Value of empirical parameters of Mg containing HEAs.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10231",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Proton Therapy - Current Status and Future Directions",title:"Proton Therapy",subtitle:"Current Status and Future Directions",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Over the past twenty-five years, proton therapy has become more prominent worldwide. It is an important component of clinical radiation therapy for both adult and pediatric clinical care. Due to the inherent ability of protons to spare normal tissue, protons will continue to develop and become increasingly important in radiation oncology. As such, Proton Therapy - Current Status and Future Directions reviews many aspects of proton care including the application of protons in modern clinical trials. It also reviews problems associated with the migration of proton care worldwide and examines the future direction of proton care. This project was created by colleagues at IntechOpen and was carefully managed by Romina Rovan. It has been a privilege to help coordinate the text and chapters designed to acknowledge the history, footprint, and growing interest of proton care worldwide. Proton management is now embedded in the clinical trials process. In pediatric care, proton delivery is embedded with photons for the management of pediatric malignancies and adult groups have initiated proton-specific clinical trials. A proton registry has been established and outcomes are under evaluation. Due to the inherent ability of protons to spare normal tissue, protons will continue to develop and become increasingly important in radiation oncology.",isbn:"978-1-83968-013-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-012-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-017-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91072",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"proton-therapy-current-status-and-future-directions",numberOfPages:144,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"51790b2eab420c0c09da3bf9d923e79c",bookSignature:"Thomas J. FitzGerald and Maryann Bishop-Jodoin",publishedDate:"August 18th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10231.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2034,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 30th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 21st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 19th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 8th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 6th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"241806",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas J.",middleName:null,surname:"FitzGerald",slug:"thomas-j.-fitzgerald",fullName:"Thomas J. FitzGerald",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241806/images/system/241806.png",biography:"Dr. FitzGerald is the Professor and Chair of the Department of Radiation Oncology at the University of Massachusetts Medical School. The department has a strong academic mission and provides clinical care to multiple communities throughout central Massachusetts with several community centres providing advanced technology clinical care. Dr. FitzGerald has been the Principal Investigator of the Quality Assurance Review Center (QARC) for more than 25 years. QARC provides imaging and radiation oncology data acquisition and data management services to the National Clinical Trials Network (NCTN) and industry partners. QARC is now part of the Imaging and Radiation Oncology Core (IROC), which centralizes data management and quality assurance service for NCTN clinical trials with offices in Rhode Island, Houston,\r\nTX, Columbus, OH, and Philadelphia, PA. In this capacity, proton institution applications are credentialed for clinical trial participation and data are reviewed for protocol compliance. Dr. FitzGerald serves in an advisory capacity for The Cancer Imaging Archive (TCIA).",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"328685",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryann",middleName:null,surname:"Bishop-Jodoin",slug:"maryann-bishop-jodoin",fullName:"Maryann Bishop-Jodoin",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Maryann Bishop-Jodoin, MEd, is an instructor and scientific writer in the Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Massachusetts Medical School. Ms. Bishop-Jodoin has worked with Dr. FitzGerald at the Quality Assurance Review Center (QARC) program for more than 25 years. She writes and edits manuscripts, books, and grants as well as the QARC quality management system documentation.",institutionString:"University of Massachusetts Medical School",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Massachusetts Medical School",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1090",title:"Radiation Oncology",slug:"radiation-oncology"}],chapters:[{id:"74959",title:"History and Overview of Proton Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95959",slug:"history-and-overview-of-proton-therapy",totalDownloads:262,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The use of proton therapy in oncology is not a new idea. The unique physical properties of protons and potential advantages in radiation therapy were initially recognized in the 1940s. Since the first patients were treated in the 1950s, technology and clinical applications have evolved as evidenced by the increasing number of proton therapy centers and patients being treated throughout the world. This chapter will review the history of proton therapy providing a detailed overview of the cyclotron and synchrotron techniques used and how they have advanced with time.",signatures:"Ameer L. Elaimy, Linda Ding, Carla Bradford, Yansong Geng, Harry Bushe, I-Lin Kuo, Yankhua Fan, Fenhong Liu, Abdulnasser Khalifeh, Suhong Yu, Jonathan Saleeby, James Shen, Kevin O’Connor and Kenneth Ulin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74959",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74959",authors:[{id:"303607",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameer",surname:"Elaimy",slug:"ameer-elaimy",fullName:"Ameer Elaimy"},{id:"303608",title:"Mr.",name:"James",surname:"Shen",slug:"james-shen",fullName:"James Shen"},{id:"337281",title:"Ms.",name:"Linda",surname:"Ding",slug:"linda-ding",fullName:"Linda Ding"},{id:"337285",title:"Ms.",name:"Carla",surname:"Bradford",slug:"carla-bradford",fullName:"Carla Bradford"},{id:"337286",title:"Ms.",name:"Fenghong",surname:"Liu",slug:"fenghong-liu",fullName:"Fenghong Liu"},{id:"337287",title:"Mr.",name:"Abdulnasser",surname:"Khalifeh",slug:"abdulnasser-khalifeh",fullName:"Abdulnasser Khalifeh"},{id:"337288",title:"Ms.",name:"Suhong",surname:"Yu",slug:"suhong-yu",fullName:"Suhong Yu"},{id:"337289",title:"Mr.",name:"Harry",surname:"Bushe",slug:"harry-bushe",fullName:"Harry Bushe"},{id:"337291",title:"Mr.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Saleeby",slug:"jonathan-saleeby",fullName:"Jonathan Saleeby"},{id:"337292",title:"Mr.",name:"Kenneth",surname:"Ulin",slug:"kenneth-ulin",fullName:"Kenneth Ulin"},{id:"337293",title:"Mr.",name:"I-Lin",surname:"Kuo",slug:"i-lin-kuo",fullName:"I-Lin Kuo"},{id:"344772",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Kevin",surname:"O'Connor",slug:"kevin-o'connor",fullName:"Kevin O'Connor"},{id:"346825",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Yansong",surname:"Geng",slug:"yansong-geng",fullName:"Yansong Geng"},{id:"346826",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yankhua",surname:"Fan",slug:"yankhua-fan",fullName:"Yankhua Fan"}],corrections:null},{id:"76984",title:"Proton Therapy Center Layout and Interface",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96188",slug:"proton-therapy-center-layout-and-interface",totalDownloads:169,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Due to space requirements and a substantial financial burden, the feasibility of health systems adopting proton therapy has been called into question. However, advances in facility design and treatment delivery have allowed institutions offering proton therapy to reduce footprint while incorporating technological improvements at reduced costs. As the number of centers and patients treated continue to increase, this chapter will review the layout and interface of proton therapy facilities providing a detailed overview of the design, costs and faculty and staff considerations.",signatures:"Ameer L. Elaimy, Linda Ding, Jonathan Glanzman, Lakshmi Shanmugham, Beth Herrick, Jody Morr, Dan Han, Jeffrey C. Buchsbaum and Thomas J. FitzGerald",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76984",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76984",authors:[{id:"241806",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas J.",surname:"FitzGerald",slug:"thomas-j.