, and Pastore determined the structure of I27 titin Ig domain by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques [34]. The I27 titin Ig domain structure consists in two β sheets packing against each other, each β sheet containing four β strands. Stretch-induced unfolding of the Ig structure provides significant additional extension to the titin molecule, as demonstrated by Linke and Fernandez laboratories [35, 36]. Atomic force microscopy of single molecules was used to investigate synthetic polypeptides based on repetitive Ig domain gene constructs.
In Figure 2 we replotted from literature some AFM force spectroscopy measurements on collagen I molecules [37], a synthetic polypeptide fragment made of 8 repetitive I27 titin Ig domains [38] and a synthetic protein made of repetitive modules found in dragline spider silk protein (16 SPI and 4 SPII modules) [39]. Extension of collagen molecule in the nanometer range generates almost no force, starting to rise at 300 nm extension. Instead, a single I27 module already provides maximal tension of folded state with 28.1 nm stretch and then unfolds and releases a strain (red line). Unfolding and full extension of all 8 I27 repeats in the polypeptide occurs at ~230 nm stretch, raising the force to 882 pN, which is 59% of the maximal single molecule collagen force. Stretching multiple collagen molecules, as they are connected by nodes in a net, also fails to deliver significant force at nanometer range extensions (light blue line). For comparison, a synthetic recombinant modular fragment from dragline spider silk protein is shown to unfold its modules with a repetitive pattern of 14 nm (black line), releasing lower levels of tension than Ig domain unfolding or collagen I molecule node detachment.
Comparison of force extension AFM measurements in collagen I single molecules (blue), collagen I interconnected molecules (light blue), a synthetic polypeptide made of 8 repeats of I27 titin Ig module (red) and a synthetic protein fragment made of repetitive modules from dragline spider silk protein (black). Replotted and adapted from Linke et al. for (I27)8 [
Addition of long-range acting binders (developing significant force only at high extensions) versus short-range acting binders in the composition of hybrid polymer-ceramic material is not an obvious decision. Increasing collagen I molecule concentration would raise the number of cross-links between molecules, thus enabling significant force development at lower extensions (as shown in Figure 2, light blue line). Ultimately, as concentration is increased, collagen I molecules will assemble in fibrils with high strength and low extensibility ropelike structures, 260–410 nm wide [40]. This will increase the interspacing between mineral grains or tiles to sizes often found in the natural reign of such materials [41]. Mechanical measurements (indentation technique) on collagen fibrils (50–200 nm in diameter) dissected from rat tail showed a Young elastic modulus in the range from 5 GPa to 11.5 GPa (in air, at room temperature) [42], a value at most 1/10 of hydroxyapatite modulus. The concept is that collagen fibers contribute less to the elastic stiffness of the bone and more to its capacity to absorb deformation energy before it fails, that is, toughness [41]. As part of the energy dissipation of the deformative load, the bone structure suffers plastic deformations at the microstructural level, and, in living organisms, it is repaired and even remodeled to withstand the new actual load configuration. If we consider that natural structures evolved to optimize functionality, then it is important to understand that optimization also means maximal toughness or the solution had to deal with limitations and constrains of the cellular machineries that build bone-like biopolymer-mineral structures.
Patient-specific design of orthopedic prosthetic devices may improve the durability and the performance of the device by adequate distribution of loads and by using wear-resistant materials on highly solicited spots. An example is hip arthroplasty where bearings may be adequately designed and fabricated to minimize surface friction between elements [43]. With the use of numerical models, the shape and mechanical properties of the prosthesis could be optimized according to patient characteristics like height, weight, gender, and age. Then, the prosthesis has to be engineered for a suitable mounting procedure during the orthopedic intervention and manufactured according to specifications. Some design features like 3D shape may be attained with standard manufacturing techniques, and other features, particularly those involving material microstructure, are possible only by advanced manufacturing. 3D printing combines the advantage of using directly the results of numerical modeling to create the prosthetic device—eliminating some intermediate steps, with the micrometer precision and versatility of the printing mechanism and allowing for microstructuring and the use of various materials for the same piece.
An example of ceramic-polymer hybrid material fabricated by 3D printing method is presented.
Powders resulted after hydrothermal synthesis were mechanically mixed with a water-soluble polymer binder (Mowiflex, Kuraray Poval) 20% solution and a cross-linking agent (Baymedix® FD103, Covestro), obtaining a viscous paste which is further used as a feedstock in the 3D printing process using 3D BioScaffolder system (SYS-ENG, Germany) equipped with BioScaffolder software (SW) 3.0. The technological flow is briefly depicted in Figure 3 (synthesis of hybrid powders, preparation of paste, and 3D printing of hybrid structures).
Technological flow for the fabrication of 3D structures.
Some examples of 3D hybrid structures obtained with different nozzles and rotation angles between 2 successive layers (90° and 45°, respectively) are given in Figure 4.
3D printed scaffolds using two types of nozzles: (a) Ø 0.8 mm (BST-C structure) and (b) Ø 0.4 mm (BTC structure).
