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Agriculture evolved from the gathering of fruits and vegetables from the wild, before the domestication of animals and cultivation of crops. Man has devised various methods by which these fruits are kept and handled. The principles adopted over time are to control agents of deterioration to maintain fruit quality [2, 3, 4]. Agents of deterioration are microbial activities; effects of temperature resulting in early senescence and death of tissue due to interruption of metabolic rate as a result of high or extremely low temperature; Loss of moisture through evaporation and transpiration which causes shriveling; low shelf life due to ethylene biosynthesis; low relative humidity; inappropriate proportion composition of air; Inappropriate use of herbicides; hormones; pesticides and insecticides [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. The nutritional quality of harvested fruits is also affected by other factors such as light, water activity and oxygen. Davey further affirmed that temperature and relative humidity were important factors in maintaining the quality of fruits after harvest [11]. Wilson also asserted that deterioration of fresh commodities can result from physiological breakdown due to ripening, water loss, physical damage, and invasion by micro-organisms and their interactions with temperature and relative humidity of the storage conditions [12]. Fruits for export require more attention and appropriate postharvest handling methods because the producers aim at getting the best return from the produce. John stated that maturity at harvest is one of the most important factors that determine the shelf-life and final fruit quality in mature fruits [5]. Fruits harvested at immature stage became insipid with bad flavor soon after harvest. Fruits require very scientific postharvest handling methods with cold storage at an exact temperature, suitable air movement and appropriate humidity [13]. The objective of studying post-harvest handling is to create an understanding of all operations from harvesting to distribution to facilitate proper technology in each step and in such a way as to minimize losses and maintain quality as high as possible during the distribution chain. This chapter takes an overview of the indigenous and improved postharvest handling methods and processing of fruits considering the total postharvest chain from harvesting methods, harvesting tools and implements, transportation, storage and processing. It identifies aspects of critical postharvest losses and finds solutions that would lead to a remarkable reduction in postharvest losses in quality and quantity of harvested fruits, thereby increasing the quality and quantity of marketable products.
Indigenous postharvest handling practices of fruits go along with a lot of inappropriate handling methods resulting in huge postharvest losses as a result of knowledge gap for all stakeholders in the postharvest food chain of fruits. Wounding, bruising, and physical injury imparted on the produce from rough and abusive harvest practices and postharvest handling methods will result in significant produce quality loss and an increase in postharvest decay. In Figures 1–4 careless handling of fruits were observed which will result in internal bruising, abnormal physiological damage, splitting and skin breaks. Skin breaks provide sites for infection by disease organisms causing decay. Enzymes contained in the cells of fruit tissues may be released as a result of mechanical damage during postharvest handling. These enzymes break down cellular material. Chemical reactions catalyzed by the enzymes result in the degradation of quality leading to off-flavors, deterioration of texture, and the loss of nutrients [14]. Chemical reaction occurs when fruits are damaged by falling, breaking, crushing, cutting, insect punctures and peeling. These damages release enzymes that trigger chemical reactions such as rancidity in fruits, deterioration of chlorophyll pigments and flavor changes [15]. Other major chemical changes which occur are lipid oxidation and non-enzymatic browning. This leads to deterioration in sensory quality, changes in the color and flavor of foods. The lipid oxidation rate is influenced by light, water activity, local oxygen concentration, high temperature, and the presence of catalysts such as iron and copper [16]. In Figure 1, it was observed that the indigenous bamboo basket is already weak and fruits can easily be bruised by the sharp edges of the basket due to weakness in the basket the fruit can fall off during transportation, loading and unloading from one destination to the other. Figures 2 and 3 showed the exposure of fruits to direct sun which will increase the internal temperature and speed up chemical processes in the fruit. Food spoilage may be defined as any change that renders food unfit for human consumption. Every change in food that causes the food to lose its desired quality and eventually become inedible is called food spoilage or rotting [17]. Damage restricts the use of produce, whereas loss makes its use impossible. Quality attributes describe the traits that make fruits acceptable to consumers such as nutritional composition, freedom from defects such as cuts, over-ripeness, spots, and disease infections. Quantitative and qualitative losses occur at all stages in the post-harvest handling system and distribution chain of fruits from harvesting, through handling, packing, processing, storage and transportation to final delivery of the fresh produce to the consumer [18]. Factors affecting post-harvest losses vary from place to place depending on the season, the genetic constitution of the crop, postharvest management practice, temperature and relative humidity (Table 1). Various authorities have estimated that 25–70% of fresh fruit and vegetables produced are lost after harvest [19]. Further studies revealed 20–40 percentage loss in developing countries [20]. [12, 21, 22] estimated that from 5 to 25% of fruit from the farm gate never reaches the consumer. Post-harvest losses of banana, citrus, grapes, apples, avocado, and papaya were reported to be 20–80, 20–95, 53, 14, 43 and 40–100% respectively in developing countries [23, 24]. Food loss assessment provides the basis for programs aimed at reducing postharvest losses [7, 25, 26, 27, 28].