-fitzgerald",fullName:"Thomas J. FitzGerald"},{id:"303607",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameer",surname:"Elaimy",slug:"ameer-elaimy",fullName:"Ameer Elaimy"},{id:"337281",title:"Ms.",name:"Linda",surname:"Ding",slug:"linda-ding",fullName:"Linda Ding"},{id:"420343",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Glanzman",slug:"jonathan-glanzman",fullName:"Jonathan Glanzman"},{id:"420344",title:"Dr.",name:"Lakshmi",surname:"Shanmugham",slug:"lakshmi-shanmugham",fullName:"Lakshmi Shanmugham"},{id:"420345",title:"Dr.",name:"Beth",surname:"Herrick",slug:"beth-herrick",fullName:"Beth Herrick"},{id:"420346",title:"Dr.",name:"Jody",surname:"Moor",slug:"jody-moor",fullName:"Jody Moor"},{id:"420347",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Han",slug:"daniel-han",fullName:"Daniel Han"},{id:"420348",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeffrey C.",surname:"Buchsbaum",slug:"jeffrey-c.-buchsbaum",fullName:"Jeffrey C. Buchsbaum"}],corrections:null},{id:"75302",title:"Multi-Institutional Data Collection and Analysis via the Pediatric Proton/Photon Consortium Registry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95960",slug:"multi-institutional-data-collection-and-analysis-via-the-pediatric-proton-photon-consortium-registry",totalDownloads:165,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Care of patients with proton therapy has increased in the past decade. It is important to report on outcomes and disease specific utilization of particle therapy. In this chapter, we review our experience in developing a registry for pediatric patients treated with radiation to assess outcomes and provide a platform for shared research interests.",signatures:"Nicholas J. DeNunzio, Miranda P. Lawell and Torunn I. Yock",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75302",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75302",authors:[{id:"344602",title:"Dr.",name:"Torunn I.",surname:"Yock",slug:"torunn-i.-yock",fullName:"Torunn I. Yock"},{id:"346639",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicholas J.",surname:"DeNunzio",slug:"nicholas-j.-denunzio",fullName:"Nicholas J. DeNunzio"},{id:"346640",title:"Dr.",name:"Miranda P.",surname:"Lawell",slug:"miranda-p.-lawell",fullName:"Miranda P. Lawell"}],corrections:null},{id:"75129",title:"Credentialing Proton Centers for Clinical Trials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95958",slug:"credentialing-proton-centers-for-clinical-trials",totalDownloads:211,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter will provide an overview of quality assurance processes to credential proton therapy centers for clinical trial participation. There are a number of credentialing audit steps, including independent output verification, anthropomorphic phantom audits, image guidance credentialing, knowledge assessments, and on-site dosimetry review. The purpose of these credentialing steps is to ensure consistency across proton centers participating in clinical trials, and well as comparability with photon centers for randomized trials. This uniformity ensures high quality data for measuring patient outcomes, which are pivotal at a time when proton therapy is being assessed for superior outcomes.",signatures:"Paige A. Taylor",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75129",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75129",authors:[{id:"327256",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Paige A.",surname:"Taylor",slug:"paige-a.-taylor",fullName:"Paige A. Taylor"}],corrections:null},{id:"74940",title:"Clinical Trials Evaluating Proton Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95957",slug:"clinical-trials-evaluating-proton-therapy",totalDownloads:279,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Although proton therapy was developed almost 80 years ago, widespread clinical implementation has been limited until the past decade. With the growing use of proton therapy, there is a desire to prove the equivalence or superiority of proton therapy across a number of cancer disease sites. Dozens of clinical trials have been developed to accomplish this within individual institutions, among a few centers, and across national and international networks such as the National Cancer Institute’s National Clinical Trial Network. The protocols include proton therapy imbedded in trials with photon therapy as well as randomized photon vs. proton trials. This chapter provides an overview of the design of such trials as well as some of the challenges facing protocols with proton therapy.",signatures:"Paige A. Taylor",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74940",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74940",authors:[{id:"327256",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Paige A.",surname:"Taylor",slug:"paige-a.-taylor",fullName:"Paige A. Taylor"},{id:"310143",title:"Prof.",name:"David",surname:"Followill",slug:"david-followill",fullName:"David Followill"}],corrections:null},{id:"74019",title:"Adaptive Proton Therapy in Head and Neck Cancer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94530",slug:"adaptive-proton-therapy-in-head-and-neck-cancer",totalDownloads:259,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Anatomic and dosimetric changes occur in head and neck cancer during fractionated proton radiotherapy, and the actual dose received by patient is considerably different from original plan. Adaptive radiotherapy aims to modify treatment according to changes that occur during proton therapy. Intensity modulated proton therapy for head and neck cancer (HNC) patients benefitted by adaptation to correct the dose perturbations caused by weight loss, tumor volume changes, setup and range uncertainties. The following sections have elaborated the rationale of adaptation in HNC, proton physics in HNC, studies comparing non-adaptive and adaptive intensity modulated proton therapy (IMPT) plans, reasons for adaptation and how to mitigate these changes.",signatures:"Nagarjuna Burela",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74019",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74019",authors:[{id:"326074",title:"Dr.",name:"Nagarjuna",surname:"Burela",slug:"nagarjuna-burela",fullName:"Nagarjuna Burela"}],corrections:null},{id:"75221",title:"Proton Therapy in Lower-Middle-Income Countries: From Facts and Reality to Desire, Challenges and Limitations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95984",slug:"proton-therapy-in-lower-middle-income-countries-from-facts-and-reality-to-desire-challenges-and-limi",totalDownloads:180,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Around 50% of cancer patients will require radiotherapy (RT) and 10–15% of these patients could be eligible for proton beam radiotherapy (PBT). Dosimetric advantages are undeniable, mainly in pediatric and reirradiation scenarios. Though, PBT facilities are scarce worldwide and the IAEA has reported 116 functional particle facilities, of which 98 are PBT, virtually absent in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). The Latin America and Caribbean region represent a unique opportunity for a PBT center, as there are currently no functional facilities and current RT needs are significant. The challenges can be summarized as high initial investment and maintenance, geographic coverage, required baseline technology and certification, over-optimistic workload, unclear rates and reimbursement, unmet business plan and revenue expectations, and lack of trained human resources. Investment costs for a PBT facility are estimated to be at around 140 million euros; therefore, this seems unsuitable