Estimated losses of cocoa production annually because of diseases.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3805",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Topics in Paraplegia",title:"Topics in Paraplegia",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Spinal cord injury related paraplegia changes a person's life in a sudden way. 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The cocoa bean is the seed of the cacao tree, it is a tropical plant indigenous to the equatorial regions of the Americas, but currently, it is cultivated in many countries with a warm, tropical climate. Cocoa is the main raw material to produce chocolate, which can value more than $100 billion [1]. Chocolate history started with the Maya, who were the first people who cultivated the cocoa plant in South America. During that period, chocolate was a cocoa drink prepared with hot water, and it can be flavored usually with cinnamon and pepper [2].
The Republic of Côte d’Ivoire, a country on the southern coast of West Africa, is the biggest producer of cocoa beans with more than 2 million tons annually. The national economy of Ivoirians depends on their export revenue from cocoa. Its population is more than 26 million, almost 6 million work in cocoa beans production, and almost 2,034,000 tons were produced in 2021 [1]. Many countries such as Ghana (883,652 tons), Indonesia (659,776 tons), Nigeria (328,263 tons), Cameron (295,028 tons), Brazil (235,809 tons), Ecuador (205,955 tons), Peru (121,825 tons), Dominican Republic (86,599 tons), and Colombia (56,808 tons) [3] that are considered top producers of cocoa come after Cote d’Ivoire.
This chapter is focused on the health benefits of chocolate, processing, type of chocolate, and finally, the safety aspect of chocolate production. Furthermore, the negative impact of chocolate on human health has been discussed.
There are numerous health benefits associated with the consumption of chocolate, which are due to its nutritional contents [4, 5]. A bar of chocolate with a higher number of nutrients has high health benefits, for example, dark chocolate [5], which contains soluble fiber and is rich in minerals. In more detail, a 100-gram bar of dark chocolate with 70–85% cocoa consists of 11 grams of fiber, 67% of the daily value (DV) for iron, 58% of the DV for magnesium, 89% of the DV for copper, 98% of the DV for manganese. So, dark chocolate is the best type with regard to the number of nutrients [6].
Chocolate possesses antioxidant activity, which is very beneficial for human health [5] and can be attributed to the presence of polyphenols, flavanols, and catechins, among others [6]. According to Nora et al. [7], antioxidants play an important role in the enhancement of immunity and for preventing cardiovascular diseases and metabolic diseases including obesity, diabetes mellitus, and some types of cancer. According to Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health [8], numerous studies showed a link between consuming chocolate and health benefits. Studies showed that consumption of 6 grams of chocolate daily leads to reducing the risk of heart disease and mortality, which could be due to reduced blood pressure and inflammation.
It is considered that chocolate is one of the 30 best anti-inflammatory foods. It has been observed that inflammation could lead to many health problems, and chocolate works as an anti-inflammatory effect in the human system, subsequently protecting humans against diseases. A study carried out by Creveling [9] found that cocoa polyphenols help to regulate the bacterial composition of the intestine. The author observed that cocoa polyphenols increase the number of good gut bacteria and that trigger this anti-inflammatory response [9].
Consuming chocolate could help in maintaining cardiovascular health. According to a study, carried out on 49 adults (32 women, 17 men) to assess the effectiveness of consuming dark chocolate on cholesterol levels, the results indicated that consuming chocolate that contains plant sterols and cocoa flavanols as a low-fat diet could contribute to cardiovascular health by reducing cholesterol and improving blood pressure [10].
Another study proved that the flavanols in dark chocolate can boost the endothelium, the lining of arteries, which lead to producing nitric oxide that works to send signals to the arteries to relax, which lowers the resistance to blood flow, and as a result of this, it reduces blood pressure [6]. Moreover, a study from Walden University’s School of Nursing has been done on participants who eat dark chocolate, and it has been found that consumption of dark chocolate reduces blood pressure [11].
Consumption of dark chocolate improves the function of the brain. A study that was carried out on healthy volunteers confirmed that consuming high flavanol cocoa for 5 days contributes to improved blood flow to the brain. Furthermore, it also helps in improving cognitive function in older adults with mild cognitive impairment [6]. Nordqvist [5] referred that researchers from Harvard Medical School indicated that drinking two cups of hot chocolate a day for older people could help in keeping the brain healthy and reduce memory decline. They have found that hot chocolate helped in improving blood flow to parts of the brain where it was needed. A similar study was published in 2014 showed that a cocoa extract that is called lavado could help in reducing or preventing nerve pathways found in patients with Alzheimer’s disease and could contribute to slow symptoms such as cognitive decline [5].
