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Cabanelas",slug:"juan-c.-cabanelas"}]},{id:"36179",title:"Use of FTIR Analysis to Control the Self-Healing Functionality of Epoxy Resins",slug:"use-of-ft-ir-analysis-to-control-the-self-healing-functionality-of-epoxy-resins",signatures:"Liberata Guadagno and Marialuigia Raimondo",authors:[{id:"106836",title:"Prof.",name:"Liberata",middleName:null,surname:"Guadagno",fullName:"Liberata Guadagno",slug:"liberata-guadagno"}]},{id:"36180",title:"Infrared Analysis of Electrostatic Layer-By-Layer Polymer Membranes Having Characteristics of Heavy Metal Ion Desalination",slug:"infrared-analysis-of-electrostatic-layer-by-layer-polymer-membranes-having-characteristics-of-heavy",signatures:"Weimin Zhou, Huitan Fu and Takaomi Kobayashi",authors:[{id:"110384",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaomi",middleName:null,surname:"Kobayashi",fullName:"Takaomi Kobayashi",slug:"takaomi-kobayashi"}]},{id:"36181",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy as a Tool to Monitor Radiation Curing",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-as-a-tool-to-monitor-radiation-curing",signatures:"Marco Sangermano, Patrick Meier and Spiros Tzavalas",authors:[{id:"112286",title:"Dr.",name:"Spiros",middleName:null,surname:"Tzavalas",fullName:"Spiros Tzavalas",slug:"spiros-tzavalas"},{id:"114382",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Sangermano",fullName:"Marco Sangermano",slug:"marco-sangermano"},{id:"114384",title:"Dr",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Meier",fullName:"Patrick Meier",slug:"patrick-meier"}]},{id:"36182",title:"Characterization of Compositional Gradient Structure of Polymeric Materials by FTIR Technology",slug:"characterization-of-compositional-gradient-structure-of-polymeric-materials-by-ft-ir-technology",signatures:"Alata Hexig and Bayar Hexig",authors:[{id:"20867",title:"Dr.",name:"Bayar",middleName:null,surname:"Hexig",fullName:"Bayar Hexig",slug:"bayar-hexig"},{id:"111986",title:"Dr.",name:"Alata",middleName:null,surname:"Hexig",fullName:"Alata Hexig",slug:"alata-hexig"}]},{id:"36183",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy - Useful Analytical Tool for Non-Destructive Analysis",slug:"fourier-trasform-infrared-spectroscopy-useful-analytical-tool-for-non-destructive-analysis",signatures:"Simona-Carmen Litescu, Eugenia D. 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Morales and Sagrario Martínez-Ramírez",authors:[{id:"107401",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia J",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",fullName:"Lucia J Fernández",slug:"lucia-j-fernandez"}]},{id:"36185",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy Techniques in the Characterization of SOFC Functional Ceramics",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-techniques-in-the-characterization-of-sofc-functional-ceramics",signatures:"Daniel A. Macedo, Moisés R. Cesário, Graziele L. Souza, Beatriz Cela, Carlos A. Paskocimas, Antonio E. Martinelli, Dulce M. A. Melo and Rubens M. Nascimento",authors:[{id:"102015",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Macedo",fullName:"Daniel Macedo",slug:"daniel-macedo"},{id:"112309",title:"MSc",name:"Moisés",middleName:"Romolos",surname:"Cesário",fullName:"Moisés Cesário",slug:"moises-cesario"},{id:"112310",title:"Ms.",name:"Graziele",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",fullName:"Graziele Souza",slug:"graziele-souza"},{id:"112311",title:"MSc.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Cela",fullName:"Beatriz Cela",slug:"beatriz-cela"},{id:"112312",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Paskocimas",fullName:"Carlos Paskocimas",slug:"carlos-paskocimas"},{id:"112314",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Martinelli",fullName:"Antonio Martinelli",slug:"antonio-martinelli"},{id:"112315",title:"Prof.",name:"Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Melo",fullName:"Dulce Melo",slug:"dulce-melo"},{id:"112316",title:"Dr.",name:"Rubens",middleName:"Maribondo Do",surname:"Nascimento",fullName:"Rubens Nascimento",slug:"rubens-nascimento"}]},{id:"36186",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy of Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticles",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-functionalized-magnetic-nanoparticles",signatures:"Perla E. 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Rodriguez Gonzalez",slug:"claudia-a.-rodriguez-gonzalez"}]},{id:"36187",title:"Determination of Adsorption Characteristics of Volatile Organic Compounds Using Gas Phase FTIR Spectroscopy Flow Analysis",slug:"determination-of-adsorption-characteristics-of-volatile-organic-compounds-using-gas-phase-ftir-spect",signatures:"Tarik Chafik",authors:[{id:"107310",title:"Prof.",name:"Tarik",middleName:null,surname:"Chafik",fullName:"Tarik Chafik",slug:"tarik-chafik"}]},{id:"36188",title:"Identification of Rocket Motor Characteristics from Infrared Emission Spectra",slug:"identification-of-rocket-motor-characteristics-from-infrared-emission-spectra",signatures:"N. Hamp, J.H. Knoetze, C. Aldrich and C. 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1. Introduction
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The integrated circuits (ICs) operated at higher frequency are needed. For example, the transceivers operated in gigahertz (GHz) bands are the good candidate for the demand of faster data transmission [1]. CMOS technology is a promising way to implement the GHz integrated circuits with the advantages of high integration capability and low cost for mass production [2, 3]. However, the transistors in CMOS and even FinFET technologies are inherently susceptible to the electrostatic discharge (ESD) events [4, 5]. Once any transistor is damaged by ESD, it cannot be recovered, and the IC functionality will be lost. Therefore, the ESD protection design must be equipped on the chip. Nevertheless, the ESD protection devices cause the IC performance degradation. The ICs operated in GHz frequencies are very sensitive to the parasitic capacitance [6, 7]. To mitigate the performance degradation caused by ESD protection device, the low-capacitance (low-C) ESD protection designs are needed [8, 9].
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2. ESD protection requirement
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To adequately protect the ICs, the ESD protection circuit must shunt ESD current with limited voltage drop [10, 11, 12]. Figure 1 shows the ESD design window of an IC, which is defined by the power-supply voltage (VDD and VSS) and the breakdown voltage (VBD) of internal circuit. First, the internal circuit normally operates between VDD and VSS, and the ESD protection circuit cannot turn on in this normal circuit operation region. Second, the internal circuit causes failure beyond the positive or negative VBD, so the ESD protection circuit becomes invalid in this internal circuit failure region. Besides, it usually reserves some safety margin. Therefore, the ESD protection circuit must shunt ESD current with the voltage within ESD design window as shown in Figure 1. As ESD stresses at the I/O pad, the ESD protection circuit turns on at its trigger voltage (Vt1) and clamps to the holding voltage (Vh). The turn-on resistance (Ron) should be minimized to reduce the joule heat generated in the ESD protection circuit and enhance the current-handling ability, that is the secondary breakdown current (It2).
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Figure 1.
ESD design window.
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A typical method to enhance the current-handling ability is to widen the ESD device dimension; however, the large ESD protection device has too large parasitic capacitance to be tolerable for the high-frequency ICs. As shown in Figure 2(a), the parasitic capacitances seen at the input and output (I/O) pads cause signal loss to ground. The parasitic capacitances come from not only the ESD protection circuits but also the pads and the metal connections [13, 14]. If the parasitic capacitance increases, the signal loss dramatically increases at high frequency, as shown in Figure 2(b). To mitigate the performance degradation caused by the parasitic capacitance, the ESD protection circuit must carefully design. For example, a typical specification for the parasitic capacitance of input terminal of a gigahertz IC is 200fF [15].