for LMIC. Mexico’s geographical advantage, GDP, baseline technologies and high demand for RT makes it an ideal candidate. Nevertheless, a PBT center would account for a third of Mexico’s annual health expenditure for 2020. Enormous efforts must be made by both the private sector and governmental authorities to provide funding.",signatures:"Sandra Ileana Pérez Álvarez, Francisco Javier Lozano Ruiz, Federico Maldonado Magos and Aida Mota García",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75221",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75221",authors:[{id:"326057",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra Ileana",surname:"Perez Alvarez",slug:"sandra-ileana-perez-alvarez",fullName:"Sandra Ileana Perez Alvarez"},{id:"345744",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",surname:"Lozano Ruiz",slug:"francisco-javier-lozano-ruiz",fullName:"Francisco Javier Lozano Ruiz"},{id:"345745",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",surname:"Maldonado Magos",slug:"federico-maldonado-magos",fullName:"Federico Maldonado Magos"},{id:"345746",title:"Dr.",name:"Aida",surname:"Mota García",slug:"aida-mota-garcia",fullName:"Aida Mota García"}],corrections:null},{id:"74496",title:"Proton Cancer Therapy: Synchrotron-Based Clinical Experiences 2020 Update",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94937",slug:"proton-cancer-therapy-synchrotron-based-clinical-experiences-2020-update",totalDownloads:270,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Proton therapy is an efficient high-precision radiotherapy technique. The number of installed proton units and the available medical evidence has grown exponentially over the last 10 years. As a technology driven cancer treatment modality, specific sub-analysis based on proton beam characteristics and proton beam generators is feasible and of academic interest. International synchrotron technology-based institutions have been particularly active in evidence generating actions including the design of prospective trials, data registration projects and retrospective analysis of early clinical results. Reported evidence after 2010 of proton therapy from synchrotron based clinical results are reviewed. Physics, molecular, cellular, animal investigation and other non-clinical topics were excluded from the present analysis. The actual literature search (up to January 2020) found 192 publications, including description of results in over 29.000 patients (10 cancer sites and histological subtypes), together with some editorials, reviews or expert updated recommendations. Institutions with synchrotron-based proton therapy technology have shown consistent and reproducible results along the past decade. Bibliometrics of reported clinical experiences from 2008 to early 2020 includes 58% of publications in first quartile (1q) scientific journals classification and 13% in 2q (7% 3q, 5% 4q and 17% not specified). The distribution of reports by cancer sites and histological subtypes shown as dominant areas of clinical research and publication: lung cancer (23%), pediatric (18%), head and neck (17%), central nervous system (7%), gastrointestinal (9%), prostate (8%) and a miscellanea of neplasms including hepatocarcinoma, sarcomas and breast cancer. Over 50% of lung, pediatric, head and neck and gastrointestinal publications were 1q.",signatures:"Felipe Angel Calvo Manuel, Elena Panizo, Santiago M. Martin, Javier Serrano, Mauricio Cambeiro, Diego Azcona, Daniel Zucca, Borja Aguilar, Alvaro Lassaletta and Javier Aristu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74496",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74496",authors:[{id:"326604",title:"Prof.",name:"Felipe",surname:"Angel Calvo Manuel",slug:"felipe-angel-calvo-manuel",fullName:"Felipe Angel Calvo Manuel"},{id:"337895",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"Panizo",slug:"elena-panizo",fullName:"Elena Panizo"},{id:"337896",title:"Dr.",name:"Santiago M.",surname:"Martin",slug:"santiago-m.-martin",fullName:"Santiago M. Martin"},{id:"337897",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",surname:"Serrano",slug:"javier-serrano",fullName:"Javier Serrano"},{id:"337898",title:"Dr.",name:"Mauricio",surname:"Cambeiro",slug:"mauricio-cambeiro",fullName:"Mauricio Cambeiro"},{id:"337900",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",surname:"Azcona",slug:"diego-azcona",fullName:"Diego Azcona"},{id:"337901",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Zucca",slug:"daniel-zucca",fullName:"Daniel Zucca"},{id:"337908",title:"Dr.",name:"Borja",surname:"Aguilar",slug:"borja-aguilar",fullName:"Borja Aguilar"},{id:"337909",title:"Dr.",name:"Alvaro",surname:"Lassaletta",slug:"alvaro-lassaletta",fullName:"Alvaro Lassaletta"},{id:"337910",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",surname:"Aristu",slug:"javier-aristu",fullName:"Javier Aristu"}],corrections:null},{id:"76813",title:"The Future of Proton Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97935",slug:"the-future-of-proton-therapy",totalDownloads:241,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Proton therapy is increasing in utilization worldwide at a rapid rate. With process improvements in costs, footprints, and continued advances in the delivery of care, including intensity modulation and image guidance, proton therapy may evolve into standard treatment with photon radiation therapy. This chapter reviews process improvements in proton therapy and the application in modern care.",signatures:"Thomas J. FitzGerald, Linda Ding, Christopher Riberdy, Jack Bailey, Michael Anderegg, Ameer Elaimy, James Shen, Kevin O’Connor, Carla Bradford, I-Lin Kuo, Yankhua Fan, Fenghong Liu, Suhong Yu, Harry Bushe, Jonathan Saleeby, Paul Rava, Shirin Sioshansi, M. Giulia Cicchetti, Janaki Moni, Eric Ko, Allison Sacher, Daniel Han and Maryann Bishop-Jodoin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76813",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76813",authors:[{id:"241806",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas J.",surname:"FitzGerald",slug:"thomas-j.-fitzgerald",fullName:"Thomas J. 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The widespread application of the solid-state transistors in electronic circuits has triggered a dramatic revolution in the electronic industries, kicking off the era of semiconductor microchips. Today, microchips are now interwoven with human's life and the fundamental building blocks of the microchips are made from field-effect transistors of FETs. Considering the impact that it has imposed on mankind, this book intends to compile a list of interesting topics which are related to the latest technological advancement and scientific breakthroughs of field-effect transistors.
\r\n\t
The ancient strategy of alloy design and production has been followed for a long period and it will remain a crucial part of industry. The strategy is based on one principal element solvent with solute elements dissolved in the lattice either as heterogeneities or precipitate particles. Although, ancient Indian scriptures in Sanskrit mentions the existence of multi principal alloys named as “Tri-loh” (loh means Iron), “Panch-dhatu” and “Asht-dhatu” in which Tri, Panch and Asht mean three, five and eight respectively [1]. These dhatus or metals were used for special and sacred purposes such as making idols, deities and machines [2]. The context of these alloys can be found in books and Sanskrit text titled “Vimanika Shastra”, “Ras-Ratnakar-Samuchaya”, “Shilparatna”, “Manasara”, “Ras-Tarangini”, and “Ras-grandhas”. These alloys were used for special purposes and the knowledge of their synthesis was mostly limited to the
The concept of maximization of configurational entropy by using five or more elements in nearly equi-atomic composition has revolutionized the field of alloy design and metallurgy. The first scientific report of such alloys were reported independently by Cantor et. al. and Yeh et. al [3, 4]. HEAs show better mechanical, oxidation, corrosion and irradiation properties compared to commercial alloys. HEAs show four key effects and a postulate, which are: high-entropy effect, severe lattice distortion, sluggish diffusion, short range order effect and cocktail effect [5].