Consumption of chocolate also helps to protect human skin against skin disease because of cocoa flavanols [6, 11, 12]. Also, chocolate contains theobromine, which helps pregnant women against complications of pregnancy, which is known as preeclampsia. According to a study that was done on pregnant women, as they were given a higher amount of chocolate, they had a 40% less chance of getting preeclampsia [13]. Studies also showed that consuming chocolate can help in protection against cancer as Brook [14] indicated in a study, which was published in the Journal of the American Society of Hypertension, that people who consume many flavonoids or antioxidant-rich chocolate have lower chances of developing cancer, compared with those who do not.
As discussed in the last section, there are numerous health benefits associated with the consumption of chocolate; however, there are also some negative effects on human health such as childhood hyperactivity, migraine, and headaches. According to a study conducted in the Bogalusa Heart, to identify the presence of caffeine in children’s snacks, the results indicated the presence of a large amount of caffeine in children, which could be due to eating foods such as chocolate [15]. Bruso [16] referred to that according to the University of Maryland Medical Center, approximately 8% of children in the US younger than 18 have hyperactivity at some point. These cases are often treated by behavioral therapy and medication, but some parents resort to changing children’s diets by avoiding chocolate in their children’s meals. The Medical Center reported that this change is an effective method but only in a small percentage of children [16].
According to Nowaczewska et al. [17], there are 25 studies have indicated the prevalence of chocolate as a migraine trigger. Two studies of them indicated that chocolate is not a migraine trigger because no participant has reported that chocolate is a trigger factor. Also, other studies considered chocolate a migraine trigger in a small percentage of participants (ranging from 1.3 to 33) Nowaczewska et al. [17]. According to Kelishadi [15], there are some authors who say migraine and tension-type headache occur due to the consumption of some type of foods: one of them is chocolate. Also, another study indicated that chocolate could provoke a migraine attack in some patients who think themselves sensitive to it. [15]. An increase in migraines in some people upon eating chocolate could be due to cocoa’s tyramine, histamine, and phenylalanine content [5]. It has been also reported that consuming more chocolate could lead to bone health issues. Nordqvist [5] mentioned in a study, which was published in The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, low bone density in older women who consume chocolate every day. Also, it has been reported that some chocolate includes a high amount of heavy metals such as cadmium and lead, which can affect the kidneys and bones [5]. A study found that almost all samples (43 chocolate products) contain more than 0.3 mcg of cadmium per serving, which means more than the recommended level identified by the World Health Organization [5].
The cacao tree is considered a sensitive plant, and it requires protection from wind and needs shade in its early years [18]. The cocoa tree needs a semi-shaded environment (50% light and 50% shade). In the cocoa plantations, there are many tall trees beside cocoa trees to provide the required shade and shall not prevent the light [19]. The cocoa plant also needs high rainfall and temperatures to grow. Therefore, it can only grow in a narrow band of countries between 20 degrees north and south of the equator [20]. The suitable temperature for growing is between 25 and 27°C (between 77 and 81°F). The tree cannot resist the high dry or wet. The perfect rainfall should be between 1250 and 2500 mm per year. The cocoa tree requires fertile, slightly acidic, and well-drained soil [21].
The wild cocoa tree can grow up to 12–15 m but to make harvesting easier, most farmers grow it to less than 5 m. Regarding blooms, it blooms and bears fruit all year round, which means that the cocoa tree has both flowers and fruits at the same time [21]. Moreover, the most producing period is from October to February and from May to August [22].
The products could be different in many properties such as shape, texture, and size. The length can be started from 15 cm to over 35 cm. One ripe fruit contains 20–75 cocoa beans, the length of each one can be from 1 cm to 3 cm, embedded in a white pulp. The nutritious cocoa bean is considered very high beneficial as it contains fat (50%) and carbohydrates (25%), as well as proteins, theobromine, niacin, vitamins (including A, B1, B2, and B6), and minerals (calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium, sodium, and phosphorus) [21].
There are three types of chocolate, which are Criollo, Forastero, and Trinitario. These types are dominant varieties [23]. It was named officially in 1753 by the Swedish scientist Carl von Linné [24]. According to the chocolate society [25], the most productive and common type is Forastero beans, which are because of their high yielding in Brazil and W Africa. On the other hand, Criollo and Trinitario beans are better in quality, but they are lower yielding, which made them very expensive.