3D printing is a highly versatile technique to fabricate complex structures with high precision and nanometer resolution. The principle of this technique is based on the extrusion of continuous filaments (inks) in a layer-by-layer sequence using computer-aided design (CAD) tools. This method is capable of fabricating structures with feature sizes on the microscale (0.1–100 μm) and mesoscale (>100 μm), depending on the nozzle diameter. The ability to fabricate a variety of structures requires a good control over the formulation and rheological behavior of the inks and the printing parameters (velocity printing, pressure extrusion). The fundamental advantage for any lattice structure are that it is self-supporting (to bear on itself) without the need for inside supports. Another key aspect for the use of porous structures is pore interconnectivity. Porosity is defined as the total percentage of bare spaces in a solid and is a morphological property independent of the material.
The 3D structures were obtained as described above, using the 3D printing technique and BioScaffolder (SYS-ENG, Germany) device, connected via a USB port to a computer on which the BioScaffolder SW 3.0 software is installed. This software allows the configuration of the 3D object to be created in this program or imported from a CAD-CAM program, as well as the setting of the printing process parameters for the 3D object (scaffold), made by depositing several layers of extruded fibers. The shape of 3D structure can be also set using BioScaffolder software. Thus, cubic, octagonal, and cylindric shapes can be obtained.
BTC and BST-C structures fabricated as described above have been characterized using different techniques: scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM/EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and optical profilometry.
SEM/EDX analysis was performed using a FEI E-SEM Quanta 200 microscope equipped with EDX. XRD analysis was performed using a Rigaku MiniFlex 2 diffractometer. Optical profilometry measurements were performed using Veeco WYKO NT1100.
SEM images of two representative samples (BTCM-1 and BST-C1) are depicted in Figures 5 and 6.
SEM images of BTCM sample: (a) cross section of 3D sample; (b) front image at 20×; (c) front image at a higher magnification—10,000×.
SEM images of BST-C1 sample: (a) cross section of 3D sample; (b) front image at 33×; (c) front image at a higher magnification—1000×
Figure 5b shows a typical image of a 3D structure with fibers having thickness of 512–587 μm, while the distance between them varies between 762 and 1093 μm. Figure 5a clearly shows how the fibers are arranged in multiple layers in the 3D structure. The round-shaped particles of barium titanate-based nanopowders can be observed in Figure 7c, as a result of BaTiO3 spray-drying.
XRD spectra of BTCM-1.12 sample (in red) and BST-C1.1 sample (in blue).
In the case of BST-C1 sample, the porosity of the structure can be observed in Figure 6a (cross section). The fiber thickness varies between 860 and 1064 μm, while the distance between them is about 105–543 μm (Figure 6b). Similar with BTCM-1 sample, spherical particles of BaxSr1−xTiO3 nanopowders are observed in Figure 6c. EDX analysis is presented in Table 1.
Sample | C | O | Ti | Ba | Sr | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BTCM-1 | 9.04 | 29.59 | 25.37 | 36.01 | — | 100.00 |
BST-C1 | 14.22 | 26.50 | 10.78 | 8.42 | 40.09 | 100.00 |
Semiquantitative analysis of two representative 3D structures (BTCM and BST-C).
XRD spectra of two representative samples (BTCM-1 and BST-C1) are presented in Figure 7. From Figure 7, it can be seen that the main characteristic peak of BaTiO3 in sample BTCM-1 corresponds to 2θ = 39.71 and interplanar distance d = 2.268. The crystallite size related to this peak is 14.1 nm, and it was calculated using Scherrer equation. In the case of BST-C1 sample, the main characteristic peak appears at 2θ = 35.18 and interplanar distance d = 2.549. The crystallite size calculated for this peak using Scherrer equation is 8.9 nm. As it can be seen on the diffraction spectra, non-doped barium titanate (BTCM-1) and Sr-doped barium titanate (BST-C1) powders are slightly shifted. Peak locations are not exactly suitable to PDF cards of BaTiO3 and BaxSr1−xTiO3, which might be explained by the presence of binder and collagen in the powder compositions.
Surface roughness of two representative samples (BTCM-1.5 and BST-C1.3) is depicted in Figures 8 and 9. The mean surface roughness Ra (the average roughness of the surface) of BTCM-1.5 is about 600 nm.
Surface roughness of BTCM-1.5 sample.
Surface roughness of BST-C1.3 sample.
The mean surface roughness Ra (the average roughness of the surface) of BST-C1.3 is about 2.29 μm.
The BTCM materials were sterilized by immersion for 4 h in an 8 ml sterile phosphate buffer containing 1% penicillin/streptomycin and 0.25 mg/ml amphotericin B (Fungizone) and then washed three times with an 8 ml of sterile phosphate buffer to remove the excess of Fungizone and penicillin/streptomycin. After 4 h of sterilization, the BTCM material retains its structure almost intact and can be handled with care in the next steps. The residues released from BTCM materials at the end of the sterilization period were undetectable visually and demonstrated the biomaterial stability in phosphate buffer. After sterilization the materials to be analyzed were moved into an 8 ml completely sterile DMEM culture medium and kept for 24 h in the incubator at 37°C. This step intended to analyze the impact of the soluble compounds released by the materials, if any, in the cell culture medium on cell morphology and adhesion. The DMEM medium resulted from the 24 h of incubation with BTCM materials was further used for culturing 1070Sk CCD fibroblasts and SKMel23 metastatic melanoma cells. The CCD fibroblasts (passage 23) and SKMel23 melanoma cells (passage 3) were seeded in a cell culture six-well plate at a density of 2 × 104 cells/well, cultured in DMEM medium (control) or DMEM medium resulted from incubation with BTCM materials, for 24 h, and analyzed in bright-field microscopy. The fibroblasts grown in the DMEM medium exposed to the BTCM material were completely adhered to the substrate and had a morphology similar to the controls (Figure 10). In the case of SkMel23 cells grown in DMEM exposed to BTCM material, the cells also well adhered to the substrate. However, their morphology was slightly different compared to the control cells (Figure 11). Next we investigated whether SkMel23 cells were able to adhere to the BTCM material itself. For this purpose, a suspension containing 100 × 104 SKMel23 cells in an 8 ml complete DMEM medium was added onto the sterilized BTCM material and previously preincubated in DMEM according to the protocol described above and further cultured for 24 h in complete DMEM medium.