Harvested lemon packed in worn-out sharp locally made basket.
Fruits carelessly handled at retail point.
Inappropriate and careless handling of fruits.
Mishandling of fruits during transportation.
In most developing world, orchards were established for a long period up to 50–100 years old. Fruits are plucked from the tree with hand by hired skilled laborer’s with the use of an indigenous bamboo ladder and the fruits are placed in a bamboo basket. Fruits are conveyed by the farmer with the use of a basket or jute bag to the collection sites. The fruits are thrown to the ground from a height of about one meter. In Nigeria, a harvesting knife (usually referred to as ‘go-to-hell’), consisting of a sickle-like metal head attached to a long wooden handle is employed in harvesting these fruits like orange, pear, African star apple, cashew from the trees (Table 2). The impact on the ground due to fall from the tree is reduced by gathering straw on the floor around the tree or heavy mulch is place on the ground with a thick depth of leaves. Sometimes a long cloth is attached to the tree branches from one end to the other and the fruits fall on the cloth without touching the ground. Sometimes the branches of the tree are shaken with hand and fruits will fall from the tree to the ground. The fruits would then be conveyed using the basket to the primary assembly point which is usually unprotected from environmental hazards such as heavy rain or sunshine until they produce are transported to wholesale markets. The delicate nature of the fruits and internal flesh should always be kept in mind while harvesting and handling produce. Physical damage is pronounced in the indigenous harvesting system due to the lack of knowledge and training.
Postharvest value chain | Activities | Causes of losses | Percentage loss | Solution |
---|---|---|---|---|
Farm gate | Harvesting, sorting, grading and sizing. | Mechanical, Physiological, pathological | 5% | Harvest timely properly, and with pedicel, removal of infected fruit |
Packing house operations | Packaging, sorting, grading, sizing, trimming, washing, degreening | Mechanical damage, pathological losses due to contamination | 5–10 | Avoid exposure to direct sun-ray, careful handling |
Transport | Handling, sorting, grading | Mechanical losses due to mishandling, physiological changes, pathological damages due to action of micro-organism | 5–10 | Appropriate packaging method to prevent moisture loss, appropriate container, avoid hard packages |
Wholesale | Packing, sorting, grading, at wholesales point | Mechanical damages due to leveling, pathological damages due to the micro-organism, physiological damage due to moisture losses | 10–25 | Avoid exposure, store under shade, appropriate packaging materials, use of refrigerator or evaporative coolant structure, avoid delay, separated infected produce, avoid heaping especially fruit and vegetable |
Retail | Buying and selling, packing sorting, and grading. | Pathological losses, slight mechanical damage, moisture loss. | 5–10 | Appropriate packaging, adequate storage facilities, avoid exposure, store under shade. |
Consumers | Buying and selling, palatability test, choices. | Physiological losses, pathological losses. | 5–10 | Well ventilation, appropriate package, use of refrigerator, use of evaporative coolant, washing |
Identification of critical causes of postharvest losses and the solutions.