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Figure 2.
(a) Parasitic capacitances seen at I/O pads cause signal loss to ground and (b) Simulated loss of parasitic capacitances.
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3. ESD protection strategy
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At an I/O pad of IC, it may be stressed by positive or negative ESD with grounded VDD or VSS. A whole-chip ESD protection design must provide the ESD current paths of all possible combinations, including the positive I/O-to-VDD (PD), positive I/O-to-VSS (PS), negative I/O-to-VDD (ND), and negative I/O-to-VSS (NS) [16]. Since the common ESD protection devices in CMOS technologies include diode, MOSFET, and silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), they are used to implement the ESD protection circuits [17]. To achieve the whole-chip ESD protection, three types of ESD protection schemes are introduced in this chapter.
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Type I ESD protection circuit uses one bidirectional ESD protection device between I/O pad and VSS and one bidirectional power-rail ESD clamp circuit between VDD and VSS, as shown in Figure 3(a). The bidirectional ESD protection device could be an NMOS or SCR device. Both PS and NS ESD currents can be discharged through the ESD protection device. Besides, PD and ND ESD currents can be discharged through the ESD protection device and the power-rail ESD clamp circuit.
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Figure 3.
ESD protection schemes: (a) type I, (b) type II, and (c) type III.
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Type II ESD protection circuit uses two unidirectional ESD protection devices from I/O pad to VDD and from VSS to I/O pad, respectively, and one bidirectional power-rail ESD clamp circuit between VDD and VSS, as shown in Figure 3(b). The unidirectional ESD protection device was a diode. Both PD and NS ESD currents can be discharged through one unidirectional ESD protection device. For the PS and ND ESD currents, they can be discharged through one ESD protection device and the power-rail ESD clamp circuit.
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Type III ESD protection circuit uses a two-branched ESD protection device and an unidirectional ESD protection device between I/O pad and VSS and one bidirectional power-rail ESD clamp circuit between VDD and VSS, as shown in Figure 3(c). The two-branched ESD protection device was usually an SCR device. The PS and PD ESD currents can be discharged through the two-branched ESD protection device, and NS and ND ESD currents can be discharged through the unidirectional ESD protection device and the power-rail ESD clamp circuit.
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All the ESD protection devices at I/O pad should be shrunk to lower the parasitic capacitance, while the power-rail ESD clamp circuit could be as large as possible. The large-sized power-rail ESD clamp circuit can help to reduce Ron during ESD current discharging, but it will not cause the parasitic capacitance to the I/O pad.
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4. ESD protection circuit design: Type I
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A common ESD protection circuit used in CMOS technology is the grounded-gate NMOS (GGNMOS), as shown in Figure 4(a) [18, 19]. In this ESD protection circuit, the NMOS’s gate is grounded to keep it off during normal circuit operation. The GGNMOS turns on as the positive voltage excursions above the trigger voltage (Vt1). Figure 5 shows the positive I-V curve of a GGNMOS in 0.18 μm CMOS technology, which is measured by a transmission-line-pulsing (TLP) system. The TLP system with a 10 ns rise time and a 100 ns pulse width is used to investigate the turn-on behavior and the I-V characteristics in high-current regions of the test devices [20]. The trigger voltage (Vt1), holding voltage (Vh), and secondary breakdown current (It2) of test devices in the time domain of HBM ESD event can be extracted from the TLP-measured I-V curves. This GGMOS triggers on at 5.6 V, snapbacks to 4.0 V, and discharges ESD current until 1.1A. The GGNMOS with the help of parasitic junction diode turns on as the I/O voltage excursions below the VSS voltage.
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Figure 4.
(a) ESD protection circuit with GGNMOS. Device cross-sectional view of (b) GGNMOS and (c) GGNMOS with additional N-well.
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Figure 5.
TLP-measured I-V curve of a GGNMOS (W = 120 μm) in 0.18 μm CMOS technology.
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The GGNMOS is generally drawn in the multi-finger structure with central drain to save total layout area [21]. Figure 4(b) shows the device cross-sectional view of a single-finger GGNMOS. The multi-finger structure can be realized by combining such single-finger structures with sharing drain and source regions between every two adjacent fingers. For the high-frequency applications, the parasitic capacitance of GGNMOS has to be considered. For a given drain width (Wn) and length (Ln), the total capacitance of a GGNMOS (Cn) is given by the drain-gate overlap capacitance (Coverlap), the N+/P-well bottom junction capacitance (Cj), and the N+/P-well sidewall capacitance (Cjsw), according to the following equation:
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All the parasitic capacitance (Coverlap, Cj, and Cjsw) are given by the process. Besides the drain width, the Ln strongly affects the total capacitance. For high-frequency applications, the Ln needs to be optimized by reducing the contact rows, the enclosure of contacts, and the extension of silicide [22, 23]. Also the extension of silicide on drain side increases the ESD robustness of GGNMOS, it implies a larger junction area and thus induces additional parasitic capacitance of the N+/P-well bottom junction. Therefore, a trade-off between the ESD robustness and the parasitic capacitance has to be found. A possible solution to reduce the bottom capacitance with the given Ln is to use an N-well implant below the N+ drain, as shown in Figure 4(c). Most of the bottom N+/P-well capacitance is then replaced by an N-well/P-well sidewall capacitance and N-well/P-substrate bottom capacitance.
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Instead of GGNMOS, gate-coupled NMOS and substrate-coupled NMOS have also been used as ESD protection circuit [24]. However, the parasitic capacitance of MOS-based ESD protection device is usually too large to be tolerable for the high-frequency circuits.
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An alternative ESD protection device used in Type I ESD protection circuit is a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) [25]. The SCR device has been reported to be useful for ESD protection in high-frequency circuits due to its higher ESD robustness within a smaller layout area and lower parasitic capacitance [22]. Besides, the SCR device can be safely used without latchup danger in advanced CMOS technologies with low supply voltage [26]. The equivalent circuit of the SCR consists of a PNP BJT and an NPN BJT, as shown in Figure 6(a). As ESD zapping from I/O to VSS, the positive-feedback regenerative mechanism of PNP and NPN results in the SCR device highly conductive to make SCR very robust against ESD stresses. The device structure of the SCR device is illustrated in Figure 6(b). The I/O pad is connected to the first P+ and the pickup N+, which is formed in the N-well. The VSS pad is connected to the second N+ and the pickup P+, which are formed in the nearby P-well. The SCR path between I/O and VSS consists of P+, N-well, P-well, and N+. Besides, the parasitic diode path from VSS to I/O consists of P-well and N-well. The SCR with the help of P-well/N-well junction diode turns on as the I/O voltage excursions below the VSS voltage.
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Figure 6.
(a) ESD protection circuit with SCR. Device cross-sectional view of (b) STI-bounded SCR and (c) gate-bounded SCR.
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Figure 7 shows the TLP-measured positive I-V curve of an SCR in 0.18 μm CMOS technology. This SCR triggers on at 16.7 V, snapbacks to 2.1 V, and discharges ESD current until 9.5A. The main drawback of SCR device is the higher trigger voltage and thus the slower turn-on speed. Research works have demonstrated that separation of the N-well and P-well junction can play an important role. The typical SCR device uses the shallow trench isolation (STI) to separate the N-well and P-well. To reduce the trigger voltage of an SCR device, a gate-bounded SCR has been reported, as shown in Figure 6(c) [27].
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Figure 7.
TLP-measured I-V curve of an SCR (W = 120 μm) in 0.18 μm CMOS technology.