The authors aimed to present detailed review and analysis of design, synthesis, microstructures and mechanical properties of Mg containing MPEAs from all the existing scientific articles on the topic available to this date. The presence of multiple principal elements in an alloy makes it difficult to interpret the reasons behind the behavior of HEAs. This study presents the possible interpretations of the structure-properties-processing relationship of Mg containing alloys in both equiatomic and non-equiatomic compositions. Figure 1 shows the gradual increase in interest in Mg-HEAs.
Year vs number of publications of Mg containing HEAs.
HEAs are multicomponent systems containing five or more elements in significant proportions unlike conventional alloys [6]. This leads to increase in the overall configurational entropy of system, which was first reported by Yeh et. al. for CuCoNiCrAlFe system [4]. It was believed that due to high configurational entropy of mixture, the alloys tend to crystallize as SS instead of intermetallic compounds (IM). These compositions exhibit superior mechanical, oxidation and corrosion resistance properties under conditions ranging from high temperatures to cryogenic temperatures [5, 6]. Due to the prominence of high entropy effect in multi-principal element alloys, such alloys are commonly referred as high entropy alloys. There are four core effects and one postulate, as follows:
The name perhaps has gathered enormous attention of researchers in this system. It states that high configurational entropy of mixing (
On dealing with this phenomenon on the grounds of probability, the possible explanation of absence of IM is in the basic nature of these compounds. Intermetallics are strictly ordered in nature but in case of HEAs, there is interaction with various elements with significantly higher compositions. As a result, even if thermodynamic and kinetic factors favor compound formation, the probability of tendency to form a two elements compound being in vicinity, is reduced. Intermetallics (IMs) are established by a high value of negative enthalpy of mixing (
Unlike conventional alloys with a single element solvent matrix, the HEAs comprises of a random solute matrix (RSM). The assumption, that RSM comprises of constituting elements arranged with complete disordered fashion and hence result in a SS, is mostly true. There is occasional occurrence of some intermetallic phases in the alloy which could be due to (a) enthalpy of formation of intermetallic is very high compared to the enthalpy of mixture; (b) the difference in atomic size is less (1.1-1.6) which supports formation of ordered structure; (c) the incorporation of elements with very small atoms in the alloy, which forms interstitial compounds. The Lattice Distortion Effect (LDE) is theoretically estimated by polydisparity or atomic mismatch factor δ given by Eq. (4) [7].
The LDE tends to increase the hardness of HEAs because of solution hardening.
Studies suggest that MPEAs exhibit a diffusion rate slower than any regular alloys and which could be responsible for the lower number of phases present in MPEAs [8]. This slow diffusion behaviour is claimed as sluggish diffusion. The HEAs studied at the beginning exhibited this behavior, though the sluggish diffusion is not entirely common for every HEA. Depending upon the alloy composition, the behavior varies [9]. The diffusion studies have been conducted in a limited number of alloys. Earlier studies on CoCrFeMnNi at near
Cocktail effect is a postulate, first identified by Prof. S. Ranganathan [20]. It refers to the unpredictable improvement in properties of materials based on the synergy of multi principal alloying elements. The properties range from near zero thermal expansion, ultra-high strength, corrosion resistance, good fracture toughness, ductility to photovoltaic effects or thermo-electronic responses [5]. This effect reminds about the acceptance of unique properties formed due to unusual combinations of elements as observed in MPEAs.
Besides these effects, chemical short range ordering (CSRO) has a significant impact on the mechanical properties, as it is proved to facilitate phase transformations in HEAs [21]. The CSRO has direct correlation with the activation energy of phase transformation from FCC to HCP phase in CoCrNi alloys [22]. The presence of SRO increases the Stacking Fault Energy (SFE) and yield strength in several alloys; it has been proved for CoCrNi alloys both experimentally and computationally [21, 22, 23]. A study using reverse Monte-Carlo suggests that the presence of SRO in TiVNb alloys is responsible for forming the FCC supercells in the alloy [21, 24].
All the empirical parameters discussed in above sections are calculated on the basis of available information in Table 1.
Sr. No. | HEA Composition | Mg | Phases | Tm (K) | ΔS/R | VEC | δ | Δχ | ΔH (KJmol−1) | Ω | Density |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Al8Li0.5Mg0.5Sn0.5Zn0.5 | 0.05 | SS + IM | 875.55 | 0.78 | 3.35 | 0.0398 | 0.17 | −0.54 | 10.48 | 3.05 |
2 | Al8Cu0.5Li0.5Mg0.5Zn0.5 | 0.05 | SS + IM | 918.18 | 0.78 | 3.70 | 0.0424 | 0.17 | −1.15 | 5.16 | 3.08 |
3 | Al60Cu10Fe10Cr5Mn5Ni5Mg5 | 0.05 | SS + IM | 1191.78 | 1.37 | 4.95 | 0.0736 | 0.14 | −7.91 | 1.71 | 4.6 |
4 | Al35Cr14Mg6Ti35V10 | 0.06 | SS | 1281.16 | 1.13 | 3.07 | 0.1561 | 0.22 | −15.49 | 0.78 | 4.05 |
5 | Al20Li20Mg10Sc20Ti30 | 0.10 | SS | 1315.04 | 1.56 | 2.80 | 0.0455 | 0.23 | −0.40 | 42.56 | 2.67 |
6 | Mg0.10Ti0.30V0.25Zr0.10Nb0.25 | 0.10 | SS + IM | 2208.40 | 1.56 | 4.74 | 0.0722 | 0.12 | 6.08 | 4.71 | NA |
7 | AlFeCuCrMg0.5 | 0.11 | SS | 1487.12 | 1.58 | 6.44 | 0.08 | 0.18 | 4.05 | 4.83 | 5.79 |
8 | MgMoNbFeTi2 | 0.17 | SS | 2042.21 | 1.56 | 4.83 | 0.0662 | 0.27 | 6.22 | 4.26 | NA |
9 | MgMoNbFeTi2Y0.004 | 0.17 | SS | 2041.98 | 1.56 | 4.83 | 0.0662 | 0.27 | 6.22 | 4.26 | NA |
10 | MgMoNbFeTi2Y0.008 | 0.17 | SS | 2041.99 | 1.56 | 4.83 | 0.0662 | 0.27 | 6.22 | 4.26 | NA |