Fibroblasts grown in DMEM (a, b, c, g, h) compared to fibroblasts grown in DMEM previously exposed to BTCM material for 24 h (d, e, f, i, j) (bright-field microscopy, 10× magnification, a–f, and 40× magnification, g–j).
SkMel23 cells grown in DMEM (a, b, e, f) compared to SKMel23 cells grown in DMEM previously exposed to BTCM material for 24 h (c, d, g, h) (bright-field microscopy 10× magnification, a–d and 40× magnification, e–h).
After 24 h the culture medium was removed, and the BTCM material was washed three times with 8 ml of sterile PBS. The material was then moved using a sterile metal spatula to another six-well plate in order to evaluate only the cells adhered to the material and to exclude those that adhered to the plastic surface of the well. The BTCM material was incubated with 8 ml of sterile trypsin for 10 min, at 37°C with gentle shaking every 3 min to ensure a good detachment of cells. The supernatant was transferred to a 15 ml tube to which 6 ml of complete DMEM was added for trypsin neutralization and was centrifuged for 5 min, at 1500 rpm. The cell pellet was recovered at the bottom of the tube, and cells were counted after dilution 1/1 with trypan blue, which stains only the dead cells. From 100 × 104 SkMel23 cells seeded on BTCM material, a number of 8 × 104 cells were recovered after 24 h, which indicates that at least 8% of SkMel23 cells were able to adhere to BTCM material.
Materials based on BT or BST and collagen are candidates for medical applications in bone reconstruction and enhancement, suitable for 3D printing technologies that allow patient-specific shape, microstructure, and composition of the artificial bone. Artificial graft osteointegration at the interface with the natural bone will be facilitated by a printed porous structure that allows cellular infiltration, adherence, and growth. An example of ceramic-polymer hybrid material fabricated by 3D printing method was presented here.
The 3D printed BTCM materials are physically stable and do not release toxic soluble compounds in cell culture medium. The BTCM material structure allows the adhesion of SkMel23 cells and possibly of other cell phenotypes as well. The cells recovered after being in contact with 3D printed BTCM materials are fully viable.
Mechanical properties of the 3D printed bone graft may be modulated at the nanometer scale by addition of collagen or other biopolymers into the printing paste, whereas at the microscale a composite structure could be completed by the infiltrating cells lying down on the collagen fibers. We propose some criteria to design bone materials that may share the remarkable toughness and self-repairing capabilities of the natural bone and the improved fracture resistance conferred by novel biopolymer-ceramic hybrid printing pastes. The 3D printing technology is thus suitable to address various bone pathologies, ranging from traumatic bone destruction to anomalous remodeling that occurs in osteoporosis. The results we presented here recommend the novel 3D structures as potentially biocompatible and support their use for further in vitro or animal model assays.
Financial support of National Core Programme project no. PN 18070101/2018 is gratefully acknowledged. The authors thank Eng. Raluca Elena Irimescu (IMNR) for the experimental work performed during STSM stage at Technion–Israel Institute of Technology in the frame of COST Action CA 15102, CRM-EXTREME. The authors also thank Ludmila Levin (Technion) for performing the SEM/EDX analysis and XRD analysis and Dudi Badler (Technion) for performing the optical profilometry measurement.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Advanced Topics of 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Shishkovsky",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10974.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"174257",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor V.",middleName:null,surname:"Shishkovsky",slug:"igor-v.-shishkovsky",fullName:"Igor V. Shishkovsky"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10045",title:"Fillers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aac44d6491e740af99bec2f62aa05883",slug:"fillers",bookSignature:"Emmanuel Flores Huicochea",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10045.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206705",title:"Dr.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores Huicochea",slug:"emmanuel-flores-huicochea",fullName:"Emmanuel Flores Huicochea"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8188",title:"Ion Beam Techniques and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4f212072e7141ba20788b6fe79d28370",slug:"ion-beam-techniques-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ishaq Ahmad and Tingkai Zhao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8188.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25524",title:"Prof.",name:"Ishaq",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"ishaq-ahmad",fullName:"Ishaq Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6737",title:"Powder Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"65211e3ea1db91e795908df350115d1f",slug:"powder-technology",bookSignature:"Alberto Adriano Cavalheiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6737.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201848",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto Adriano",middleName:null,surname:"Cavalheiro",slug:"alberto-adriano-cavalheiro",fullName:"Alberto Adriano Cavalheiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6306",title:"Additive Manufacturing of High-performance Metals and Alloys",subtitle:"Modeling and Optimization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e08cc35cef3caf389096ca4b999742f",slug:"additive-manufacturing-of-high-performance-metals-and-alloys-modeling-and-optimization",bookSignature:"Igor V. 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Osheku",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5759.