\n
Another alternative method to reduce the trigger voltage of an SCR device uses the substrate-triggered technique. The trigger signal can be sent into the base terminal of PNP or NPN to enhance the turn-on speed. Some circuit design techniques are reported to enhance the turn-on efficiency of SCR devices, such as the gate-coupled, substrate-triggered, diode-triggered, and gate-grounded-NMOS-triggered (GGNMOS-triggered) techniques [28, 29, 30]. Figure 8(a) shows the schematic of a GGNMOS-triggered SCR device, and Figure 8(b) shows its device cross-sectional view. The GGNMOS is connected between the second N+ in the N-well and VSS. The trigger current is drawn from the N-well (base of PNP) to VSS through the GGNMOS. Similarly, the trigger device can be connected between I/O pad and the base and NPN, but the trigger device will also add the parasitic capacitance to I/O. A diode string could also be used as the trigger device, and its parasitic capacitance is lower than the GGNMOS.
\n
Figure 8.
(a) ESD protection circuit with GGNMOS-triggered SCR and (b) device cross-sectional view of GGNMOS-triggered SCR.
\n
Recently, an inductor-assisted diode-triggered SCR (LASCR) has been presented to further reduce the parasitic capacitance [31]. As shown in Figure 9, the LASCR consists of an SCR, an inductor, and a diode string. The ESD current path from I/O to VSS consists of P+/N-well/P-well/N+ SCR. The diode string drawn the trigger current from the N-well (base of PNP) to VSS is used to enhance the turn-on efficiency of SCR. As the I/O voltage excursions below the VSS voltage, the ESD current path consists of P-well/N-well diode and inductor.
\n
Figure 9.
(a) ESD protection circuit with LASCR and (b) device cross-sectional view of LASCR.
\n
Under normal circuit operating condition, the inductor can resonate with the parasitic capacitance, and hence the signal loss can be compensated. Once the dimension of SCR has been chosen, the inductance (L) can be designed to minimize the high-frequency performance degradation by using the following equation:
\n
\n
\n
where CP+/N-well is the parasitic capacitance of P+/N-well junction, and fo is the operating frequency. For example, the dimension of SCR is selected to be 30 μm, and the CP+/N-well in a 0.18 μm CMOS process is ∼60fF around 30GHz. Therefore, the required L for 30GHz applications is 460pH.
\n
Figure 10(a) shows the TLP-measured I-V curves of LASCR with 3 and 5 diodes in diode string (LASCR_3D and LASCR_5D) in a 0.18 μm CMOS process. The LASCR_3D triggers on at 5.2 V, snapbacks to 2.9 V, and discharges ESD current until 2.4A, while LASCR_5D triggers on at 7.6 V, snapbacks to 2.9 V, and discharges ESD current until 2.1A. The trigger voltage can be adjusted by adding or reducing the diode numbers. The holding voltage of both LASCR devices exceed VDD (1.8 V in the given CMOS process), which is safe from latchup event.
\n
Figure 10.
(a) TLP-measured I-V curves and (b) loss of LASCR (W = 30 μm) with 3 and 5 trigger diodes in 0.18 μm CMOS technology.
\n
The signal losses of both LASCR devices are measured through the on-wafer two-port measurement. The measured loss versus frequencies of both LASCR devices is shown in Figure 10(b). The LASCR devices exhibit sufficiently low loss even if the frequency is up to 30GHz. Therefore, LASCR can be a good solution for ESD protection of high-speed applications.
\n
\n
\n
5. ESD protection circuit design: Type II
\n
Diode is a typical ESD protection device with unidirectional discharging path [32, 33]. A dual-diode ESD protection circuit for high-frequency applications is shown in Figure 11(a), where two ESD diodes at I/O pad are cooperated with the turn-on efficient power-rail ESD clamp circuit to discharge ESD current in the forward-biased condition [13, 34].
\n
Figure 11.
(a) ESD protection circuit with diodes. Device cross-sectional view of (b) STI-bounded P+/N-well diode, (c) STI-bounded N+/P-well diode, (d) gate-bounded P+/N-well diode, and (e) gate-bounded N+/P-well diode.
\n
In the CMOS process, the choice for ESD protection diodes includes P+/N-well, N+/P-well, and N-well/P-well diodes. The P+/N-well diode, as shown in Figure 11(b), is used between I/O pad and VDD. For the N-well/P-well diode, it may occupy larger layout area than the N+/P-well diode. Thus, the N+/P-well diode, as shown in Figure 11(c), is used between VSS and I/O pad.
\n
The typical diodes use the STI to separate the PN junctions. Besides the STI-bounded diodes, the gate-bounded diodes have been reported, as shown in Figure 11(d) and (e). The gate-bounded diodes were introduced by Voldman in order to improve the ESD robustness of STI bounded diodes [35].
\n
In order to reduce the parasitic capacitance or provide the large signal-swing tolerance, the ESD protection diodes in stacked configuration have been presented [36, 37], as shown in Figure 12(a). The device cross-sectional views of the conventional stacked diodes are shown in Figure 12(b) and (c). Two P+/N-well diodes (stacked P diodes) can apply to I/O-to-VDD, and two N+/P-well diodes (stacked N diodes) can apply to VSS-to-I/O, as shown in Figure 12(b) and (c), respectively. With the stacked diodes, the junction capacitances are connected in series, and the overall parasitic capacitance becomes smaller. However, the stacked configuration is adverse to ESD protection because the overall turn-on resistance and the clamping voltage of the stacked diodes during ESD stresses are increased as well.
\n
Figure 12.
ESD protection circuit with stacked diodes. (a) ESD protection circuit with stacked diodes. Device cross-sectional view of (b) stacked P+/N-well diode and (c) stacked N+/P-well diode.
\n
For effective ESD protection, the stacked diodes with embedded SCR (SDSCR) have been presented [38, 39]. The SCR device has been reported to be useful for ESD protection with low turn-on resistance, low parasitic effects, and high ESD robustness. The stacked diodes with embedded SCR are illustrated in Figure 13. In this design, a P+/N-well diode and an N+/P-well diode are stacked, and a P+/N-well/P-well/N+ SCR is embedded to form the ESD current path. A deep N-well structure is used to isolate the P-well region from the common P-substrate, so the SDSCR can apply to I/O-to-VDD or VSS-to-I/O. In the beginning of ESD stress, the initial current will be discharged through the stacked diodes, and then the primary current will be discharged through the embedded SCR. The stacked diodes also play the role of trigger circuit of SCR, because the current drawn from N-well and injected into P-well can also trigger the PNP and the NPN of SCR. Figure 14 shows the TLP-measured I-V curves of P+/N-well diode (DP), stacked P+/N-well diodes (SDP), and stacked diodes with embedded SCR (SDSCR) in a 0.18 μm CMOS process. We can find that turn-on resistance or the clamping voltage of single diode is much lower than that of the stacked diodes. The embedded SCR can help to slightly reduce the turn-on resistance and the clamping voltage of the stacked diodes. In fact, some layout skills can be used to further improve the turn-on efficient of the stacked diodes with embedded SCR [40].
\n
Figure 13.
(a) ESD protection circuit with SDSCR and (b) device cross-sectional view of SDSCR.
\n
Figure 14.
TLP-measured I-V curves of DP, SDP, and SDSCR (W = 20 μm) in 0.18 μm CMOS technology.
\n
Recently, a similar structure of the stacked diodes with embedded SCR, where a resistor uses to separate two diodes, has been reported [41]. The resistor acts as the trigger element of SCR, so the device is named resistor-triggered SCR (RTSCR). Figure 15(a) and (b) shows the schematic and the device cross-sectional view of RTSCR. The resistor can also reduce the parasitic capacitance of the ESD protection circuit. Considering the simplified SCR model by using junction capacitances, as shown in Figure 15(c), the equivalent capacitance seen at anode or cathode of RTSCR can be calculated by the following equation:
(a) ESD protection circuit with RTSCR. (b) device cross-sectional view and (c) simplified model of RTSCR.