11 | MgMoNbFeTi2Y0.012 | 0.17 | SS | 2042.00 | 1.56 | 4.83 | 0.0662 | 0.27 | 6.22 | 4.26 | NA |
12 | AlLlMgSnZn | 0.20 | SS + IM | 701.63 | 1.61 | 4.40 | 0.0611 | 0.33 | −6.24 | 1.50 | 4.23 |
13 | AlFeCuCrMg | 0.20 | SS + IM | 1430.84 | 1.61 | 6.00 | 0.0925 | 0.21 | 6.24 | 3.07 | 5.37 |
14 | Mg20(MnAlZnCu)80 | 0.20 | SS + IM | 1084.80 | 1.61 | 7.00 | 0.117 | 0.19 | −3.04 | 4.77 | 4.29 |
15 | MgVAlCrNi | 0.20 | SS | 1154.90 | 1.29 | 4.00 | 0.2335 | 0.35 | −6.24 | 1.98 | NA |
16 | MgAlSiCrFe | 0.20 | SS + IM | 1159.30 | 1.29 | 3.80 | 0.2473 | 0.33 | 2.88 | 4.31 | NA |
17 | Al2MgLiCa | 0.20 | IM | 873.35 | 1.33 | 2.20 | 0.1302 | 0.28 | −9.44 | 1.02 | NA |
18 | MgVAlCr | 0.25 | SS | 1544.13 | 1.39 | 4.00 | 0.0832 | 0.14 | 4.25 | 4.19 | NA |
19 | MgVAlNi | 0.25 | SS | 1443.63 | 1.39 | 5.00 | 0.0602 | 0.21 | −9.75 | 1.71 | NA |
20 | MgVCrNi | 0.25 | SS | 1742.75 | 1.39 | 5.75 | 0.0861 | 0.21 | 4.00 | 5.02 | NA |
21 | AlMgLiCa | 0.25 | IM | 858.30 | 1.39 | 2.00 | 0.1285 | 0.26 | −8.25 | 1.20 | NA |
22 | Mg26V31Al31Cr6Ni6 | 0.26 | SS | 1439.75 | 1.41 | 3.96 | 0.0703 | 0.16 | −2.10 | 8.05 | NA |
23 | Mg28V28Al19Cr19Ni6 | 0.28 | SS | 1557.39 | 1.51 | 4.27 | 0.0826 | 0.17 | 3.82 | 5.13 | NA |
24 | AlFeCuCrMg1.7 | 0.30 | SS + IM | 1368.19 | 1.58 | 5.51 | 0.1 | 0.22 | 7.99 | 2.25 | 4.91 |
25 | AlMgLiCa0.3 | 0.30 | IM | 802.19 | 1.30 | 2.00 | 0.0962 | 0.26 | −5.18 | 1.68 | NA |
26 | AlLi0.5MgSn0.2Zn0.5 | 0.31 | SS + IM | 790.87 | 1.48 | 3.84 | 0.061 | 0.27 | −3.98 | 2.44 | 3.22 |
27 | AlCu0.2Li0.5MgZn0.5 | 0.31 | IM | 844.16 | 1.48 | 4.28 | 0.0702 | 0.26 | −3.40 | 3.06 | 3.73 |
28 | AlCu0.5Li0.5MgSn0.2 | 0.31 | SS + IM | 894.76 | 1.48 | 3.69 | 0.0774 | 0.31 | −3.65 | 3.02 | 3.69 |
29 | Mg33(MnAlZnCu)67 | 0.33 | SS + IM | 1058.51 | 1.56 | 8.03 | 0.2294 | 0.45 | −3.69 | 3.72 | 3.41 |
30 | Mg35Al33Li15Zn7Ca5Cu5 | 0.35 | SS + IM | 893.96 | 1.50 | 2.93 | 0.1339 | 0.24 | −7.44 | 1.50 | 2.25 |
31 | Mg35Al33Li15Zn7Ca5Cu5 | 0.35 | SS + IM | 871.70 | 1.50 | 3.33 | 0.1091 | 0.26 | −4.97 | 2.19 | 2.27 |
32 | Mg43(MnAlZnCu)57 | 0.43 | SS + IM | 1038.29 | 1.47 | 5.56 | 0.1209 | 0.21 | −1.38 | 9.22 | 2.71 |
33 | Mg45.6(MnAlZnCu)54.4 | 0.46 | SS + IM | 1033.03 | 1.44 | 5.40 | 0.12 | 0.21 | −1.23 | 10.07 | 2.53 |
34 | Mg50(MnAlZnCu)50 | 0.50 | SS + IM | 1024.13 | 1.39 | 5.13 | 0.1181 | 0.21 | −1.00 | 11.80 | 2.2 |
35 | Mg80Al5Cu5Mn5Zn5 | 0.80 | SS + IM | 963.45 | 0.78 | 3.25 | 0.085 | 0.16 | −0.04 | 155.73 | 1.74 |
Value of empirical parameters of Mg containing HEAs.
Since the inception, there have been several doubts, questions and strong arguments against HEAs. Most of them are related to scalability and process engineering in industries, repeatability, reliability, applications and high density of HEAs. Among all these drawbacks, process engineering of HEAs is least studied, while the major problem are repeatability and their high density. To obtain a high level of repeatability, an extensive standard of alloy preparation and their further processing must be established throughout the world. The problem of high density is being solved with the development of light weight HEAs (LHEA) containing low density elements such as Al, Ti, Li and Mg. LHEAs consisting of Mg and Li are found to be lightest [25]. Mg based alloys have several applications in aircraft and automobile panels, bio-implants and energy storage. Mg alloys show exceptional and beautiful microstructures with Long Period Stacking Order (LPSO) phases. LPSO phases are most important feature of few Mg based alloys systems Mg-TM-RE (TM: transition metal, RE: rare earth metal) alloy as it enhances the mechanical properties at room and elevated temperatures [26].
There are several other factors which makes Mg-HEAs a topic of interest for example, Magnesium alloy anodes tends to increase the efficiency of Mg-ion batteries which may replace Li-ion batteries in future; Mg is a fast biodegradable and bio-compatible material. Magnesium alloys do not possess enough strength compared to the bone tissue. Mg containing HEAs could be the answer to this problem. Lynette W. Cheah found that for every 10 % mass reduction in vehicle, fuel consumption may reduce by 7 % [27]. If the parts of vehicle are made of strong alloys containing Mg and/or Al instead of Iron, the weight reduction will be 45 and 29 % respectively. This will significantly lower the carbon emission and save fossil fuel. The disadvantage with high reactivity of Mg and low strength of its alloys can be avoided by the virtue of introducing severe lattice distortion, high entropy effect and cocktail effect. This means that Mg must be alloyed with three or more elements to increase the configurational entropy of alloy to attain higher stability and strength.
Clearly, Mg containing HEAs are materials for future.
Alloying has a positive impact on the properties of Mg, and it has been proven that Al addition increases hardness, strength and castability without significantly affecting the density [28]. Ca enhances the thermo-mechanical properties, increases creep resistance and refines the grains. Nd and Ni both increase the strength of Mg when added separately. Cu enhances mechanical properties and aid thermal stability. Ce addition improves corrosion resistance; Mn increases saltwater corrosion resistance in Mg-Al alloys; Zn increases corrosion resistance in Mg-Ni-Fe alloys; Sn prevents cracks during Mg-Al alloy processing and Sr increases creep resistance [28, 29]. Every element has a unique effect on alloy, as shown in Figure 2 and hence, HEAs must be exploited to establish a synergy between different alloying elements in Mg to produce an alloy with high strength to weigh ratio. In Figure 2, Mg containing HEAs may have property in a combination of all (cocktail effect). Most Mg containing HEAs show light weight and moderate strength which is described in the mechanical properties section 6. A combination of the light weight achieved due to Mg being one of the base metals and the superior properties of the other principal elements makes HEAs special.