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"148660",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Attah",surname:"Osheku",slug:"charles-osheku",fullName:"Charles Osheku"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3683",title:"Engineering the Future",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"engineering-the-future",bookSignature:"Laszlo Dudas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3683.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135546",title:"Prof.",name:"Laszlo",middleName:null,surname:"Dudas",slug:"laszlo-dudas",fullName:"Laszlo Dudas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:8,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"12376",doi:"10.5772/10380",title:"Digital Factory – Theory and Practice",slug:"digital-factory-theory-and-practice",totalDownloads:7081,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"3683",slug:"engineering-the-future",title:"Engineering the Future",fullTitle:"Engineering the Future"},signatures:"Milan Gregor and Stefan Medvecky",authors:null},{id:"60707",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75832",title:"Processing Parameters for Selective Laser Sintering or Melting of Oxide Ceramics",slug:"processing-parameters-for-selective-laser-sintering-or-melting-of-oxide-ceramics",totalDownloads:2083,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"In this chapter, we present a detailed introduction to the factors which influence laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) on oxide ceramics. These factors can be in general divided in three main categories: laser-related factors (wavelength, power, scanning speed, hatch distance, scan pattern, beam diameter, etc.), powder- and material-related factors (flowability, size distribution, shape, powder deposition, thickness of deposited layers, etc.), and other factors (pre- or post-processing, inert gas atmosphere, etc.). The process parameters directly affect the amount of energy delivered to the surface of the thin layer and the energy density absorbed by the powders; therefore, decide the physical and mechanical properties of the built parts, such as relative density, porosity, surface roughness, dimensional accuracy, strength, etc. The parameter-property relation is hence reviewed for the most studied oxide ceramic materials, including families from alumina, silica, and some ceramic mixtures. Among those parameters, reducing temperature gradient which decreases the thermal stresses is one of the key factors to improve the ceramic quality. Although realizing crack-free ceramics combined with a smooth surface is still a major challenge, through optimizing the parameters, it is possible for LPBF processed ceramic parts to achieve properties close to those of conventionally produced ceramics.",book:{id:"6306",slug:"additive-manufacturing-of-high-performance-metals-and-alloys-modeling-and-optimization",title:"Additive Manufacturing of High-performance Metals and Alloys",fullTitle:"Additive Manufacturing of High-performance Metals and Alloys - Modeling and Optimization"},signatures:"Haidong Zhang and Saniya LeBlanc",authors:[{id:"213235",title:"Prof.",name:"Saniya",middleName:null,surname:"LeBlanc",slug:"saniya-leblanc",fullName:"Saniya LeBlanc"},{id:"213239",title:"Dr.",name:"Haidong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"haidong-zhang",fullName:"Haidong Zhang"}]},{id:"59094",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72973",title:"Structure and Properties of the Bulk Standard Samples and Cellular Energy Absorbers",slug:"structure-and-properties-of-the-bulk-standard-samples-and-cellular-energy-absorbers",totalDownloads:738,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The development of additive technology revealed a real prospect of their use for the manufacture of complex shapes. Now, it is possible to produce parts that previously were either very difficult to produce using the subtracting technology and joining technology, or it was not at all feasible. In the manufacture of parts of complex shape, it is necessary to use a supporting structure, which is necessary to place such a way that they can be easily removed. Additionally, they must necessarily be absent in certain places. In this regard, the preparation model can take significant time to satisfy all of these, often conflicting, requirements. In this paper, we show optimization examples of the model preparation with support structures for parts manufactured at the facility EOSINT M270 and used in medicine and engineering. Additional emphasis is on the fact that, during the manufacture of parts, solidification’s modes of massive parts differ from those of the thin-walled portions of parts. The results of the complex studies on the different stainless steels (including martensitic) are described with an emphasis on their structure and mechanical properties. The results of a honeycomb energy absorbers, which are quite seldom produced by the additive technologies, are presented in this chapter.",book:{id:"6306",slug:"additive-manufacturing-of-high-performance-metals-and-alloys-modeling-and-optimization",title:"Additive Manufacturing of High-performance Metals and Alloys",fullTitle:"Additive Manufacturing of High-performance Metals and Alloys - Modeling and Optimization"},signatures:"Pavel Kuznetcov, Anton Zhukov, Artem Deev, Vitaliy Bobyr and\nMikhail Staritcyn",authors:[{id:"223064",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavel",middleName:null,surname:"Kuznetsov",slug:"pavel-kuznetsov",fullName:"Pavel Kuznetsov"},{id:"227212",title:"Mr.",name:"Artem",middleName:null,surname:"Deev",slug:"artem-deev",fullName:"Artem Deev"},{id:"227213",title:"Mr.",name:"Vitaliy",middleName:null,surname:"Bobyr",slug:"vitaliy-bobyr",fullName:"Vitaliy Bobyr"},{id:"227215",title:"Mr.",name:"Anton",middleName:null,surname:"Zhukov",slug:"anton-zhukov",fullName:"Anton Zhukov"},{id:"227216",title:"Mr.",name:"Mikhail",middleName:null,surname:"Staritcyn",slug:"mikhail-staritcyn",fullName:"Mikhail Staritcyn"}]},{id:"59742",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74331",title:"Advanced Technologies in Manufacturing 3D-Layered Structures for Defense and