This type of cocoa exists on the Island of Trinidad after a hurricane nearly destroyed the local Criollo crops in 1727. As a result, farms are replanted with the Forastero type, which was brought from Venezuela, and cross-fertilized with the native Criollo type [25]. Therefore, a new type appears, which is known now as Trinitario. This type merged the best two types, which are Forastero (which is featured by the hardiness and is very high in yielding) and the Criollo type (which is featured by great taste) [21]. As a result, the Trinitario variety is classified as fine flavor cocoa, but it is less intense than the Criollo type [26]. The properties of this type are usually varied because of the parents as they have different characters, and it can be grown where Criollo cocoa was once grown including in Mexico, the Caribbean islands, Colombia, Venezuela, and parts of Southeast Asia [21]. The percentage of the world’s production is uneven regarding the Walter Matter [26] approximately only 5% of the world’s production, and according to Bar & Cocoa, proved that the production is less than 10% globally. However, according to the chocolate society [25], this type represents about 12% of the world’s cocoa production, and in 2020, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs confirmed that the production represents approximately 10–15%.
This type was cultivated by the Maya more than 2500 years ago. It is considered a high-quality variety compared with others. Also, it is very complex with regard to cultivation and handling; consequently, it represents less than 5% globally, and it is the rarest type [27]. It is cultivated in Central America, northern South America, the Caribbean, and Sri Lanka. It has a delicate and sweet flavor, so it is often mixed with different types because of its rarity and high cost [28]. According to its characteristics, the pods are red or green before ripeness with less than ½ in length, and it has a very accentuated tip at the lower end, marked with 10 deep furrows. Its surface is smooth and round-shaped. Moreover, it is plump with fresh white cotyledons, and it is very easy to ferment [27].
This is the most common type of cocoa, its native most likely to the Amazon basin. These days, it is grown mostly in Africa, Ecuador, and Brazil. It is represented almost 80% of the world’s cocoa production, because of its properties, which include hardness, and resistance to diseases. There are many subspecies of Forastero such as Cundeamor and Calabacillo [21]. This type was discovered by the Spanish in the heart of the Amazon [27]. It grows in West Africa and Brazil [26].
It is mostly cultivated cocoa in small labor-intensive farms for less than 2 hectares (5 acres) to protect the product against disease and pests. Even though, still, there are many losses of production globally, which approximately range from 30 to 100%. The most popular diseases of the cacao tree are pod rots. It is called a black pod as a result of fungus (Phytophthora), which spreads very quickly on the pods under rainy and humid climate conditions, with a lack of sunshine, and temperature under 21°C (70 °F). Therefore, control is required by using copper-containing fungicides, and the infected pods should be removed to reduce spread.
Witches’ broom, which is caused by
This disease is caused by
This one is only found in West Africa, which is a huge problem in Togo, Ghana, Cote d’Ivoire, and Nigeria. It is transmitted by mealybugs. This natively results from trees that grew in the rain forests of West Africa, so it is not native to the cocoa plants [30].
Table 1 includes the main estimated losses of cocoa production annually because of diseases [31].
Disease | Region | Estimated world production loss (tonnes) |
---|---|---|
Black pod (phytophthora fungus) | Africa, Brazil, Asia | 450,000 |
Witches broom (fungus) | Latin America | 250,000 |
Frosty pod rot (fungus) | Latin America | 30,000 |
Swollen shoot virus | Africa | 50,000 |
Vascular streak dieback (virus) | Africa | 30,000 |
Estimated losses of cocoa production annually because of diseases.
There are over 1500 different insects that feed on cocoa; however, there is only 2% of economic importance. Mirid bugs such as Helopeltis are the most common and important insects in attacking cocoa, and the main pest in Malaysia and Indonesia is the cocoa pod borer. The most popular insect pests are including broad mite, flower-eating caterpillars, Helopeltis, and yellow peach moth [31].
The coco plant life on average is 25 years, and the product needs range from 150 and 165 days for complete maturation. There is no specific season for ripening as it can be harvested all year round [19]. Beans grow in pods that sprout out of the trunk and branches of cocoa trees. The size of the pods is almost the same as the football size. The pods start green and then convert to orange, which means they are ripe and ready for harvesting [32].
When the pods are ripe, harvesting should be done manually, as using machines will lead to damage to the tree, the clusters of flowers and pods that grow from the trunk [32], as the tree is weak, which makes the picking a hard job for workers [18]. For picking, workers use short, hooked blades mounted on long poles to reach the highest products [32]. After picking cocoa from trees, it is collected in baskets and transported to the braking operation [32]. In this step, it is split, and the cocoa beans are removed. Pods can contain upward of 50 cocoa beans each [18]. The pods are opened, and the beans are removed within a week to 10 days after harvesting to avoid germinating [33].