S/N | Fruit | Botanical name | Origin | Harvest indices | Storage T°C RH% | Ethylene Sensitivity | Harvest Containers | Harvest tool | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | African star apple | West Africa | Colour change green to orange, ease of abscission | 28 ± 2°C 90–95% | Insensitive | Harvesting basket. | Long harvesting knife | |||
2. | Apple | North America | Colour changes from leaf green to yellowish-green, firmness | 0°C 90–95% | Sensitive | Apple basket | Apple picker Ladder | |||
3. | Apricot | China Central Asia | Harvest when fruits are fully colored | 0°C 90–95% | Sensitive | Gently place in a basket | Hand picking | |||
4. | Avocado | Africa | Colour change, Ease of abscission | 6–7°C 85–95% | Sensitive | Cloth bag | Pruner | |||
5. | Banana | South East Asia | Colour change dark green to light green, peel/pulp ratio | 18°C 80–85% | Sensitive | Gentle handling of bunches | Cutlass, Sharp knife | |||
6. | Chestnut | Asia Minor | Fullness of size, Browning of pods | 0°C 90–95% | Insensitive | Basket or wooden boxes | Long stick or hand plucking | |||
7. | Cherimoya | Tropical America | changing in color from a darker to a light green or greenish tan | 15–30°C 40–90% | Sensitive | Plastic box or Paper boxes | Hand picking | |||
8. | Cashew | South eastern Brazil | ease of abscission, Acidity level, firmness | 30°C 67% | Insensitive | Basket, plastic boxes | Hand picking. Vibrator | |||
9. | Custard Apple | South America | Colour change slightly yellow. Firmness | 25–30°C :60–70% | Sensitive | Paper boxes, plastic boxes | Handpicking | |||
10. | Clementine | Misserghin, Algeria | Fully yellow | 10°C 90–95% | Insensitive | Plastic boxes | Hand picking | |||
11. | Dates | Westen Parkistan, Egypt | Fruit turns brown | 0°C 85–95% | Insensitive | Jute bag | Hand picking | |||
12. | Elephant Apple | Indonesia | Colour change from dark green to olive green | 0°C 90–95% | Sensitive | Harvesting boxes | Hand plucking | |||
13. | Fig | Northern Asia Minor | Ease of abscission, aroma, colour | 0°C 50% | Sensitive | Harvesting boxes | Hand plucking | |||
14. | Grape | North America | Ease of abscission, aroma, colour Firmness | 0°C 90–95% | Insensitive | Harvesting boxes | Hand plucking | |||
15. | Guava | Mexico, Central America, Northern South America | TSS acid ratio, specific gravity and colour | 5°C 75–85% | Sensitive | Harvesting boxes | Hand plucking | |||
16. | Jaboticaba | Brazil | Change in colour. Fragrance | 13–15°C 90–95% | Insensitive | Harvesting boxes | Hand plucking | |||
17. | Jackfruit | Western Ghats of southern India | Firmness, ease of abscission | 13°C 85–90% | Sensitive | Harvesting box | Long harvesting knife | |||
18. | Kiwi | Southern China | Firmness, ease of abscission. Increase in sugar content | −0.5°C 90–95% | Sensitive | Harvesting box | Hand plucking | |||
19. | Lime | Southern Iraq and Persia | Fragrance, colour change | 9–10°C 85–90% | Insensitive | Harvesting boxes | Hand plucking | |||
20. | Lemon | North-western India | Ease of abscission, colour change from dark green to light green | 10–13°C 85–95% | Insensitive | Harvesting boxes | Hand plucking | |||
21. | Mammee Apple | South America Hawaii AfricaAsia | Colour change, firmness, ease of abscission | November, December January | 0°C 90–95% | Sensitive | Harvesting boxes | Hand plucking | ||