Aerospace",slug:"advanced-technologies-in-manufacturing-3d-layered-structures-for-defense-and-aerospace",totalDownloads:1824,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"In the past 20 years, a great progress has been made in additive manufacturing techniques, which has led to numerous applications in aeronautical and defense structures. Though not all advanced materials and alloys, can be automatically layered by a rapid prototyping system or machine, several interesting application have seen the light of publicity in many sectors. Efforts are underway to apply the automated layering technologies in as many materials as possible, mostly nowadays plastics, reinforced-polymers, and metals can be processed by such systems in order to produce three-dimensional parts. The work is underway internationally in order to promote more and more applications of additive manufacturing or automated layering and to lower the costs in such systems. This paper aims at presenting a review of the additive manufacturing history presenting the major steps that lead to the explosion of this technology, and with a special focus on advanced 3D structures in aerospace and defense applications. An insight is also given on the four dimensions of manufacturing concept.",book:{id:"5759",slug:"lamination-theory-and-application",title:"Lamination",fullTitle:"Lamination - Theory and Application"},signatures:"Dionysios E. Mouzakis",authors:[{id:"107011",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Dionysios",middleName:"E.",surname:"Mouzakis",slug:"dionysios-mouzakis",fullName:"Dionysios Mouzakis"}]},{id:"61242",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76860",title:"Theory and Technology of Direct Laser Deposition",slug:"theory-and-technology-of-direct-laser-deposition",totalDownloads:1281,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Presently the additive technologies in manufacturing are widely developed in all industrialized countries. Replacing the traditional technology of casting and machining with additive technologies, one can significantly reduce material consumption and labor costs. They also allow obtaining products with desired properties. The most promising for manufacturing large-sized products is the additive technology of high-speed direct laser deposition. Using this technology allows to create complex parts and construction to one technological operation without using addition equipment and tools. This technology allows decreasing of consumption of raw materials and decrease amount of waste. Equipment for realization of DLD technology is universal and based on module design principle. DLD is based on layer-by-layer deposition and melting of powder by laser beam from using a sliced 3D computer-aided design (CAD) file. The materials used are powders based on Fe, Ni, and Ti. This chapter presents the results of machine design and research HS DLD technology from various materials.",book:{id:"6306",slug:"additive-manufacturing-of-high-performance-metals-and-alloys-modeling-and-optimization",title:"Additive Manufacturing of High-performance Metals and Alloys",fullTitle:"Additive Manufacturing of High-performance Metals and Alloys - Modeling and Optimization"},signatures:"Gleb Turichin and Olga Klimova-Korsmik",authors:[{id:"212068",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Klimova-Korsmik",slug:"klimova-korsmik",fullName:"Klimova-Korsmik"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"72209",title:"Multifunctional Clay in Pharmaceuticals",slug:"multifunctional-clay-in-pharmaceuticals",totalDownloads:820,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Clay has its widespread applications in pharmaceuticals from ancient world to modern era. It is one of the excellent excipients present in the commercially available pharmaceuticals. Its use in many of dosage forms viz. in suspension, emulsion, ointments, gels, tablet and as drug delivery carrier as suspending agent, emulsifying agent, stiffening agent, binder, diluent, opacifier, and as release retardant have been explored in many studies. Variety of minerals is used as both excipient and as an active ingredient; among that kaolinite, talc, and gypsum are important. Their inertness, low toxicity, versatile physiochemical properties and cost effectiveness has increased its usage in pharma industries. Many minerals have its own pharmacological action as antacid, anti-bacterial, anti-emetic, anti- diarrheal agent and as skin protectant etc. Their unique structure which helps them to absorb material onto their layered sheets has opened a wide variety of applications in drug delivery. The understanding of surface chemistry and particle size distribution of clay minerals has led the pharmaceutical field in many directions and future perspectives.",book:{id:"9313",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",title:"Clay Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Clay Science and Technology"},signatures:"Nandakumar Selvasudha, Unnikrishnan-Meenakshi Dhanalekshmi, Sekar Krishnaraj, Yogeeswarakannan Harish Sundar, Nagarajan Sri Durga Devi and Irisappan Sarathchandiran",authors:[{id:"317602",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nandakumar",middleName:null,surname:"Selvasudha",slug:"nandakumar-selvasudha",fullName:"Nandakumar Selvasudha"},{id:"319654",title:"Dr.",name:"Unnikrishnan-Meenakshi",middleName:null,surname:"Dhanalekshmi",slug:"unnikrishnan-meenakshi-dhanalekshmi",fullName:"Unnikrishnan-Meenakshi Dhanalekshmi"},{id:"319655",title:"Dr.",name:"Sekar",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnaraj",slug:"sekar-krishnaraj",fullName:"Sekar Krishnaraj"},{id:"319656",title:"Mr.",name:"Yogeeswarakannan Harish",middleName:null,surname:"Sundar",slug:"yogeeswarakannan-harish-sundar",fullName:"Yogeeswarakannan Harish Sundar"},{id:"319657",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nagarajan Sri",middleName:null,surname:"Sridurga Devi",slug:"nagarajan-sri-sridurga-devi",fullName:"Nagarajan Sri Sridurga Devi"},{id:"319658",title:"Dr.",name:"Irisappan",middleName:null,surname:"Sarathchandiran",slug:"irisappan-sarathchandiran",fullName:"Irisappan