\n
where YRTSCR denotes the admittance of the RTSCR, RT is the resistance, and CP+/N-Well, CP-Well/N-Well(Deep N-Well) and CP-Well/N+ denote the junction capacitances. To simplify the above equation, the junction capacitance is rewritten to CJ, and then the parasitic capacitance of the RTSCR can be expressed by the following equation:
It can be noted that the parasitic capacitance of the RTSCR can be reduced by adding the resistor. Generally, the capacitance reduction of RTSCR can be up to 30%. Therefore, the ESD protection circuit with dual RTSCRs can be used for high-frequency applications.
\n
\n
\n
6. ESD protection circuit design: Type III
\n
Figure 16(a) shows another SCR-based ESD protection circuit [13]. The typical SCR device in CMOS process consists of P+, N-well, P-well, and N+. Instead of connecting the N-well to I/O pad, connecting the N-well to VDD avoids the parasitic capacitance or noise coupling from P-substrate or P-well to N-well and I/O [42]. As shown in Figure 16(b), the I/O pad is connected to the first P+, which is formed in the N-well. The pickup N+ in the N-well is biased to VDD. The VSS pad is connected to the second N+ and the pickup P+, which are formed in the nearby P-well. The SCR path between I/O and VSS consists of P+, N-well, P-well, and N+. Besides, the parasitic diode path from I/O to VDD consists of P+ and N-well. In this structure, the PS and the PD ESD currents can be discharged through the SCR path and its parasitic diode path. The NS and the ND ESD currents need reverse diode and power-rail ESD clamp circuit to form their discharging paths.
\n
Figure 16.
(a) ESD protection circuit with SCR and diode and (b) device cross-sectional view of SCR and diode.
\n
The SCR device in this ESD protection circuit still has the drawbacks of higher trigger voltage and the slower turn-on speed. The circuit design techniques, including the gate-coupled, substrate-triggered, diode-triggered, and GGNMOS-triggered techniques can be used to enhance the turn-on efficiency of SCR device. Of course, the capacitive triggering device increases the total parasitic capacitance seen at the I/O pad, even if the triggering device is not directly connected to I/O. Recently, an SCR device with inductive triggering device has been presented [43]. That inductor-triggered SCR (LTSCR) is proposed for ESD protection of high-frequency applications to achieve low high-frequency performance degradation, low trigger voltage, and high ESD robustness. In this design, the inductor provides a current path to trigger the SCR device, and it can also compensate the parasitic capacitance of ESD protection devices.
\n
Figure 17(a) shows the ESD protection circuit with an LTSCR and a reverse diode. This design consists of an SCR device and a reverse diode as the main ESD current path, and an inductor (Ltrig), a MOS transistor (Mtrig), and an RC-based ESD detection circuit as the trigger circuit. The initial-on PMOS transistor is selected for Mtrig to quickly pass the trigger current to SCR device [44]. The positive and negative ESD current discharging paths for the I/O pad are provided by the SCR and the reverse diode. Figure 17(b) shows the device cross-sectional view of inductor-triggered SCR. Under ESD stress conditions, the inductor and PMOS are used to provide the trigger path between the I/O pad and the base of NPN of the SCR device. When the trigger current is sent into the base of NPN of the SCR device, the SCR device can be quickly triggered on to discharge the ESD current from the I/O pad to VSS. The ESD detection circuit usually uses RC timer to distinguish the ESD-stress conditions from the normal circuit operating conditions, and the PMOS transistor is well controlled to turn on or off by the ESD detection circuit. Under normal circuit operating conditions, the inductor can compensate the parasitic capacitance of SCR and diode.
\n
Figure 17.
ESD protection circuit with LTSCR and reverse diode. (a) ESD protection circuit with LTSCR and reverse diode and (b) device cross-sectional view of LTSCR and reverse diode.
\n
In this circuit, the dimensions of the inductor (Ltrig), PMOS transistor (Mtrig), SCR device, and reverse diode can be designed to minimize the high-frequency performance degradation. Since the capacitor used in power-rail ESD clamp circuit is large enough to keep the node between R and C at AC ground under normal circuit operating conditions, the impedance of the trigger path (Ztrig) seen at the I/O pad to ground can be calculated as:
where Ctrig is the sum of gate-to-source, gate-to-body, and drain-to-body capacitances of the PMOS. The resonance angular frequency (ωo) can be obtained by
where ωo is designed to be the operating frequency, and CESD is the parasitic capacitance contributed by the SCR and diode. The sizes of SCR and diode depend on the required ESD robustness, while the size of Mtrig transistor depends on the required trigger current. Once the sizes of Mtrig transistor, SCR, and diode have been chosen, the required inductance (Ltrig) can be determined.
\n
\n
\n
7. Conclusion
\n
A comprehensive review in the field of ESD protection design for high-frequency integrated circuits is presented in this chapter. Besides improving the ESD robustness, the parasitic effects from ESD protection devices must be minimized or canceled to optimize the high-frequency performance simultaneously. Furthermore, the ESD protection circuits and high-frequency circuits can be co-designed to achieve both good circuit performance and high ESD robustness. The on-chip ESD protection designs for high-frequency circuits will be continuously an important design task in CMOS technology.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"CMOS, ESD protection, high frequency, high speed, low capacitance",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66524.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66524.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66524",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66524",totalDownloads:1670,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"January 3rd 2019",dateReviewed:"March 4th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 9th 2019",datePublished:"October 2nd 2019",dateFinished:"April 2nd 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Electrostatic discharge (ESD) protection design is needed for integrated circuits in CMOS technology. The choice for ESD protection devices in the CMOS technology includes diode, MOSFET, and silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). These ESD protection devices cause signal losses at high-frequency input/output (I/O) pads due to the parasitic capacitance. To minimize the impacts from ESD protection circuit on high-frequency performances, ESD protection circuit at I/O pads must be carefully designed. A review on ESD protection designs with low parasitic capacitance for high-frequency applications in CMOS technology is presented in this chapter. With the reduced parasitic capacitance, ESD protection circuit can be easily combined or co-designed with high-frequency circuits. As the operating frequencies of high-frequency circuits increase, on-chip ESD protection designs for high-frequency applications will continuously be an important design task.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66524",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66524",signatures:"Chun-Yu Lin",book:{id:"8856",type:"book",title:"Electrostatic Discharge",subtitle:"From Electrical breakdown in Micro-gaps to Nano-generators",fullTitle:"Electrostatic Discharge - From Electrical breakdown in Micro-gaps to Nano-generators",slug:"electrostatic-discharge-from-electrical-breakdown-in-micro-gaps-to-nano-generators",publishedDate:"October 2nd 2019",bookSignature:"Steven H. Voldman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8856.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78984-897-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-896-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-265-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"207997",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",middleName:null,surname:"Voldman",slug:"steven-voldman",fullName:"Steven Voldman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. ESD protection requirement",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. ESD protection strategy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. ESD protection circuit design: Type I",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. ESD protection circuit design: Type II",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. ESD protection circuit design: Type III",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Rangan S, Rappaport T, Erkip E. 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IEEE Electron Device Letters. 2017;38:712-715\n'},{id:"B42",body:'Afzali-Kusha A, Nagata M, Verghese N, Allstot D. Substrate noise coupling in SoC design: Modeling, avoidance, and validation. Proceedings of the IEEE. 2006;94:2109-2138\n'},{id:"B43",body:'Lin C, Chu L, Ker M. ESD protection design for 60-GHz LNA with inductor-triggered SCR in 65-nm CMOS process. IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques. 2012;60:714-723\n'},{id:"B44",body:'Ker M, Chen S. Implementation of initial-on ESD protection concept with PMOS-triggered SCR devices in deep-submicron CMOS technology. IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits. 2007;42:1158-1168\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Chun-Yu Lin",address:"cy.lin@ieee.org",affiliation:'