22. | Mango | South East Asia | Olive green colour, smooth and shiny, TSS 10–14% Starch content, flesh colour. | April–June | 12°C 90–95% | Sensitive | Harvesting boxes | Hand plucking | ||
23. | Noni | South Asia | Colour change from light green to yellowish green. Firmness, Ease of abscission | November, December January | 10–13°C 85–95% | Sensitive | Harvesting boxes | Hand plucking | ||
24. | Sweet Orange | Southern China, Northern and East India and South East Asia. | Ease of abscission, colour change from dark green to light green | November, December January | 0–9°C 85–90% | Insensitive | Basket. Harvesting box | Hand plucking | ||
25. | Olive | Mediterranean basin | Ease of abscission, Firmness | August—November | 5–10°C 85–90% | Insensitive | Basket. Harvesting box | Hand plucking | ||
26. | Peach | China | Ease of abscission, golden colour, firmness | May—September | −0.5–0°C 90–95% | Sensitivity | Basket. Harvesting box | Hand plucking | ||
27. | Passion fruit | Southern Brazil | Ease of abscission, dark green to light green depending on the variety | December – January in the tropics | 5–10°C 85–90% | Sensitive | Basket. Harvesting box | Hand plucking | ||
28. | Pomegranate | Iraq and Himalayas in northern India | Sugar percentage should be 12–16% and acid percentage 1.5–2.5%, | September–November | 5°C 90–95% | Insensitive | Basket or cloth bag | Hand plucking | ||
29. | Pawpaw | Panama and Columbia | Patches of yellow, Jolliness of seed | August – September | 7–13°C 85–90% | Sensitivity | Harvesting boxes | Long stick or hand plucking | ||
30. | Pear | China | Ease of abscission | May – August | −1.5 − 0.5°C 90–95% | Sensitivity | Harvesting box | Long harvesting knife | ||
31. | Plum | Eastern Europe and China | Fragrance, firmness, Ease of abscission soluble solids 17 percent | July – September | -0.5°C 90–95% | Sensitivity | Harvesting box | Pluck with hand | ||
32. | Pineapple | South America | Ease of abscission, colour change, taste. | May – August | 7–13°C 85–90% | Insensitive | Harvesting crates | Sharp knife or cutlass | ||
33. | Persimmon | China | Ease of abscission, firmness | November–January | −1°C 90% | Sensitivity | Paper Boxes | Pluck with hand | ||
34. | Raspberry | North America | Ease of abscission, colour change, taste. | April–August | −0.5-0°C 90–95% | Insensitive | Paper Boxes | Pluck with hand | ||
35. | Strawberry | North America | Ease of abscission, colour change, taste | April–August | 0–0.5 °C 90–95% | Sensitive | Paper Boxes | Pluck with hand | ||
36. | Tangerine | South Asia | Ease of abscission, colour change, taste. | April–November | 9–10°C Humidity: 85–90% | Insensitive | Basket. Cloth bag. Boxes | Pluck with hand | ||
37. | African Walnut | Tropical West African nations | Ease of abscission | September–December | 10–20°C 85–95% | Insensitive | Jute bag or boxes | Pluck with hand | ||
38. | Watermelon | Egypt | Colour change from dark green to light green, sound, browning tendrils | April – September | 10–15°C 90% | Insensitive | Jute bag or boxes | Pluck with hand | ||
39. | Plantain | South Asia | Colour change from dark green to light green, blackness of tip, peel/pulp ratio, blackness of tip, peel/pulp ratio, | January – March | 18°C 80–85% | Sensitive | Gentle handling of bunches | Cutlass, Sharp knife |
Harvest indices, tools, containers, storage temperature and relative humidity.
Primary Collection Centre (Farm gate).