Sarathchandiran"}]},{id:"80125",title:"Perspective Chapter: Additive Manufactured Zirconia-Based Bio-Ceramics for Biomedical Applications",slug:"perspective-chapter-additive-manufactured-zirconia-based-bio-ceramics-for-biomedical-applications",totalDownloads:185,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Zirconia was established as one of the chief vital ceramic materials for its superior mechanical permanency and biocompatibility, which make it a popular material for dental and orthopedic applications. This has inspired biomedical engineers to exploit zirconia-based bioceramics for dental restorations and repair of load-bearing bone defects caused by cancer, arthritis, and trauma. Additive manufacturing (AM) is being promoted as a possible technique for mimicking the complex architecture of human tissues, and advancements reported in the recent past make it a suitable choice for clinical applications. AM is a bottom-up approach that can offer a high resolution to 3D printed zirconia-based bioceramics for implants, prostheses, and scaffold manufacturing. Substantial research has been initiated worldwide on a large scale for reformatting and optimizing zirconia bioceramics for biomedical applications to maximize the clinical potential of AM. This book chapter provides a comprehensive summary of zirconia-based bioceramics using AM techniques for biomedical applications and highlights the challenges related to AM of zirconia.",book:{id:"10974",slug:"advanced-additive-manufacturing",title:"Advanced Additive Manufacturing",fullTitle:"Advanced Additive Manufacturing"},signatures:"Sakthiabirami Kumaresan, Soundharrajan Vaiyapuri, Jin-Ho Kang, Nileshkumar Dubey, Geetha Manivasagam, Kwi-Dug Yun and Sang-Won Park",authors:[{id:"246235",title:"Prof.",name:"Geetha",middleName:null,surname:"Manivasagam",slug:"geetha-manivasagam",fullName:"Geetha Manivasagam"},{id:"426610",title:"Prof.",name:"Park",middleName:null,surname:"Sangwon",slug:"park-sangwon",fullName:"Park Sangwon"},{id:"429162",title:"Dr.",name:"Sakthiabirami",middleName:null,surname:"Kumaresan",slug:"sakthiabirami-kumaresan",fullName:"Sakthiabirami Kumaresan"},{id:"442019",title:"Dr.",name:"Soundharrajan",middleName:null,surname:"Vaiyapuri",slug:"soundharrajan-vaiyapuri",fullName:"Soundharrajan Vaiyapuri"},{id:"442021",title:"Dr.",name:"Jin-Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Kang",slug:"jin-ho-kang",fullName:"Jin-Ho Kang"},{id:"442023",title:"Prof.",name:"Nileshkumar",middleName:null,surname:"Dubey",slug:"nileshkumar-dubey",fullName:"Nileshkumar Dubey"},{id:"442024",title:"Prof.",name:"Kwi-Dug",middleName:null,surname:"Yun",slug:"kwi-dug-yun",fullName:"Kwi-Dug Yun"}]},{id:"72560",title:"Limestone Clays for Ceramic Industry",slug:"limestone-clays-for-ceramic-industry",totalDownloads:674,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Limestone clays are used in the ceramic segment in the manufacture of bricks, ceramic tiles, and in the production of cement, among others. Limestone can be present in soils in pure form or as a contaminant, but always from marine environments. The limestone after burning can present a high loss of mass (35–45%), which can cause serious problems with the sintering of ceramic products such as bricks, tiles. The calcium or magnesium carbonate once dissociated forms calcium oxide (CaO) and releases carbon dioxide (CO2). CaO in contact with water subsequently experiences very high expansions that can cause cracks in the materials. Researchers have studied procedures to inhibit limestone action on clays as well as to set the correct temperature for firing. In this chapter, examples of clays with different percentages of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) that are used in the ceramic segment and their characteristics will be given.",book:{id:"9313",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",title:"Clay Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Clay Science and Technology"},signatures:"Herbet Alves de Oliveira and Cochiran Pereira dos Santos",authors:[{id:"316552",title:"Dr.",name:"Herbet",middleName:null,surname:"Alves de Oliveira",slug:"herbet-alves-de-oliveira",fullName:"Herbet Alves de Oliveira"},{id:"320536",title:"Dr.",name:"Cochiran",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira dos Santos",slug:"cochiran-pereira-dos-santos",fullName:"Cochiran Pereira dos Santos"}]},{id:"60707",title:"Processing Parameters for Selective Laser Sintering or Melting of Oxide Ceramics",slug:"processing-parameters-for-selective-laser-sintering-or-melting-of-oxide-ceramics",totalDownloads:2078,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"In this chapter, we present a detailed introduction to the factors which influence laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) on oxide ceramics. These factors can be in general divided in three main categories: laser-related factors (wavelength, power, scanning speed, hatch distance, scan pattern, beam diameter, etc.), powder- and material-related factors (flowability, size distribution, shape, powder deposition, thickness of deposited layers, etc.), and other factors (pre- or post-processing, inert gas atmosphere, etc.). The process parameters directly affect the amount of energy delivered to the surface of the thin layer and the energy density absorbed by the powders; therefore, decide the physical and mechanical properties of the built parts, such as relative density, porosity, surface roughness, dimensional accuracy, strength, etc. The parameter-property relation is hence reviewed for the most studied oxide ceramic materials, including families from alumina, silica, and some ceramic mixtures. Among those parameters, reducing temperature gradient which decreases the thermal stresses is one of the key factors to improve the ceramic quality. Although realizing crack-free ceramics combined with a smooth surface is still a major challenge, through optimizing the parameters, it is possible for LPBF processed ceramic parts to achieve properties close to those of conventionally produced