Fermentation of cocoa after harvesting is a critical process [34]. This process leads to getting the aromas to the cocoa and knowing the difference between many types of cocoa. However, for some traditional dishes, unfermented beans are used in parts of Mexico and Central America. The fermentation method could take 2–8 days; it depends on the type of cocoa [18]. It is fermenting the pulp of Forastero type for 5–7 days, and the pulp of Criollo type for 1–3 days [29].
During fermentation, the cocoa beans are placed in large, shallow, heated trays or covered with large banana leaves. If the weather is good, it is heated by the sun with the importance of noticing that it is necessary to move them up frequently to allow the beans to come out for fermentation equally [32]. In this method, the juicy sweating of the pulp is drained and the germ in the seed is killed by the heat, and the flavor will be improved. As well as the color will be changed to brown. This step is implemented in sun-dried or kiln-dried to reduce the moisture content to 6–7 % [29]. Throughout the fermentation of cocoa beans, the top layer of the beans is covered with banana leaves, because the bottom part of the banana leaf consists of natural yeast and microorganisms, which help to strengthen the natural fermentation [18].
After fermentation, a drying process must be implemented, which is an important step to enhance the cacao flavor [35]. The drying is done by the sun, and it should turn the beans as well in this step to be equally dried. It can dry on wooden floors, which can be covered by a sliding roof during rainy weather. Electric dryers are used on large farms [18]. The drying stage period could take between 2 and 10 days in the nature processing [36]. During drying, the color of cocoa beans is changed from reddish-brown to dark brown [18]. As a result of this process, the humidity of the cocoa is reduced from 60% to 7% [35].
In this method, the polyphenol content of cocoa beans is reduced, many numbers have been reported in a review study, which was done by [37], and depending on many studies include a reduction from 77 to 44%, a 72% reduction, a 30% reduction, and a 26% reduction. In addition, sun drying reduces the phenolic content and antioxidant activity of cocoa beans.
However, according to a study that was done by [36] to compare the methods of drying cocoa beans to evaluate antioxidant activity, to determine phenolic compounds and methylxanthine content, and to determine the presence of ochratoxin A, four methods are used:
Dryer with stainless steel platform and plastic roof with UV protection (DP):
Artificial dryer, using the wooden platform with an artificial heat source, through forced and heated air circulation with electric resistance and temperature controlled by a thermostat at 60°C (AD);
Traditional dryer in the barge with wooden platform and drying by direct sunlight (TD);
Mixed dryer with stainless steel platform and mobile plastic roof with UV protection for drying coverage and exposure to sunlight (MD).
It has been found that the best method is the traditional drying method, in which drying is by the sun directly to maintain the phenolic compound content in the cocoa beans, as the phenolic compound content is reduced in different methods, particularly in the artificially oven-dried method. Also, the traditional method is the best in retention of cocoa antioxidant activity and the methylxanthine content in dry seeds, which confirm that these chemical compounds are impacted by changing temperature. The reason for the traditional method being the best could be because it uses less than milder temperatures.
The first process that must be done in the industry is cleaning the cocoa beans probably by using sieves and brushes [19]. There are many cleaning steps to remove any contamination, for example, twigs, stones, and dust [29]. In general, the manufacturing operations are different slightly because of the various types of cocoa trees; however, most industries use similar machines to convert cocoa beans to cocoa butter and chocolate [32].
The roaster step is very important in processing chocolate, and that is done by drying beans at a temperature of 100°C, then roasting beans at a temperature range between 100°C and 160°C. It could be different depending on the type. The balance in roasting is very necessary as increasing it will lead to the bitterness of the beans and less than required will not improve the aromas [19]. A study [38] has proved that roasting at high temperature influences cocoa beans and has no influence on roasting time. Moreover, roasting at 160°C leads to undesirable burnt odor and flavor and a low acceptability score by consumers. However, roasting at temperature range from 90 to 110°C was acceptable by consumers in appearance, aroma, flavor, texture, and overall quality attributes.
This process develops the aromas and contributes to reducing acidity and astringency, reducing moisture content, deepening color, and facilitating shell removal [29]. Also, roasting is killing any organisms that exist on the bean, which appear in the fermentation process [18]. In this process, it has been found to decrease the flavanols and phenolic content of cocoa beans [37].
The roasting method makes the shells of the cocoa brittle, so it is winnowed to remove the shells of the bean and only cocoa nibs pass through a series of sieves, and this method is called winnowing [29]. In the grinding process, the nibs are ground in a granite stone mill, which crushes the grain and releases the fat or cocoa butter [29]. Cocoa butter is the main ingredient of chocolate [19]. Chocolate consists of both cocoa solids and cocoa butter in almost the same ratio [18].