Development of magnesium alloys.
Figure 3 shows graph of tensile yield strength versus elongation of a range of Mg-Al, Mg-Zn, Mg-Zn-RE, Mg-Gd-RE alloys and Mg containing HEAs [30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35]. The available data on Mg containing HEAs are used in this plot and the other Mg alloy range is obtained from a study by Sankaran and coworkers [30]. This diagram shows the wide range of tensile strength and elongation depending on the compositions of alloys, which not only contributes to the materials property but also adds new possible alloys for a wide range of applications.
Tensile yield strength versus elongation %.
Figure 4 shows Al is the highest alloyed element with Mg followed by Cu and Li in HEA system. Mg is a reactive metal with a low melting point. It burns with a shiny white light in air. Considering its high vapour pressure, Mechanical Alloying (MA) would be a suitable process compared to melting and casting for synthesis of alloys containing Mg. MA is a common route for synthesis of Mg containing HEAs [33, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42]. Youssef et. al [37] and Ornov et. al [43] were the first to study Mg containing HEAs synthesized by MA. Initial results were promising for the future of Mg-HEAs. AlFeCuCr
Elements vs number of times alloyed with Mg.
The
Element | Symbol | Atomic Mass | r (Å) | VEC | X | Density | Tm (K) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lithium | Li | 6.941 | 1.57 | 1 | 0.98 | 0.534 | 453.69 |
Magnesium | Mg | 24.305 | 1.6 | 2 | 1.31 | 1.738 | 923 |
Aluminium | Al | 26.9815 | 1.43 | 3 | 1.61 | 2.7 | 933.52 |
Calcium | Ca | 40.078 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1.55 | 1123 |
Scandium | Sc | 44.9559 | 1.6 | 3 | 1.36 | 2.985 | 1812 |
Titanium | Ti | 47.88 | 1.47 | 4 | 1.54 | 4.506 | 1943 |
Vanadium | V | 50.9415 | 1.36 | 5 | 1.63 | 6.11 | 2190 |
Chromium | Cr | 51.996 | 1.28 | 6 | 1.66 | 7.19 | 2130 |
Manganese | Mn | 54.93805 | 1.12 | 7 | 1.55 | 7.21 | 1517 |
Iron | Fe | 55.847181 | 1.28 | 8 | 1.83 | 7.874 | 1810 |
Nickel | Ni | 58.69 | 1.5 | 10 | 1.91 | 8.908 | 1728 |
Copper | Cu | 63.546 | 1.28 | 11 | 1.9 | 8.96 | 1357.7 |
Zinc | Zn | 65.39 | 1.37 | 12 | 1.65 | 7.14 | 692.8 |
Yttrium | Y | 88.9059 | 1.81 | 3 | 1.22 | 4.472 | 1803 |
Niobium | Nb | 92.9064 | 1.47 | 5 | 1.6 | 8.57 | 2750 |
Molybdenum | Mo | 65.9064 | 1.4 | 6 | 2.16 | 10.28 | 2883 |
Tin | Sn | 118.71 | 1.58 | 4 | 1.96 | 7.265 | 505.12 |
Physical properties of elements.
Microstructure of a material has a direct influence on its mechanical behaviors. Equiatomic MgMnAlZnCu HEA produced using induction melting consists of a matrix and a floral pattern where the floral pattern is rich in Al-Mn icosahedral quasicrystals and the matrix consists of an HCP phase comprised of all the alloying elements [31]. The presence of the quasicrystals is responsible for the increased hardness in this alloy, which gradually increases upon increasing the cooling rate. It is worth noting that Al-Mn quasicrystals are thermally stable. The increase in cooling rate also changes the plasticity of the alloy and hence, it increases the elasticity [31]. The microstructures are given in the following Figure 5(a). Increasing the amount of Mg in the alloy reduced the
(a) Equiatomic MgMnAlZnCu (Induction melting in Ar atmosphere, cooled using brine in Cu mold), (b)
Another light weight Mg-HEA, Al60Cu10Fe10Cr5Mn5Ni5Mg5, fabricated using vacuum induction melting followed by die casting, exhibits three different phases (1)
SEM micrographs of
Tun et. al. fabricated Mg80Al5Cu5Mn5Zn5 HEA through disintegrated melt deposition followed by extrusion: The alloy showed two IM and one SS phase in the microstructure [53]. The microstructure contained
SEM micrograph of
The density of any high entropy system is highly dependent on the elements present in the alloy. Mg and Li system produces extremely light weight alloys while addition of Al increases density but it strengthens the system as well. This increases the specific strength, which makes magnesium based high and medium entropy systems a matter of interest these days. The highest density in any magnesium containing multi-element alloy system is 5.06 g/cc in equiatomic MgMnAlZnCu produced using induction melting followed by cooling in brine, whereas
Mg | Al | Cu | Li | Zn | Fe | Ti | Cr | Mn | Nb | V | Ni | Mo | Sn | Sc | Ca | Y | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Al | -2 | ||||||||||||||||
Cu | -3 | -1 | |||||||||||||||
Li | 0 | -4 | -5 | ||||||||||||||
Zn | -4 | 1 | 1 | -8 | |||||||||||||
Fe | 18 | -11 | 13 | 26 | 4 | ||||||||||||
Ti | 16 | -30 | -9 | 34 | -15 | -17 | |||||||||||
Cr | 24 | -10 | 12 | 35 | 5 | -1 | -7 | ||||||||||
Mn | 10 | -19 | 4 | 19 | -6 | 0 | -8 | 2 | |||||||||
Nb | 32 | -18 | 3 | -46 | -1 | -16 | 2 | -7 | -4 | ||||||||
V | 23 | -16 | 5 | 37 | -2 | -7 | -2 | -2 | -1 | -1 | |||||||
Ni | -4 | -22 | 4 | 1 | -9 | -2 | -35 | -7 | -8 | -30 | -18 | ||||||
Mo | 36 | -5 | 19 | 49 | 12 | -2 | -4 | 0 | 5 | -6 | 0 | -7 | |||||
Sn | -9 | 4 | 7 | -18 | 1 | 11 | -21 | 10 | -7 | -1 | -1 | -4 | 20 | ||||
Sc | -3 | -38 | -24 | 12 | -29 | -11 | 8 | 1 | -8 | 18 | 7 | -39 | 11 | -45 | |||
Ca | -6 | -20 | -13 | -1 | -22 | 25 | 43 | 38 | 19 | 63 | 44 | -7 | 56 | -45 | 17 | ||
Y | -6 | -38 | -22 | 8 | -31 | -1 | 15 | 11 | -1 | 30 | 17 | -31 | 24 | -51 | 1 | 11 |
Enthalpy of mixing of elements in a pair.
The hardness of Mg-HEAs generally decreased with increase in composition of Mg, the maximum hardness with equiatomic composition was found to be 428 HV [32]. MgMnAlZnCu HEA exhibits the highest hardness when processed at higher cooling rate due to formation of Al-Mn icosahedral quasicrystals [31].