ceramics.",book:{id:"6306",slug:"additive-manufacturing-of-high-performance-metals-and-alloys-modeling-and-optimization",title:"Additive Manufacturing of High-performance Metals and Alloys",fullTitle:"Additive Manufacturing of High-performance Metals and Alloys - Modeling and Optimization"},signatures:"Haidong Zhang and Saniya LeBlanc",authors:[{id:"213235",title:"Prof.",name:"Saniya",middleName:null,surname:"LeBlanc",slug:"saniya-leblanc",fullName:"Saniya LeBlanc"},{id:"213239",title:"Dr.",name:"Haidong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"haidong-zhang",fullName:"Haidong Zhang"}]},{id:"60683",title:"MPFEM Modeling on the Compaction of Al/SiC Composite Powders with Core/Shell Structure",slug:"mpfem-modeling-on-the-compaction-of-al-sic-composite-powders-with-core-shell-structure",totalDownloads:974,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Uniaxial die compaction of two-dimensional (2D) Al/SiC core/shell (core: SiC; shell: Al) composite powders with different initial packing structures was numerically reproduced using DEM-FEM coupled MPFEM modeling from particulate scale. The effects of external pressure, initial packing structure, and SiC content on the packing densification were systematically presented. Various macro and micro properties such as relative density and distribution, stress and distribution, particle rearrangement (e.g. sliding and rolling), deformation and mass transfer, and interfacial behavior within composite particles were characterized and analyzed. The results show that by properly controlling the initial packing structure, pressure, and SiC content, various anisotropic and isotropic Al/SiC particulate composites with high relative densities and uniform density/stress distributions can be obtained. At early stage of the compaction, the densification mechanism mainly lies in the particle rearrangement driven by the low interparticle forces. In addition to sliding, accompanied particle rolling also plays an important role. With the increase of the compaction pressure, the force network based on SiC cores leads to extrusion on Al shells between two cores, contributing to mass transfer and pore filling. During compaction, the debonding between the core and shell of each composite particle appears and then disappears gradually in the final compact.",book:{id:"6737",slug:"powder-technology",title:"Powder Technology",fullTitle:"Powder Technology"},signatures:"Xizhong An, Yu Liu, Fen Huang and Qian Jia",authors:[{id:"114055",title:"Prof.",name:"Xizhong",middleName:null,surname:"An",slug:"xizhong-an",fullName:"Xizhong An"},{id:"237739",title:"Mr.",name:"Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"yu-liu",fullName:"Yu Liu"},{id:"237740",title:"Ms.",name:"Fen",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"fen-huang",fullName:"Fen Huang"},{id:"242885",title:"Ms.",name:"Qian",middleName:null,surname:"Jia",slug:"qian-jia",fullName:"Qian Jia"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"292",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82676",title:"Electrospinning of Fiber Matrices from Polyhydroxybutyrate for the Controlled Release Drug Delivery Systems",slug:"electrospinning-of-fiber-matrices-from-polyhydroxybutyrate-for-the-controlled-release-drug-delivery-",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105786",abstract:"The submission provides an overview of current state of the problem and authors’ experimental data on manufacturing nonwoven fibrous matrices for the controlled release drug delivery systems (CRDDS). The choice of ultrathin fibers as effective carriers is determined by their characteristics and functional behavior, for example, such as a high specific surface area, anisotropy of some physicochemical characteristics, spatial limitations of segmental mobility that are inherent in nanosized objects, controlled biodegradation, and controlled diffusion transport. The structural-dynamic approach to the study of the morphology and diffusion properties of biopolymer fibers based on polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is considered from several angles. In the submission, the electrospinning (ES) application to reach specific characteristics of materials for controlled release drug delivery is discussed.",book:{id:"11127",title:"Electrospinning - Material Technology of the Future",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11127.jpg"},signatures:"Anatoly A. Olkhov, Svetlana G. Karpova, Anna V. Bychkova, Alexandre A. Vetcher and Alexey L. Iordanskii"},{id:"81249",title:"Electrospun Polymeric Substrates for Tissue Engineering: Viewpoints on Fabrication, Application, and Challenges",slug:"electrospun-polymeric-substrates-for-tissue-engineering-viewpoints-on-fabrication-application-and-ch",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102596",abstract:"Electrospinning is the technique for producing nonwoven fibrous structures, to mimic the fabrication and function of the native extracellular matrix (ECM) in tissue. Prepared fibrous with this method can act as potential polymeric substrates for proliferation and differentiation of stem cells (with the cellular growth pattern similar to damaged tissue cells) and facilitation of artificial tissue remodeling. Moreover, such substrates can improve biological functions, and lead to a decrease in organ transplantation. In this chapter, we focus on the fundamental parameters and principles of the electrospinning technique to generate natural ECM-like substrates, in terms of structural and functional complexity. In the following, the application of these substrates in regenerating various tissues and the role of polymers (synthetic/natural) in the formation of such substrates is evaluated. Finally, challenges of this technique (such as cellular infiltration and inadequate mechanical strength) and solutions to overcome these limitations are studied.",book:{id:"11127",title:"Electrospinning - Material Technology of the Future",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11127.jpg"},signatures:"Azadeh Izadyari Aghmiuni, Arezoo Ghadi, Elmira Azmoun, Niloufar Kalantari, Iman Mohammadi