This process is completed by conche machines. Moreover, this process is developing flavor, aerating, and emulsifying. The required time is 4–72 hours (depending on the desired results, and the machine type plays a major as well). The temperature is between 55 and 88°C (130 and 190 °F) and is controlled regarding the desired flavor and uniformity [29]. In this process, chocolate could lose almost 80% of volatile substances [19].
There are many types of chocolate that are different in ingredients and characteristics.
Dark chocolate, which contains the highest percentage of cocoa bean solids (up to 80% of the total weight) and cocoa butter compared with other varieties. This type is featured by the strong aroma of cocoa. Its quality depends on the percentage of cocoa. Most of the human benefits of health have been linked to consuming this type.
Another type is called Gianduja chocolate, which contains hazelnuts, cocoa, and sugar. Its color is brown.
Milk chocolate consists of cocoa butter, sugar, milk powder, lecithin, and cocoa of 20–25%. Its properties are including a bright appearance, an intense, persistent aroma, and a sweet taste with a slightly bitter accent of cocoa [2]. According to FDA Standards of chocolate identity, milk chocolate must include at least 10% chocolate liquor and 12% milk solids. Also, cocoa butter and milk are the only fat allowed in this type [39].
The last type is white chocolate, which contains cocoa butter, milk, and sugar with no cocoa solids. It is a sweet, pleasant taste [2]. To meet the FDA standards, this type must have at least 20% cocoa butter and 14% milk solids [39].
Food contamination is referring to food that is contaminated microbiologically, chemically, or physically. That can be done at any stage of food processing such as during storage or transportation [40]. Also, food allergies can be considered a contamination factor [41].
Food safety issues are considered a huge challenge in the health sector compared to those of malaria or tuberculosis [42]. As the person who consumes contaminated food gets food poisoning and starts the poisoning symptoms in hours, and it could need to visit a hospital, particularly the high-risk group, which includes older adults, pregnant women, infants, and young children, and people with chronic disease [43]. Food poisoning includes many common symptoms, which are upset stomach, stomach cramps, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and fever [44]. There are many foods that are linked to food poisoning, which are poultry, raw fruits and vegetables, fish and shellfish, rice, deli meats, unpasteurized dairy, and eggs [45]. Many cases of outbreaks of food poisoning in the United States have been linked to fruits and vegetables in 2018 [46].
Microbial contamination is the most common type of food contamination. It can be done if the food is contaminated by microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, mold, fungi, and toxins. Many reasons lead to microbial contamination that including undercooking chicken, storing and preparing raw foods near to ready-to-eat food, and this leads to cross-contamination [41]. Also, the vectors of biological contamination include food handlers and that can be caused by aerosol droplets from coughing near the production line. Moreover, vectors include packaging materials, equipment, and tools used; an example of this is using the same cutting board and knife in raw food and ready-to-eat food. Contaminated water is also an important factor to cause microbial contamination. Furthermore, pests such as insects and rodents are factors of contamination [40]. Therefore, food hygiene practices must be implemented to prevent contamination that including personal hygiene, separating raw and ready-to-eat food at all stages of processing, washing raw fruits and vegetables, and pest control on the premise [41].
For a long period, it was referred to low-moisture foods, such as chocolate, as a safe product against microbial contamination because of their properties, as the water activity (aw) is below 0.6, which is not an active area for microbial growth. However, the early 1970s were linked to the first outbreaks of Salmonella to low-moisture products such as chocolate, oat cereals, peanut butter, and infant formula. Salmonella was the main pathogen of concern for all of those products [47]. Also, another study that was to identify the emerging hazards related to chocolate products between 2013 and 2018 has concluded that microbiological hazard is 16,49%, and it is the second hazard following chemicals in cocoa from Africa and South America as well [48]. According to the most recent data, it has been shown that a Salmonella outbreak in a brand of chocolate wafers from Poland between December 2020 and early April 2021affected 32 people as announced [49].
Moreover, many reasons cause biological contamination linked to chocolate products, for example, pathogenic microorganisms can be found because of using contaminated ingredients such as milk and sugar. Also, pathogens can be presented because of damage or soiled packaging material because of mishandling at the supplier level. Furthermore, it can be found in returned chocolate products because of mishandling in any area such as retail or during transportation [50].