Department of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"8856",type:"book",title:"Electrostatic Discharge",subtitle:"From Electrical breakdown in Micro-gaps to Nano-generators",fullTitle:"Electrostatic Discharge - From Electrical breakdown in Micro-gaps to Nano-generators",slug:"electrostatic-discharge-from-electrical-breakdown-in-micro-gaps-to-nano-generators",publishedDate:"October 2nd 2019",bookSignature:"Steven H. 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Head of Marine Sciences Department at INOCAR and Executive Secretary of the Ecuadorian Antarctic Programme (1997-2003). Regional Coordinator of ODINCARSA-IOC-UNESCO (2001-2009). CIIFEN Scientific Coordinator (2004-2015). CIIFEN International Director (2015-2019). Coordinator of several regional projects and activities related with Climate Risk management, early warning, information and data management, climate applications and adaptation. Main Research area: ENSO regional impacts in the Eastern Pacific, risk/adaptation management and climate user interface development. Coordinator of 32 regional training courses, participation as author or coauthor in 52 publications and lecturer on more than 82 international conferences. Member of CLIVAR Pacific Panel (2005-2012). Co-Chair of the Open Program Area of Climate Experts on Climate Information for Risk Management and Adaptation from the Commission of Climatology-World Meteorological Organization (2010-2019). Member of the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme (2013-2018). Member of the Steering Committee of the Global Climate Observing System (2015-2019). \nhttps://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rodney_Martinez \nRodney Martínez, Representante de la OMM para Norteamérica, Centroamérica y el Caribe\nOficial de la Armada del Ecuador en Servicio Pasivo, Oceanógrafo con Postgrado en gestión de proyectos para el Desarrollo. Jefe del Departamento de Ciencias del Mar de INOCAR y Secretario Ejecutivo del Programa Antártico Ecuatoriano (1997-2003). Coordinador Regional de la red de ODINCARSA COI-UNESCO (2001-2009). Coordinador científico del CIIFEN (2004-2015). Director Internacional del CIIFEN (2015-2019). Coordinador de varios proyectos regionales y actividades relacionadas con Gestión de Riesgo climático, alerta temprana, gestión de datos e información, servicios y aplicaciones climáticas y adaptación. Áreas de investigación principal: Impactos regionales del ENSO en el Pacífico Oriental, gestión de riesgo y adaptación y desarrollo de interfaces con usuarios de información climática. Coordinador de 32 cursos regionales de entrenamiento, autor o coautor de 52 publicaciones y Conferencista invitado en 82 conferencias internacionales. Miembro del Panel de CLIVAR para el Pacífico (2005-2012). Miembro de la Comisión de Climatología de la OMM: Información climática para la gestión de riesgo y adaptación (2005-2019). Miembro del Comité Directivo del Programa Mundial de Investigación del Clima WCRP (2013-2018) y Miembro del Comité Científico del Sistema Mundial de Observación del Clima GCOS (2005-2019).\nhttps://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rodney_Martinez",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"World Meteorological Organization",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}},{id:"149658",title:"Dr.",name:"Audrius",surname:"Banaitis",slug:"audrius-banaitis",fullName:"Audrius Banaitis",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Vilnius Gediminas Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}},{id:"149929",title:"Dr",name:"Robert Elliot",surname:"Allinson",slug:"robert-elliot-allinson",fullName:"Robert Elliot Allinson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"159189",title:"Dr.",name:"Debbie",surname:"Hemming",slug:"debbie-hemming",fullName:"Debbie Hemming",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Met Office",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"159190",title:"Mrs.",name:"Leslie",surname:"Malone",slug:"leslie-malone",fullName:"Leslie Malone",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Meteorologist with Environment Canada, from early years in weather forecasting , through climate analysis and data homogeneity, and on to international activities. 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At present, China ranks first in bamboo research worldwide, because of numerous research units and strong technical force. This chapter focuses on the utilization of bamboo resources such as food, roofs and walls of houses, fences, and domestic and agricultural implements such as water containers, food and drink container hats, arrows, quiver, etc. A total of 861 species and infraspecific taxa belonging to 43 genera have been reported and include 707 species, 52 varieties, 98 forma, and 4 hybrids, which are naturally distributed in 21 provinces. The national bamboo forest covers 6.01 million ha, including 4.43 million ha of Moso bamboo and 1.58 million ha of other bamboo species. As the country develops and new economic activities emerge, bamboo production has shifted from harsh processing, such as bamboo basket, to finished machining, such as bamboo flooring. The bamboo industry has attracted new opportunities as a new energy source, particularly renewable energy, and may be considered a lignocellulose substrate for bioethanol production because of its environmental benefits and high annual biomass yield.",book:{id:"5812",slug:"bamboo-current-and-future-prospects",title:"Bamboo",fullTitle:"Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Weiyi Liu, Chaomao Hui, Fang Wang, Meng Wang and Guanglu Liu",authors:[{id:"218573",title:"Dr.",name:"Liu",middleName:null,surname:"Weiyi",slug:"liu-weiyi",fullName:"Liu Weiyi"},{id:"218577",title:"Prof.",name:"Hui",middleName:null,surname:"Chaomao",slug:"hui-chaomao",fullName:"Hui Chaomao"},{id:"221875",title:"Dr.",name:"Fang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"fang-wang",fullName:"Fang Wang"}]},{id:"61253",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76359",title:"Bamboo, Its Chemical Modification and Products",slug:"bamboo-its-chemical-modification-and-products",totalDownloads:2714,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Bamboo, a perennial woody grass belonging to Gramineae family and Bambuseae subfamily, is ubiquitous in many parts of the world. This biomass possesses high potential as a substitute for many lignocellulosic and non-lignocellulosic materials in various capacities of applications owing to its chemical composition as well as its physical properties. Its abundance, chemical composition and numerous applications are reviewed in this work. This chapter also examined some investigated chemical modifications through alkali hydrolysis, acid hydrolysis, coupling to enhance properties of bamboo fibre for specialised applications.",book:{id:"5812",slug:"bamboo-current-and-future-prospects",title:"Bamboo",fullTitle:"Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Mayowa Akeem Azeez and Joshua Iseoluwa Orege",authors:[{id:"197473",title:"Dr.",name:"Mayowa Akeem",middleName:null,surname:"Azeez",slug:"mayowa-akeem-azeez",fullName:"Mayowa Akeem Azeez"},{id:"249430",title:"Mr.",name:"Joshua Iseoluwa",middleName:null,surname:"Orege",slug:"joshua-iseoluwa-orege",fullName:"Joshua Iseoluwa Orege"}]},{id:"60430",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75626",title:"The Use of Bamboo for Erosion Control and Slope Stabilization: Soil Bioengineering Works",slug:"the-use-of-bamboo-for-erosion-control-and-slope-stabilization-soil-bioengineering-works",totalDownloads:3007,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The potential of bamboo in erosion control and slope stabilization has been proven worldwide. Bamboos are being used as living plants as well as construction material in different soil bioengineering techniques in many countries. The soil and water bioengineering approach is combined with bamboo traits and mechanical properties. The existing accumulated experiences of using bamboo in soil and water bioengineering works, along with the existing standards and design guidelines, make bamboo species an essential and cost-effective material for erosion control and slope stabilization works. In this chapter, all the necessary aspects to be taken into account for an appropriate use of bamboo in soil bioengineering works are addressed, and the design approaches for soil bioengineering works using bamboos are presented.",book:{id:"5812",slug:"bamboo-current-and-future-prospects",title:"Bamboo",fullTitle:"Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Guillermo Tardio, Slobodan B. Mickovski, Hans Peter Rauch, Joao\nPaulo Fernandes and Madhu Sudan Acharya",authors:[{id:"221706",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Tardio",slug:"guillermo-tardio",fullName:"Guillermo Tardio"},{id:"225058",title:"Dr.",name:"Slobodan B.",middleName:null,surname:"Mickovski",slug:"slobodan-b.