In the indigenous settings, open ground is used where fruits are heaped on bare ground for transportation to distant markets (Figure 5). At this point, there is no sorting, grading, sizing, precooling or washing. The fruits are packaged in baskets or used rice bags or jute bags and then loaded in Lorries or commuter vehicles and then transported to wholesale point or distant market which is usually on market days. The traditional method utilizes a local basket for packing and transportation of fruits. A sizable quantity of the fruits gets damaged in transit. The loading of the vehicles also exceeds the vehicle’s carrying capacity on very rough roads that promotes vibration and jostling of the produce on vehicles that are poorly maintained where the shock absorber may not be well fixed with poor ventilation. The loading and unloading of the vehicle are not done with careful handling; the produce is thrown over high elevations and over wide distances which promotes cuts and bruises. The environmental conditions in these center’s may promote excess heat, low humidity, mechanical damage, improper postharvest handling methods, poor sanitation, and poor environmental control. The field containers should be put under shade to minimize produce heating in the interval between harvest and transport to the packinghouse. In the improved postharvest handling system efforts to control these factors are often very successful. In the improved system, air-conditioned structure is usually erected where packing house operations takes place such as sorting, grading, washing, disinfestation, de-greening, waxing packaging. The plastic fruit crates ‘area’ are a more suitable option in this system [29, 30, 31]. The modern fruit plastic crates take care of problems such as bruises, cuts and other likely mechanical damage. For example, reducing mechanical damage during grading and packing greatly decreases the likelihood of postharvest disease because many disease-causing organisms would enter through wounds [32, 33, 34, 35, 36].
Harvested fruits kept under a tree to prevent exposure to direct sunlight to reduce internal heat.
Farmers usually employ hired labour or collaborate among themselves by mobilising each other for harvest as early as 6 am when the temperature is low before 12 pm. The harvested produce is moved to the market for early sales to consumers or retailers. Sometimes, the produce harvested in the evening will be spread on flat surfaces overnight not allowing the produce to overlap one another; this will be sold in the market in the next morning. Oranges, Grapes, pear, mango, guava, African star apple, Avocado pear, African star apple are harvested when the color changes from deep green to slight yellow. At this stage, the produce can be transported to distant markets (Figure 6).
Primary assembly point.
The improvement in temperature management requires rapid removal of the field heat through: hydro-cooling, packaging in iced containers, top icing, evaporative cooling, room cooling, forced air cooling, serpentine forced air cooling, vacuum cooling, and hydro-vacuum cooling. The cold chain system is required in the value chain of fruits from the farm gate to the consumer.
Farmers have the age-long practice of keeping the best of their harvest as seed for the next season with the concept of maintaining the appropriate genetic resources from generation to generation to maintain produce qualities. The land preparation is done thoroughly to minimize weed infestation which reduces the quality of harvested produce. Farmers depend on accumulated hand-on experience or indigenous knowledge on when to harvest and how to harvest. Leguminous food crops are planted like cocoyam, melon, wrapping leaves, and vegetables are intercropped with the fruit trees to supply staple food for the household and regular income. It also reduces maintenance cost.
Pre-harvest factors affect the rate of deterioration in the following ways:
Fruit display by retailer with partial provision of shade.
Fruits in display at retail market with minimum shade.
Transportation to the market is done by trucks, lorries, wheelbarrows, and motorcycles. During loading, fruits are carried in basket on head and thrown over straw or fruits already present inside the truck from a meter height. These practices result in bruising of the fruits and as a result become unmarketable. Fruits have to face the same fate of rough handling during unloading. Storage is a much-neglected aspect in the whole process and there is no permanent structure for storage in any point of time during the whole process of harvesting to marketing. Rough handling practices are practiced during loading of the field containers in transit. Throwing of the field containers and excessive drop at high heights is practiced by the handlers. The consequences of these undesirable practices included noticeable physical injury and bruise damage to the product. The likelihood of postharvest decay of the injured items is high. The process of loading the field containers onto the transit vehicle and unloading at the packinghouse needs closer supervision [2]. Indigenous method of temperature management includes exposing harvested fruit to frozen air at night, or putting fruits in water immediately after.
Harvesting and handling;
Harvesting should be done with extreme care due to soft tissue of the fruits
Produce should be harvested at the best quality for storage to prolong shelf life.