Chemical contamination is any food contaminated by a chemical agent. For example, food is contaminated by cleaning agents and that can happen when using chemical cleaning during processing or when using chemical cleaning on tools and not cleaning well. Furthermore, there is natural chemical contamination such as toxins in some fish, such as methylmercury [51]. Also, contamination can happen in agriculture production when they spray fertilizers and pesticides close to food when it is growing. Therefore, it must be ensured that chemical agents are away from the food area. Always follow the manufacturers’ instructions before using chemicals. Food must be covered when cleaning and dealt only with approved chemical suppliers [41].
There are many potential chemical contaminations related to chocolate that can happen at any stage of the food chain, which includes the existence of environmental contaminants such as pesticides above the allowance level, as well as presence of food additives in dark chocolate or heavy metals or addition of food additives, which are not permitted for use by government regulations [50].
This type of contamination, either industrial contaminants or pesticides, is most commonly related to chocolate products in Africa, South America, and Asia [48]. Another study proved that some cocoa products exceed the European Union and Chinese Maximum Contaminant Level regarding arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury, which could affect human health [52].
Physical contamination of food is any food that contains a foreign object at any stage of the production process. That foreign substance causes health issues for consumers, such as broken teeth or choking [41]. There are many food products recalled every year because of physical contamination, which causes consumers health issues and costs less. There are many real examples from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 2016 product recall list such as “small metal shavings in apple coffee cakes, metal fragments in sugar used in Asian sauce, plastic mesh screen fragments in flour, and pieces of rubber in baby food” [53].
An example of physical contamination in almond processing is that, when the crop is ready for harvesting, the tree is shacked by a tractor machine, which leads to falling of almonds on the ground, which are left for many days to dry. Then, another machine sweeps them into rows so a harvester can pick them up with a series of belts. The almonds are cleaned by the machine and dumped into a bucket in the back of the truck. Then the truck is transferred to the industry to remove the shells and sticks and clean the product. The industry machines can be damaged and worn out, which could lead sometimes to the transfer of small pieces of that machinery into a package. This could include bolts and washers. Therefore, using technology in processing plants is an important role such as using X-rays and sensors and food metal detectors to identify any foreign substance to protect humans’ health [53].
Food allergies are an individual adverse reaction to some food. Food allergens are proteins that can be found in food in huge amounts [54]. Even a small amount of food is enough to impact a person who has a food allergy [41]. According to the Food Safety Authority of Ireland [55], there are 14 named allergens (Table 2).
Food allergen products | |
---|---|
1 | Cereals containing gluten such as wheat |
2 | Crustaceans and products thereof |
3 | Eggs and products thereof |
4 | Fish and products thereof |
5 | Peanuts and products thereof |
6 | Soybeans and products thereof |
7 | Milk and products thereof |
8 | Nuts, which are almonds, hazelnuts, walnuts, cashews, pecan nuts, Brazil nuts, pistachio nuts, macadamia or Queensland nuts, and products thereof |
9 | Celery and products thereof |
10 | Mustard and products thereof |
11 | Sesame seeds and products thereof |
12 | Sulfur dioxide and sulfites at concentrations of more than 10 mg/kg |
13 | Lupin and products thereof |
14 | Molluscs and products thereof |
Food allergies products.
Allergic food contamination can happen when food from the list of food allergies enters or contacts another food. An example of this is using the same container to store pasta that is already selected to store peanuts. Therefore, it must be ensured to deal only with approved suppliers who take critical control of allergenic contamination. Always separate tools, equipment, and clothes that are used for allergenic foods from other foods. Separate allergen in storage from other foods. Cleaning must be implemented properly in the area after the use of one of the 14 allergen products.
Many food safety concerns can be avoided when implementing an effective prerequisite program that includes cleaning and sanitation, staff training, maintenance, chemical control, waste management, and storage and transportation [56]. Hygiene must be implemented in the chocolate industry to provide safe products to protect consumers [57].
It should provide maintenance of food equipment and infrastructure; this can be done by regularly auditing all equipment used in the chocolate factory and fixing any problem, which could post hygiene issues and food safety. Also, hygiene must be maintained during maintenance and the equipment cleaned after that and sanitized before using it again, and the product carefully protected from any foreign body. For the infrastructure part, it should follow a regular check to protect the production area from any issues such as soil and dust to keep the environment safe and hygiene. Any repair must be done outside of production periods, but if that is not possible, a separation wall must be set to protect the production area [57].
Also, it must follow cleaning and disinfecting daily in the industry and removing any undesirable substances such as residues and foreign bodies, which could affect the hygiene of products or equipment. Also, it must separate chemical agents apart from food products to prevent cross-contamination, and all storage should be cleaned regularly [57].