-mickovski",fullName:"Slobodan B. Mickovski"},{id:"225059",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Fenandes",slug:"joao-paulo-fenandes",fullName:"Joao Paulo Fenandes"},{id:"225061",title:"Dr.",name:"Johann Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Rauch",slug:"johann-peter-rauch",fullName:"Johann Peter Rauch"}]},{id:"60797",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76463",title:"A Review of Bambusicolous Ascomycetes",slug:"a-review-of-bambusicolous-ascomycetes",totalDownloads:1572,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Bamboo with more than 1500 species is a giant grass and was distributed worldwide. Their culms and leaves are inhabited by abundant microfungi. A documentary investigation points out that more than 1300 fungi including 150 basidiomycetes and 800 ascomycetous species with 240 hyphomycetous taxa and 110 coelomycetous taxa are associated with bamboo. Ascomycetes are the largest group with totally 1150 species. Families Xylariaceae and Hypocreaceae, which are most represented, have 74 species and 63 species in 18 and 14 genera, respectively, known from bamboo. The genus Phyllachora with a maximum number of species (22) occurs on bamboo, followed by Nectria (21) and Hypoxylon (20). The most represented host genera Bambusa, Phyllostachys, and Sasa are associated by 268, 186, and 105 fungal species, respectively. The brief review of major morphology and phylogeny of bambusicolous ascomycetes is provided, as well as research prospects.",book:{id:"5812",slug:"bamboo-current-and-future-prospects",title:"Bamboo",fullTitle:"Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Dong-Qin Dai, Li-Zhou Tang and Hai-Bo Wang",authors:[{id:"219411",title:"Dr.",name:"Dong-Qin",middleName:null,surname:"Dai",slug:"dong-qin-dai",fullName:"Dong-Qin Dai"},{id:"228691",title:"Prof.",name:"Li-Zhou",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"li-zhou-tang",fullName:"Li-Zhou Tang"},{id:"228708",title:"Prof.",name:"Hai-Bo",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"hai-bo-wang",fullName:"Hai-Bo Wang"}]},{id:"70724",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90747",title:"Effects of Fire on Grassland Soils and Water: A Review",slug:"effects-of-fire-on-grassland-soils-and-water-a-review",totalDownloads:1099,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Grasslands occur on all of the continents. They collectively constitute the largest ecosystem in the world, making up 40.5% of the terrestrial land area, excluding Greenland and Antarctica. Grasslands are not entirely natural because they have formed and developed under natural and anthropogenic pressures. Their importance now is to the variety of ecosystem services that they provide: livestock grazing areas, water catchments, biodiversity reserves, tourism sites, recreation areas, religious sites, wild food sources, and natural medicine sources. An important function of grasslands is their sequestration and storage of carbon (C). Mollisol soils of grasslands have deep organic matter horizons that make this vegetation type almost as important as forests for C fixation and storage. Fire has been and continues to be an important disturbance in grassland evolution and management. Natural wildfires have been a component of grasslands for over 300 million years and were important in creating and maintaining most of these ecosystems. Humans ignited fires over many millennia to improve habitat for animals and livestock. Prescribed fire practiced by humans is a component of modern grassland management. The incidence of wildfires in grasslands continues to grow as an issue as droughts persist in semi-arid regions. Knowledge of fire effects on grasslands has risen in importance to land managers because fire, as a disturbance process, is an integral part of the concept of ecosystem management and restoration ecology. Fire is an intrusive disturbance in both managed and wildland forests and grasslands. It initiates changes in ecosystems that affect the composition, structure, and patterns of vegetation on the landscape. It also affects the soil and water resources of ecosystems that are critical to overall ecosystem functions and processes.",book:{id:"8088",slug:"grasses-and-grassland-aspects",title:"Grasses and Grassland Aspects",fullTitle:"Grasses and Grassland Aspects"},signatures:"Daniel George Neary and Jackson McMichael Leonard",authors:[{id:"40845",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel G.",middleName:"George",surname:"Neary",slug:"daniel-g.-neary",fullName:"Daniel G. Neary"},{id:"276254",title:"Dr.",name:"Jackson",middleName:null,surname:"Leonard",slug:"jackson-leonard",fullName:"Jackson Leonard"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"61253",title:"Bamboo, Its Chemical Modification and Products",slug:"bamboo-its-chemical-modification-and-products",totalDownloads:2710,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Bamboo, a perennial woody grass belonging to Gramineae family and Bambuseae subfamily, is ubiquitous in many parts of the world. This biomass possesses high potential as a substitute for many lignocellulosic and non-lignocellulosic materials in various capacities of applications owing to its chemical composition as well as its physical properties. Its abundance, chemical composition and numerous applications are reviewed in this work. This chapter also examined some investigated chemical modifications through alkali hydrolysis, acid hydrolysis, coupling to enhance properties of bamboo fibre for specialised applications.",book:{id:"5812",slug:"bamboo-current-and-future-prospects",title:"Bamboo",fullTitle:"Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Mayowa Akeem Azeez and Joshua Iseoluwa Orege",authors:[{id:"197473",title:"Dr.",name:"Mayowa Akeem",middleName:null,surname:"Azeez",slug:"mayowa-akeem-azeez",fullName:"Mayowa Akeem Azeez"},{id:"249430",title:"Mr.",name:"Joshua Iseoluwa",middleName:null,surname:"Orege",slug:"joshua-iseoluwa-orege",fullName:"Joshua Iseoluwa Orege"}]},{id:"55730",title:"Vetiver Grass: A Tool for Sustainable Agriculture",slug:"vetiver-grass-a-tool-for-sustainable-agriculture",totalDownloads:3101,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Vetiver grass is a densely tufted bunch grass which can be easily established in both tropics and temperate regions of the world. It plays a vital role in watershed protection by slowing down and spreading runoff harmlessly on the farmland, recharging ground water, reducing siltation of drainage systems and water bodies, reducing agro-chemicals loading into water bodies and for rehabilitation of degraded soils. Vetiver grass could tolerate extremely high levels of heavy metals. It could be used as biological pest control. The use of vetiver grass has been regarded as a low-cost technology for soil and water conservation; on- and off-farm land and water sources stabilization and remediation of polluted soils; and enhancement of water quality for irrigation purposes when compared with other soil conservation technologies. It could be a dynamic tool for mitigating environmental and agricultural problems, thereby enhancing crop yield and supporting all-year round agricultural cultivation. Recently, vetiver grass has been used to raise animals of different kinds. Thus, this chapter in the book explores several applications of vetiver grass, its impacts and resultant benefits as a technology that could enhance sustainable agricultural development.",book:{id:"5889",slug:"grasses-benefits-diversities-and-functional-roles",title:"Grasses",fullTitle:"Grasses - Benefits, Diversities and Functional Roles"},signatures:"Suarau O. Oshunsanya and OrevaOghene Aliku",authors:[{id:"175778",title:"Dr.",name:"Suarau",middleName:null,surname:"Oshunsanya",slug:"suarau-oshunsanya",fullName:"Suarau Oshunsanya"},{id:"176082",title:"Mr.",name:"OrevaOghene",middleName:null,surname:"Aliku",slug:"orevaoghene-aliku",fullName:"OrevaOghene Aliku"}]},{id:"60430",title:"The Use of Bamboo for Erosion Control and Slope Stabilization: Soil Bioengineering Works",slug:"the-use-of-bamboo-for-erosion-control-and-slope-stabilization-soil-bioengineering-works",totalDownloads:2997,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The potential of bamboo in erosion control and slope stabilization has been proven worldwide. Bamboos are being used as living plants as well as construction material in different soil bioengineering techniques in many countries. The soil and water bioengineering approach is combined with bamboo traits and mechanical properties. The existing accumulated experiences of using bamboo in soil and water bioengineering works, along with the existing standards and design guidelines, make bamboo species an essential and cost-effective material for erosion control and slope stabilization works. In this chapter, all the necessary aspects to be taken into account for an appropriate use of bamboo in soil bioengineering works are addressed, and the design approaches for soil bioengineering works using bamboos are presented.",book:{id:"5812",slug:"bamboo-current-and-future-prospects",title:"Bamboo",fullTitle:"Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Guillermo Tardio, Slobodan B. Mickovski, Hans Peter Rauch, Joao\nPaulo Fernandes and Madhu Sudan Acharya",authors:[{id:"221706",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Tardio",slug:"guillermo-tardio",fullName:"Guillermo Tardio"},{id:"225058",title:"Dr.",name:"Slobodan B.",middleName:null,surname:"Mickovski",slug:"slobodan-b.