Mg-HEAs with a low magnesium content exhibit higher yield strength. The
It can be inferred from existing literature, Mg-HEAs synthesized by MA can find applications in structural as well as hydrogen storage systems [39, 41, 54, 55, 56, 57] although more extensive research is required to find a better alloy and processing techniques; whereas induction melting in different atmospheres and casting process were used for alloys to be used in load bearing components. Mechanical properties are available for a few alloys which makes it difficult for authors to give a comprehensive analysis. MgMoNbFe
Table 4 represents the manufacturing route for various Mg containing HEAs, the phases present in corresponding alloys, the presence of intermetallic phases and the physical and mechanical properties of the alloys. It is evident from the data that the presence of intermetallics enhance the mechanical properties of the alloys. The increased amount of Mg reduces the alloy density and makes it a suitable candidate for aerospace applications. Further researches on Mg-HEAs need to aim on creating light weight and strong alloys at the same time, this could be done by
HEA Composition | Processing Route | Phases | Reported Properties | Year | Ref | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FCC | BCC | HCP | Intermetallics | Tensile Strength (MPa) | Compressive Strength (MPa) | Hard-ness (HV) | Density (g/cc) | ||||
Mechanical alloying | ✔ | 3.05 | 2015 | [37] | |||||||
AlLiMgSnZn | Induction Melting | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | 615 | 3.88 | 2014 | [35] | |||
✔ | ✔ | 546 | 2.9 | ||||||||
✔ | 2.75 | ||||||||||
✔ | 2.96 | ||||||||||
✔ | ✔ | 836 | 3.05 | ||||||||
✔ | ✔ | 879 | 2.91 | ||||||||
AlFeCuCr | Mechanical Alloying | 0.44 | 0.56 | NA | 2017 | [38] | |||||
AlFeCuCrMg | 0.505 | 0.495 | NA | ||||||||
AlFeCuCr | 0.1 | 0.9 (C | NA | ||||||||
Induction Melting | ✔ | Al-Mn quasicrystal | 428 | 428 | 4.3 | 2010 | [32] | ||||
✔ | Al-Mn quasicrystal | 437 | 324 | 3.5 | |||||||
✔ | Al-Mn quasicrystal | 500 | 244 | 2.5 | |||||||
✔ | Al-Mn quasicrystal | 482 | 223.2 | 2.3 | |||||||
✔ | Al-Mn quasicrystal | 400 | 178 | 2.2 | |||||||
Disintegrated melt deposition. | ✔ | ✔ | 318 | 616 | 196 | 2.15 | 2019 | [53] | |||
MgVAlCr | Mechanical Alloying | ✔ | NA | 2021 | [39] | ||||||
MgVAlNi | ✔ | NA | |||||||||
MgVCrNi | ✔ | NA | |||||||||
MgVAlCrNi | ✔ | NA | |||||||||
✔ | NA | ||||||||||
✔ | NA | ||||||||||
Mechanical Alloying | ✔ | NA | 2021 | [41] | |||||||
Mechanical Alloying | ✔ | ✔ | 1503 | 460 | 4.91 | 2019 | [42] | ||||
MgAlSiCrFe | Mechanical Alloying | minor | ✔ | NA | 2020 | [44] | |||||
AlMgLiCa | Casting | NA | NA | 2020 | [58] | ||||||
≈300 | NA | ||||||||||
AlMgLi | NA | NA | |||||||||
Vacuum Induction Melting | ✔ | ✔ | 743 | NA | 2018 | [34] | |||||
MgMoNbFe | Mechnaical Alloying;laser cladding (Coating) | ✔ | ≈400 | NA | 2020 | [36] | |||||
MgMoNbFe | ✔ | ≈500 HV | NA | 2020 | |||||||
MgMoNbFe | ✔ | ✔ | ≈650 | NA | 2020 | ||||||
MgMoNbFe | ✔ | ✔ | ≈1000 | NA | 2020 | ||||||
Disintegrated melt deposition | α-Mg | ✔ | 237 ± 10 | 2.25 | 2018 | [33] | |||||
α-Mg | ✔ | 267 ± 15 | 2.27 | 2018 |
Manufacturing routes, present phases and corresponding mechanical properties of Mg containing HEAs.
A large number of researches have been conducted on binary and ternary alloys but quaternary and quinary systems are yet to be explored. The number of possible HEAs are around
Sanchez et al. used CALPHAD to predict phases present in
Amongst the growing need for energy and constant decline in non-renewable energy sources, renewable energy storage devices are gaining popularity. The demand for Hydrogen Storage Devices is also increasing for the same reason. Among many other alternatives of hydrogen storage principles, metal hydrides are considered as some ideal candidates as these do not require cryogenic cooling like liquid hydrogen storages and can absorb decent amount of hydrogen as hydrides due to the high bond strength between metal and hydrogen [54]. Most metal hydrides exhibit exothermic reactions during hydride formation, whereas; the desorption reaction is endothermic in most cases. So, external temperature rise is necessary to continue the storage cycle. The negative enthalpy and entropy values are responsible for the high bond strength between metal ions and hydrogen [40]. The ΔH=-74 kJ.
The hydrogen storage in HEAs is related to a reversible phase transformation upon hydrogen absorption. The complex crystal structure of HEAs can store hydrogen in both tetrahedral and octahedral voids simultaneously, resulting in a higher hydrogen storage capacity than any single or, binary metal hydride. TiVZrNbHf HEA has the hydrogen to metal ratio, [H]/[M]= 2.5 [57]. The hydrogen to metal ratio is 2 for single metal hydrides [41].
Zepon et. al. conducted a research on Mg containing HEA and found the hydrogen absorption capacity to be 1.2 wt% of the alloy. The HEA exhibits a BCC structure while it converts into an FCC structure upon hydrogen absorption [55]. The HEA was produced using high energy ball milling while the hydride was produced using reactive ball milling. The main reason for upgrading to Mg containing HEAs for hydrogen storage is because of the light weight of Mg which might reduce the weight of hydrogen storage devices in light duty fuel cell vehicles. Efficient hydrogen storage requires light weight storage devices for high gravimetric capacity [41].
Marcelo et. al. produced hydrides of MgVCr and MgVTiCrFe alloys using reactive milling and the MgVCr consisted of a BCC phase with presence of β-
Strozi et. al synthesized MgVAlCrNi HEA using high energy ball milling but the equiatomic compound showed a very low hydrogen storage capacity, so two non-equiatomic alloy, Mg28V28Al19Cr19Ni6 and Mg26V31Al31Cr6Ni6 were proposed and studied for hydrogen storage which also didn’t show promising results. The non-equiatomic compositions were selected in such a way that the amount of Mg and V is increased, the solubility of hydrogen is increased and so does the lattice parameter because, the increase in lattice parameter indicates that there will be more available interstitial space for hydrogen absorption into the structure. This study prioritizes on the importance of the enthalpy of hydrogen solution on the hydrogen storage capacity of Mg containing HEAs [39]. The positive enthalpy of hydride formation for most of the elements present in these alloys is responsible for this low hydrogen storage behavior.