In general, food industries, particularly the chocolate industry attracts insects and rodents through the odors as this place is seen as a great environment for insects because of the presence of food and water and shelter. Therefore, pest control must be implemented effectively, and auditing inspection should be followed regularly and correct any failure related to that. Moreover, it must protect the chocolate production from any contamination, so it should set rules for staff working and visitors such as regularly washing their hands and wearing gloves, mouth masks, hairnets, and clean disinfected clothing [57]. Regarding peanuts and other nuts, they should be segregated as much as possible. It should clean any machine correctly during changing from nut products to other products and must refer to the label that this industry is processing nuts. A further step that should be implemented is using a metal detector to ensure that the product is free from any foreign body such as plastic or other [58].
Furthermore, applying a Hazard Analytical Critical Control Point is required to prevent any type of contamination as this system is to reduce or prevent any risks early before it happens [56]. A Critical Control Point (CCP) is referred to as a step that can be applied, and it is a necessity to prevent or reduce food safety hazards. Most steps include a heating, cooking, or cooling stage. Examples of critical control points in chocolate production include roasting cocoa at temperatures between 105°C and 120°C and at specific times to eliminate pathogens. The further step is metal detection.
Also, there are many control points in chocolate production, for example:
Receiving, which is required visual inspection, and use of chemical-free materials
Splitting; use sanitized equipment and personal hygiene.
The fermentation that is required visual inspection, and regular maintenance of fermentation tanks.
Drying, which needs visual inspection, observation of time, and temperature.
Roasting is very important to follow the correct time and temperature to kill pathogens.
Grinding required also visual inspection and sanitization of equipment.
Coaching that includes visual inspection and proper maintenance of equipment.
Tempering—visual inspection, sanitized equipment
Molding—ensure molds are clean.
Packing—metal detection, food-grade inks, appropriate packaging materials, correct labeling [59].
In conclusion, cocoa is an important product globally as it provides many health benefits for people such as reducing the risk of heart disease, reducing blood pressure, and working as an anti-inflammatory substance. However, consuming too much could lead to many negative impacts on human health such as diabetes or overactivation for children because of the presence of caffeine and weak bone for elderly people, subsequently should avoid eating a lot of chocolate. Also, more research is needed to establish more health benefits. Chocolate is considered a low-risk product, but there are many contaminants linked to it, which could cause many health issues; therefore, good hygiene practices and the HACCP system should be followed to provide safe products.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\n\nDEFINITIONS
\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\n\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, a Scientific Article and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
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\n\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
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\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
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\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
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LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) | \n\t\t\t3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) | \n\t\t
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The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
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Looking back at the most recent papers, we will draw a review on this topic trying to answer to the question: could universal CMV screening be a useful and cost-effective diagnostic tool?",book:{id:"8728",slug:"update-on-critical-issues-on-infant-and-neonatal-care",title:"Update on Critical Issues on Infant and Neonatal Care",fullTitle:"Update on Critical Issues on Infant and Neonatal Care"},signatures:"Sara Lunardi, Francesca Lorenzoni and Paolo Ghirri",authors:null},{id:"44446",doi:"10.5772/54310",title:"Neonatal Pneumonia",slug:"neonatal-pneumonia",totalDownloads:14749,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"2990",slug:"neonatal-bacterial-infection",title:"Neonatal Bacterial Infection",fullTitle:"Neonatal Bacterial Infection"},signatures:"Friedrich Reiterer",authors:[{id:"152025",title:"Prof.",name:"Friedrich",middleName:null,surname:"Reiterer",slug:"friedrich-reiterer",fullName:"Friedrich Reiterer"}]},{id:"38034",doi:"10.5772/34698",title:"Maternal Socio-economic Status and Childhood Birth weight: A Health Survey in Ghana.",slug:"maternal-socio-economic-status-and-childhood-birth-weight-a-health-survey-in-ghana-",totalDownloads:3608,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"741",slug:"neonatal-care",title:"Neonatal Care",fullTitle:"Neonatal Care"},signatures:"Edward Nketiah-Amponsah, Aaron Abuosi and Eric Arthur",authors:[{id:"101268",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Nketiah-Amponsah",slug:"edward-nketiah-amponsah",fullName:"Edward Nketiah-Amponsah"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"44446",title:"Neonatal Pneumonia",slug:"neonatal-pneumonia",totalDownloads:14749,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"2990",slug:"neonatal-bacterial-infection",title:"Neonatal