-mickovski",fullName:"Slobodan B. Mickovski"},{id:"225059",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Fenandes",slug:"joao-paulo-fenandes",fullName:"Joao Paulo Fenandes"},{id:"225061",title:"Dr.",name:"Johann Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Rauch",slug:"johann-peter-rauch",fullName:"Johann Peter Rauch"}]},{id:"70724",title:"Effects of Fire on Grassland Soils and Water: A Review",slug:"effects-of-fire-on-grassland-soils-and-water-a-review",totalDownloads:1099,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Grasslands occur on all of the continents. They collectively constitute the largest ecosystem in the world, making up 40.5% of the terrestrial land area, excluding Greenland and Antarctica. Grasslands are not entirely natural because they have formed and developed under natural and anthropogenic pressures. Their importance now is to the variety of ecosystem services that they provide: livestock grazing areas, water catchments, biodiversity reserves, tourism sites, recreation areas, religious sites, wild food sources, and natural medicine sources. An important function of grasslands is their sequestration and storage of carbon (C). Mollisol soils of grasslands have deep organic matter horizons that make this vegetation type almost as important as forests for C fixation and storage. Fire has been and continues to be an important disturbance in grassland evolution and management. Natural wildfires have been a component of grasslands for over 300 million years and were important in creating and maintaining most of these ecosystems. Humans ignited fires over many millennia to improve habitat for animals and livestock. Prescribed fire practiced by humans is a component of modern grassland management. The incidence of wildfires in grasslands continues to grow as an issue as droughts persist in semi-arid regions. Knowledge of fire effects on grasslands has risen in importance to land managers because fire, as a disturbance process, is an integral part of the concept of ecosystem management and restoration ecology. Fire is an intrusive disturbance in both managed and wildland forests and grasslands. It initiates changes in ecosystems that affect the composition, structure, and patterns of vegetation on the landscape. It also affects the soil and water resources of ecosystems that are critical to overall ecosystem functions and processes.",book:{id:"8088",slug:"grasses-and-grassland-aspects",title:"Grasses and Grassland Aspects",fullTitle:"Grasses and Grassland Aspects"},signatures:"Daniel George Neary and Jackson McMichael Leonard",authors:[{id:"40845",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel G.",middleName:"George",surname:"Neary",slug:"daniel-g.-neary",fullName:"Daniel G. Neary"},{id:"276254",title:"Dr.",name:"Jackson",middleName:null,surname:"Leonard",slug:"jackson-leonard",fullName:"Jackson Leonard"}]},{id:"55524",title:"Importance of Grass Carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) for Controlling of Aquatic Vegetation",slug:"importance-of-grass-carp-ctenopharyngodon-idella-for-controlling-of-aquatic-vegetation",totalDownloads:1847,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Aquatic plants are beneficial and a necessary part of lakes and reservoirs. Also, some kind of plants are the main food source for aquatic animals. Plants are able to stabilize sediments, improve water clarity and add diversity to the shallow areas of lakes. On the other hand, overgrown plants can become a nuisance by hindering human uses of water and threaten the structure and function of diverse native aquatic ecosystems. This chapter aims to make analysis of using of grass carp to control aquatic vegetation. In this concept, origin and distribution, biological features, reproduction, feeding behaviour and effects of grass carp on aquatic plants, water body and sediments are also discussed.",book:{id:"5889",slug:"grasses-benefits-diversities-and-functional-roles",title:"Grasses",fullTitle:"Grasses - Benefits, Diversities and Functional Roles"},signatures:"Yusuf Bozkurt, İlker Yavas, Aziz Gül, Beytullah Ahmet Balcı and\nNurdan Coskun Çetin",authors:[{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt"},{id:"119796",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"İlker",middleName:null,surname:"Yavaş",slug:"ilker-yavas",fullName:"İlker Yavaş"},{id:"207165",title:"Dr.",name:"Aziz",middleName:null,surname:"Gül",slug:"aziz-gul",fullName:"Aziz Gül"},{id:"207166",title:"Dr.",name:"Beytullah Ahmet",middleName:null,surname:"Balcı",slug:"beytullah-ahmet-balci",fullName:"Beytullah Ahmet Balcı"},{id:"207167",title:"MSc.",name:"Nurdan",middleName:null,surname:"Coşkun Çetin",slug:"nurdan-coskun-cetin",fullName:"Nurdan Coşkun Çetin"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"352",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82027",title:"Underutilized Grasses Production: New Evolving Perspectives",slug:"underutilized-grasses-production-new-evolving-perspectives",totalDownloads:21,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105375",abstract:"Globally, over-reliance on major food crops (wheat, rice and maize) has led to food basket’s shrinking, while climate change, environmental pollution and deteriorating soil fertility demand the cultivation of less exhaustive but nutritious grasses. Unlike neglected grasses (grass species restricted to their centres of origin and only grown at the subsistence level), many underutilized grasses (grass species whose yield or usability potential remains unrealized) are resistant and resilient to abiotic stresses and have multiple uses including food (Coix lacryma-jobi), feed (Eragrostis amabilis and Cynodon dactylon), esthetic value (Miscanthus sinensis and Imperata cylindrica), renewable energy production (Spartina pectinata and Andropogon gerardii Vitman) and contribution to ecosystem services (Saccharum spontaneum). Lack of agricultural market globalization, urbanization and prevalence of large commercial enterprises that favor major grasses trade, improved communication means that promoted specialization in favor of established crops, scant planting material of underutilized grasses and fewer research on their production technology and products development are the prime challenges posed to underutilized grasses promotion. Integration of agronomic research with novel plant protection measures and plant breeding and molecular genetics approaches for developing biotic and abiotic stresses tolerant cultivars along with the development of commercially attractive food products hold the future key for promoting underutilized grasses for supplanting food security and sustainably multiplying economic outcomes.",book:{id:"10895",title:"Grasses and Grassland - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10895.jpg"},signatures:"Muhammad Aamir Iqbal, Sadaf Khalid, Raees Ahmed, Muhammad Zubair Khan, Nagina Rafique, Raina Ijaz, Saira Ishaq, Muhammad Jamil, Aqeel Ahmad, Amjad Shahzad Gondal, Muhammad Imran, Junaid Rahim and Umar Ayaz Aslam Sheikh"},{id:"81038",title:"Earth’s Energy Budget Impact on Grassland Diseases",slug:"earth-s-energy-budget-impact-on-grassland-diseases",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99971",abstract:"The change in climate have caused different biotic and abiotic factors to be more prominent when management plan is executed. The increase in temperature have then cause frequent drought that may attract alien species of vectors to spread novel diseases among the native plants. However, the change in climate varies in different countries. Thus, common diseases that