Harvesting should be done under cool condition
Harvest in batches to give highest quality available to customers.
Plant at different times using varying varieties to extend harvest season.
Hold produces in a shaded area before transportation
Poor quality produce should be removed to avoid contamination and distractions.
Avoid increase in temperature and moisture loss during transportation and storage.
Commodities for export must be handled carefully.
Use appropriate tool, container and implements during handling
Different types of Evaporative Cooling Systems have been developed for the small- and large-scale storage systems.
Various researches were carried out to investigate the effectiveness of the evaporative coolant structure in prolonging the shelf life of fruits [39]. [40] observed that Cucumis sativus stored best for 3 weeks under the refrigerator followed by evaporative coolant structure and then open shelf. The evaporative coolant stored Cucumber fruit effectively for 2 weeks. Babatola [41] also investigated the effect of storage conditions on nutrient composition and quality of
Postharvest technology is crucial in agricultural production and utilization system. It plays a key role in loss reduction, value addition, food security, employment and income generation [38, 39]. A postharvest technology revolution is essential with strong linkages of storage, marketing and distribution. Inappropriate postharvest management system resulted in large quantity of fruits gets damaged during the process of handling, transportation and marketing Figure 3 [36, 37]. Due to the absence of proper storage and marketing facilities, farmers are forced to sell their produces at throw-away prices. Sometimes farmers do not even get the two-way transportation cost, so they would rather dumb their produce near the market area than bear the transportation cost required for taking the product back. It is of utmost importance to identify all aspects of critical postharvest losses and find solutions that would lead to a remarkable reduction in postharvest losses.
Processing is a postharvest activity carried out to maintain or raise the quality of produce or change the form or characteristics of fresh produce, spoilage agent must be destroyed without ruining the nutritive value or palatability of the farm produce. Processing easily destroys Vitamin C in fruits, especially where heat is used. Produce that has been processed can also be stored to prevent spoilage and extend storage life; hence we have the term preservation. Processing and preservation aim at achieving the following goals:
Increase the shelf life of the produce.
Increase variety in the diet by providing a range of attractive flavours, colours, aromas and textures.
Increase the economic value of the product by raising its quality.
To create a new product.
To remove inedible parts of produce.
Facilitate efficient and easy transportation
Reduce bulkiness
Produce easy to display
Increase sales
It makes fruits available where it is not produced
It makes fruits available throughout the year e.g., dried mango, pineapple.
Stabilizes price
Reduce postharvest losses
Value addition is possible
The waste from processing can be used to generate income.
Fruits are to be harvested at the appropriate maturity stage and size to prolong shelf life. Major losses in the postharvest chain of fruits are due to mechanical damages, physical bruises, a physiological disorder due to high temperature and unhygienic conditions. Time of harvest, method of harvest, tools used in harvesting, transportation affects wholesomeness or increased rate of deterioration of harvested fruits. The inappropriate postharvest management system in the postharvest chain of fruits results in huge losses during the process of harvesting, grading, packaging, handling, transportation and marketing. These losses are due to inappropriate harvesting methods and tools, unavailability of cold chain systems, absence of appropriate storage facilities and poor marketing strategies. To maintain and effectively preserve fruit quality. Postharvest handling must be efficient, rapid and coordinated by ensuring immediate removal of field heat, reducing damages by protecting from sun and unhygienic conditions. Knowledge on specific produce handling method, market requirement, appropriate container and simplified packing line is essential to achieve uniformity and ensure produce are properly placed and strapped for delivery to consumers. Workers involved in critical postharvest handling steps are to be well trained, remunerated and equipped with appropriate tools, risk-free and conducive working condition.
IntechOpen Compacts provide a mid-length publishing format which bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines. Compacts are the preferred publishing option for brief research reports on new topics, in-depth case studies, dissertations, or essays exploring new ideas, issues or broader topics on the research subject.
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\n\nSee a complete overview and description of the steps involved in the publishing process here.
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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