Bacterial Infection",fullTitle:"Neonatal Bacterial Infection"},signatures:"Friedrich Reiterer",authors:[{id:"152025",title:"Prof.",name:"Friedrich",middleName:null,surname:"Reiterer",slug:"friedrich-reiterer",fullName:"Friedrich Reiterer"}]},{id:"53683",title:"Pre and Postoperative Management of Pediatric Patients with Congenital Heart Diseases",slug:"pre-and-postoperative-management-of-pediatric-patients-with-congenital-heart-diseases",totalDownloads:4889,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Stabilization during preoperative cardiac surgery especially in neonates has an important role to predict outcome for pediatric congenital heart surgery. We tried to elaborate general guidelines on how to diagnose and some anticipations for emergency treatments tailored by the type of congenital heart disease in neonates. Stabilization consists of medical treatment including emergent prostaglandin institution in some types of duct dependent lesion. The role of interventional catheterization such as patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) stent, balloon pulmonary valvotomy, etc. as modalities for stabilization before surgery was also elaborated. Some general and specific guidelines based on the type of surgeries for postoperative management were also discussed.",book:{id:"5473",slug:"pediatric-and-neonatal-surgery",title:"Pediatric and Neonatal Surgery",fullTitle:"Pediatric and Neonatal Surgery"},signatures:"Eva Miranda Marwali, Beatrice Heineking and Nikolaus A. Haas",authors:[{id:"191397",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",middleName:"Miranda",surname:"Marwali",slug:"eva-marwali",fullName:"Eva Marwali"},{id:"191414",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolaus",middleName:null,surname:"Haas",slug:"nikolaus-haas",fullName:"Nikolaus Haas"},{id:"202373",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Heineking",slug:"beatrice-heineking",fullName:"Beatrice Heineking"}]},{id:"68042",title:"Neonatal Bacterial Meningitis",slug:"neonatal-bacterial-meningitis",totalDownloads:1178,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Despite improvements in neonatal intensive care, neonatal bacterial meningitis continues to be a serious disease with mortality rates varying between 10 and 15%. Additionally, long-term complications are observed among 20–50% of survivors, depending on time of diagnosis and therapy and virulence of the infecting pathogen. It is more common during the neonatal period than at any other age with the estimated incidence of 0.25 per 1000 live births. The absence of specific clinical presentation makes diagnosis of meningitis more difficult in neonates than in older children. Culture of cerebrospinal fluid is the traditional gold standard for diagnosis of bacterial meningitis, so all newborn infants with proven or suspected sepsis should undergo lumbar puncture. However, deciding when to perform lumbar puncture and interpretation of the results are challenging. Although the pathophysiology of neonatal meningitis is complex and not fully understood, researches on diagnostic and prognostic tools are ongoing. Prevention of neonatal sepsis, early recognition of infants at risk, development of novel, rapid diagnostics and adjunctive therapies, and appropriate and aggressive antimicrobial treatment to sterilize cerebrospinal fluid as soon as possible may prevent the lifelong squeal of bacterial meningitis in newborn infants.",book:{id:"7527",slug:"neonatal-medicine",title:"Neonatal Medicine",fullTitle:"Neonatal Medicine"},signatures:"Mehmet Şah İpek",authors:[{id:"267903",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mehmet Şah",middleName:null,surname:"İpek",slug:"mehmet-sah-ipek",fullName:"Mehmet Şah İpek"}]},{id:"71427",title:"Factors Influencing Maternal Decision-Making on Infant Feeding Practices",slug:"factors-influencing-maternal-decision-making-on-infant-feeding-practices",totalDownloads:984,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The decision to formula feed or breastfeed a child typically begins with an established prenatal intention. This chapter will examine the multiple dimensions influencing maternal decision-making in regards to the feeding practices of infants including 1) individual maternal characteristics, 2) organizational factors, 3) hospital/provider recommendations, and 4) systematic/policy factors. The chapter will also examine the impact of infant feeding practices on early infant and childhood health outcomes. Research has demonstrated the benefits of breastfeeding on infants and early childhood which includes but is not limited to protection against common illnesses and infections, improved IQ , and even increased school attendance. Moreover, the World Health Assembly global nutrition objectives focus on encouraging breastfeeding support across all sectors in addition to implementing tailored community-based approaches, limiting the excessive marketing of infant formula, and enforcing supportive breastfeeding legislation. The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the dynamic interplay between individual, interpersonal, community, and societal factors, such as policies that impact breastfeeding rates and more specifically the health of infants.",book:{id:"9805",slug:"infant-feeding-breast-versus-formula",title:"Infant Feeding",fullTitle:"Infant Feeding - Breast versus Formula"},signatures:"Whitney N. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"2",type:"subseries",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",keywords:"Osseointegration, Hard tissue, Peri-implant soft tissue, Restorative materials, Prosthesis design, Prosthesis, Patient satisfaction, Rehabilitation",scope:"