threatens food security such as Xanthomonas spp., Pseudomonas spp are in limelight of research. Vectors lifecycle may cause plant diseases to by cyclative. Therefore, to find the break in the vector’s lifecycle will be a method to eradicate harmful population in grassland. Modern days will then call for innovative method and limitations should be considered. Climate change have also impacted pathogens migration and mating pattern. The need for innovative management is constantly on the rise.",book:{id:"10895",title:"Grasses and Grassland - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10895.jpg"},signatures:"Ang Jia Wei Germaine"},{id:"79504",title:"Interaction of Grassland Ecosystem with Livelihood and Wildlife Sustainability: Tanzanian Perspectives",slug:"interaction-of-grassland-ecosystem-with-livelihood-and-wildlife-sustainability-tanzanian-perspective",totalDownloads:149,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101343",abstract:"In Tanzania, pure grasslands cover is estimated to be 60,381 km2, about 6.8% of the total land area, and is distributed in different parts. These grasslands are diverse in dominant grass species depending on rainfall, soil type, altitude, and management or grazing system. They support livestock and wildlife distributed in different eco-tomes and habitats of the country. The potential of grasslands for the livelihood of rural people is explicit from the fact that local people depend solely on natural production to satisfy their needs for animal products. Analysis of grazing lands indicated that livestock population, production of meat, and milk from grasslands increased. But the wildlife population, when considered in terms of livestock equivalent units (Large Herbivore Units) showed a declining trend. The contribution of grasslands to the total volume of meat produced in the country showed a declining state, while milk production showed a slight increase. This situation entails a need to evaluate the grasslands of Tanzania to ascertain their potential for supporting people’s livestock, wildlife, and livelihood. This study concluded that more research is needed to establish the possibility of grasslands to keep large numbers of grazing herbivores for sustainable livestock and wildlife production.",book:{id:"10895",title:"Grasses and Grassland - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10895.jpg"},signatures:"Pius Yoram Kavana, John Kija Bukombe, Hamza Kija, Stephen Nindi, Ally Nkwabi, Iddi Lipende, Simula Maijo, Baraka Naftali, Victor M. Kakengi, Janemary Ntalwila, Sood Ndimuligo and Robert Fyumagwa"},{id:"79291",title:"Spinless Forage Cactus: The Queen of Forage Crops in Semi Arid Regions",slug:"spinless-forage-cactus-the-queen-of-forage-crops-in-semi-arid-regions",totalDownloads:117,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100104",abstract:"Forage cactus is a perennial crop, which has been widely exploited for feeding ruminants in the semiarid region of different countries around the world. The main objective of this chapter is to describe the use and importance of spineless cactus as forage, desertification mitigation, source of water for animals and a source of income for producers in semiarid regions. The main species explored in Brazil are Opuntia spp. and Nopalea spp., due to characteristics such as resistance to pests, productivity, water-use efficiency and demand for soil fertility. The productivity of the species in a region will depend on its morphological characteristics, plant spacing, planting systems and its capacity to adapt to climatic and soil conditions. In other parts of the world, cactus species are the most cosmopolitan and destructive among invasive plants. However, the use of spineless forage cactus in areas where it can develop normally and may become the basis for ruminants’ feed would increase the support capacity production systems. Thus, specifically for Brazil’s semiarid region these species can make the difference as forage for animal feeding, cultivated as monoculture or intercropped, for soil conservation and desertification mitigation, source of water for animals, preservation of the Caatinga biome and be a potential source of income for producers if cultivated as vegetable for nutritional properties and medicinal derivative of fruits and cladodes for exports.",book:{id:"10895",title:"Grasses and Grassland - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10895.jpg"},signatures:"Marcelo de Andrade Ferreira, Luciano Patto Novaes, Ana María Herrera Ângulo and Michelle Christina Bernardo de Siqueira"},{id:"78933",title:"Implement and Analysis on Current Ecosystem Classification in Western Utah of the United States & Yukon Territory of Canada",slug:"implement-and-analysis-on-current-ecosystem-classification-in-western-utah-of-the-united-states-yuko",totalDownloads:128,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100557",abstract:"The study cases in western Utah of the United States and Yukon Territory of Canada have more natural land and conservative ecosystems in North America. The ecosystem classification of land (ECL) in these two ecoregions had been analyzed and validated through implementation. A full ECL case study was accomplished and examined with eight upper levels of ECOMAP plus ecological site and vegetation stand in Western Utah, the US. Theoretically, applying Köppen climate system classification, Bailey’s Domain and Division were applied to the United States, North America, and world continents. However, Canada’s continental upper level ecoregion framework defined the ecological Mozaic on a sub-continental scale, representing an area of the hierarchical ecological units characterized by interactive and adjusting abiotic and biotic factors. Using Bailey’s Domain as the top level of Canada’s territorial ecoregion was recommended. Eight levels of ELCs were established for Yukon Territory, Canada. Thus, the second study case recommends integrating the ecosystem approaches with Bailey’s upper level ECL, broad ecosystem classification, and objectively defined ecological site in different countries, or ecoregions. Our study cases had exemplified the implementations with a full ELCs in Bailey’s 300 Dry Domain and 100 Polar Domain.",book:{id:"10895",title:"Grasses and Grassland - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10895.jpg"},signatures:"YanQing Zhang and Neil E. West"},{id:"78440",title:"Miscanthus Grass as a Nutritional Fiber Source for Monogastric Animals",slug:"miscanthus-grass-as-a-nutritional-fiber-source-for-monogastric-animals",totalDownloads:149,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99951",abstract:"While fiber is not an indispensable nutrient for monogastric animals, it has benefits such as promoting gastrointestinal motility and production of short chain fatty acids through fermentation. Miscanthus x giganteus is a hybrid grass used as an ornamental plant, biomass for energy production, construction material, and as a cellulose source for paper production. More recently Miscanthus grass (dried ground Miscanthus x giganteus) was evaluated for its fiber composition and as a fiber source for poultry (broiler chicks) and pets (dogs and cats). As a fiber source, this ingredient is mostly composed of insoluble fiber (78.6%) with an appreciable amount of lignin (13.0%). When added at moderate levels to broiler chick feed (3% inclusion) Miscanthus grass improved dietary energy utilization. However, when fed to dogs at a 10% inclusion Miscanthus grass decreased dry matter, organic matter, and gross energy digestibility, and increased dietary protein digestibility compared to dogs fed diets containing similar concentrations of beet pulp. Comparable results were reported for cats. In addition, when Miscanthus grass was fed to cats to aid in hairball management, it decreased the total hair weight per dry fecal weight. When considering the effects Miscanthus grass has on extruded pet foods, it behaves in a similar manner to cellulose, decreasing radial expansion, and increasing energy to compress the kibbles, likely because of changes in kibble structure. To date, Miscanthus grass has not been evaluated in human foods and supplements though it may have applications similar to those identified for pets.",book:{id:"10895",title:"Grasses and Grassland - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10895.jpg"},signatures:"Renan Donadelli and Greg Aldrich"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{},subseries:{},overviewPageOFChapters:[],overviewPagePublishedBooks:[],openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{}},subseries:{item:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},publishedBooks:{},testimonialsList:[]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/35188",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"35188"},fullPath:"/chapters/35188",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()