and Hossein Hemati Kordmahaleh"},{id:"82145",title:"Slope Casting Process: A Review",slug:"slope-casting-process-a-review",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102742",abstract:"Semi solid processing is a near net shape casting process and one of the promising techniques to obtain dendritic free structure of metals. Semi solid casting gives numerous advantages than solid processing and liquid processing. Semi solid casting process gives, Laminar flow filling of die without turbulence, Lower metal temperature, Less shrinkage, Less porosity, Higher mechanical properties. Semi solid casting process is industrially successful, producing a variety of products with good quality. Slope Casting process is a simple technique to produce semi solid feed-stoke with globular microstructure and dendrite free structure castings. Slope casting process depends on different process parameters like slope length, slope angle, pouring temperature etc. The present study mainly focuses on review of various explorations made by researchers with different process parameters of the Slope casting process and explain the mechanisms that lead to microstructural changes which leads to good mechanical properties.",book:{id:"11119",title:"Casting Processes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11119.jpg"},signatures:"Mukkollu Sambasiva Rao and Amitesh Kumar"},{id:"81611",title:"Biomass Electrospinning: Recycling Materials for Green Economy Applications",slug:"biomass-electrospinning-recycling-materials-for-green-economy-applications",totalDownloads:39,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103096",abstract:"The development and advancement of electrospinning (ES) presents a unique material technology of the future achieved by fabricating novel nanofibrous materials with multifunctional physical (three-dimensional [3D] structure, nanoscalable sizes) and chemical characteristics (functional groups). Advancing the possibility of preparing various classes of novel organic and inorganic electrospun fiber composites with unique features such as polymer alloys, nanoparticles (NPs), active agents, and devices. This feature gives provision for internal access of the setup parameters such as polymer precursor material, polymer concentration, solvent, and the method of fiber collection that consequentially improves the intrinsic control of the construction mechanism of the final nanofibrous architecture. In synthetic electrospinning, the nanofibrous material processing allows for internal control of the electrospinning mechanism and foster chemical crosslinking to generate covalent connections between polymeric fibers. Comparing technologies according to materials of the future revealed that electrospinning supports the formation of micro-scale and in some cases nano-scale fibers while the formation of thin films is facilitated by the electrospraying system. Recent innovations point to various biomass waste streams that may be used as an alternative source of polymeric materials for application in electrospinning to produce materials for the future.",book:{id:"11127",title:"Electrospinning - Material Technology of the Future",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11127.jpg"},signatures:"Farai Dziike, Phylis Makurunje and Refilwe Matshitse"},{id:"81245",title:"Functional Nanofibers for Sensors",slug:"functional-nanofibers-for-sensors",totalDownloads:30,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102597",abstract:"Electrospun nanomaterials and their applications have increasingly gained interest over the last decade. Nanofibers are known for their exceptional surface area and wide opportunities for their functionalization. These properties have been attractive for various sensing applications; however, mostly electric sensing principles have been reported. An overview of most frequently studied concepts will be presented. A novel approach based on optical detection will be described. Various functionalized nanofiber materials have been used to demonstrate feasibility of realization of miniature sensors of biomedical and chemical values (enzymes reactions, metal ions content, concentration, etc.). Compactness and sensitivity of the sensors are significantly enhanced through original hybrid fiber-optic/nanofiber design. The potential of the new detection principle for various applications (bio-medical, chemical, forensic, automotive, etc.) will be discussed.",book:{id:"11127",title:"Electrospinning - Material Technology of the Future",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11127.jpg"},signatures:"Stanislav Petrík and Mayza Ibrahim"},{id:"80458",title:"Production of Nanofibers from Plant Extracts by Electrospinning Method",slug:"production-of-nanofibers-from-plant-extracts-by-electrospinning-method",totalDownloads:32,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102614",abstract:"The fact that different plants grow in each climate type, that each plant has different and many benefits, and that it can obtain bio-structured, sustainable, economic, and ecological products has increased the work of researchers in this field. The long-term toxicity and harmful side effects of herbal extracts are generally less compared to synthetic drugs. Studies on the production of nanofibrous membrane structures from plant extracts are relatively limited and are an emerging field. Herbal extracts have a positive effect in electrospinning applications with their biodiversity, ability to maintain biological functionality, and wound healing effects against pathogenic microorganisms. With the creation of nanofiber structures of plants obtained from natural sources, applications in fields such as wound healing, tissue engineering, drug release are increasing day by day.",book:{id:"11127",title:"Electrospinning - Material Technology of the Future",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11127.jpg"},signatures:"Nilşen Sünter Eroğlu"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:11},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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