A very recent study by Montero et al. suggests the improvement in cycling behavior of TiVZrNb HEA upon introduction of Mg to it. After the 12th cycle, the absorption capacity reduces upto 2.41 wt% from the initial 2.8 wt%. The temperature where the maximum desorption occur, is 290°C for
The Table 5 summarizes the findings.
This section gives an elementary guideline for design, phase prediction and future trends of magnesium containing HEAs. Before doing that it is more important to focus on possible applications of such alloys e.g. die casting, paneling of aircraft, weight reduction in automobiles and biomedical implants. Magnesium components are used in automobiles as instrument-panel beam, transfer case, steering components, air bag housing, seat tanks, fuel tank cover and radiator support. Typically Mg constitutes 4 kgs of normal cars weight which is fairly less. Mg can absorb 16 time more vibrations compared to Al, hence alloys of Mg can be used for shock absorbing applications. The major reason for limited use of Magnesium alloys is low strength compared to Aluminum alloys and Steels. The concept of maximization of entropy via mixing multiple elements in near equiatomic ratios to creating “base” or solvent less alloy. Till date, various HEAs have proven their strength. The implementation of this system to Mg could be breakthrough for automotive, space, missiles and aircraft industry. To do so authors provide a preliminary scientific approach to develop Mg HEAs.
Mg has high solubility with Li (∼ 17 at. %), Al (∼12 at. %), In (∼19 at. %) and it is completely soluble with Cadmium. Although Li and In are soft metals like Mg. It has very high tendency to form intermetallic compounds with metals such as Al, Zn, Cu, Y, Zr and Ca etc. It forms the famous quasicrystals when alloyed with Mn. Mg finds place in a wide spectrum of alloys, compounds and systems. Perhaps it is most interesting element, yet to be studied thoroughly in the complex concentrated systems or HEAs. The short range order in HEAs is recently reported to be a core effect for strengthening in such alloys. Mg provides a great avenue for tailoring heterogeneities in HEAs. In the light of limited data of Mg containing HEAs with only 35 compositions, it is hard for authors to suggest the role of thermodynamic and kinetic criteria to develop Mg-HEAs. There is an insufficient data to develop an analogy on the phase development and phase evolution of Mg containing HEAs.
It has been understood that critical values of theoretical parameters used for conventional heavy HEAs are not sufficient and effective in case of LHEAs containing especially Mg owing to its larger size, high |∆Hmix| with most of elements leading to immiscibility (∆Hmix is +ve) and intermetallic formation (∆Hmix is –ve). Yang et. al. proposed new limits to the critical value for light weight HEAs. The modified threshold values suggest that SS will form at ∆Hmix ∈ [-1, 5] kJ/mol; δ < 4.5% and Ω > 10. Mg amongst all the elements in the reported alloys has higher radius due to which poly-disparity constant “δ” value is higher and hence does not support complete SS formation. It is evident that Ω > 10 is an ideal condition for SS formation but in various cases a pure SS is obtained when Ω < 10, which is an unknown at present and shall be governed by the effect of individual elements for instance; in few of such alloys Mg was alloyed with refractory elements such as Mo and Nb and in this case, δ had a high value. In few alloys the effect of high configurational entropy of mixing is overshadowed by high negative enthalpy of mixing and high atomic mismatch. HEAs containing Mg, Li and Al open a new avenue for scientific research and new outlook for understanding of such complex systems. It is simply understood that if an alloy contain more elements with HCP crystal structure (Mg, Ti, Sc, Co, Zn, Cd, Zr and Y), it should probably result in HCP structure of alloy. This is evident from the authors analysis. It can be concluded that for designing HEAs with Mg, Li and Al, ∆Hmix should be given priority over entropy of mixing. It is crucial to study the possible binary and ternary combinations out of the sought HEA composition.
For the design of LHEAs, Mg alone should not be essentially alloyed with Al and/or Li. At the same time elements soluble with Al or Li can be used to further increase the disordered structure. As it has been also observed that the presence of d orbital element is necessary to obtain high entropy effect in the alloy [35]. To understand the phases, pseudo binary phase diagrams can also be produced using Thermo-Calc, molecular dynamics simulations or extrapolating the experimental data. Due to lack of experimental data, the extrapolation may not be accurate. Phase formation and phase stabilization can be understood by studying the thermodynamic parameters. Few graphs have been plotted shown in Figures 8–10 using the basic thermodynamic parameters such as
Graph between enthalpy and entropy from the data shown in
(a) Graph between atomic mismatch factor and VEC; (b) graph between the atomic mismatch factor and omega; (c) graph between atomic mismatch factor and VEC. Data has been taken from
(a) Graph between VEC and enthalpy; (b) graph between VEC and electro-negativity; (c) graph between VEC and entropy. Data has been taken from
1. | Atomic size 2difference | Ci is atomic percentage | [35] |
2. | Enthalpy | Ci and Cj is atomic percentage | [35] |
3. | Macro states: Statistical Thermodynamic parameter | Tm is the melting point of n elements. | [35] |
4. | Melting point of n elements | n is the number of elements. CI is the atomic percentage; Tmi is the melting point of ith element. | [35] |
5. | Pauling electronegativity difference | Ci is the atomic percentage of ith element. | [35] |
6. | VEC | VEC = Ci is the atomic percentage of ith element. | [35] |
List of equations for calculation of thermodynamic parameters.
Table 7 shows the type of compound formation based on the values of
Mixing Enthalpy | Mixing Entropy | Gibbs Free Energy | Types of phase |
---|---|---|---|
Elemental Phases | |||
Compounds | |||
Intermediate phase | |||
Random solid solution |
Types of phase based on the values of thermodynamic parameters, Gibbs free energy ΔG_mix, mixing enthalpy ΔH_mix and mixing Entropy ΔS_mix [60].
Figure 8 shows the graph between the
Effect of
Figure 9b shows the effect of
Figure 10 shows the effect of VEC on solid solution formation in LHEAs. VEC is the total number of free electrons including the d-orbital electrons that can participate in the formation of chemical bond. Generally, VEC also helps to understand the type of phase formation in the alloy. FCC phases are found to be stable at VEC
Figures 9b and 10a-c, shows the effect of VEC on solid solution formation with respect to
All the parameters can be understood as the pure ss of LHEA will form for the following parameters.
2.7< VEC<6.5
If an alloy follows these certain condition, we can obtain the single phase LHEAs.
It is observed that alloys with Ca have a higher tendency to form IM, similar result have been observed by Nagase et. al. The melting point (MP) of constituting elements also plays a significant role, as a higher difference in MP leads to segregation upon cooling. It should also be accepted that formation of IM cannot avoided in Complex concentrated systems as there is always a possibility of two random elements having higher negative enthalpy of mixing. It is important to note that till date no Mg containing HEA has shown LPSO. LPSO containing Mg alloys if possible could have exhibited better properties and stability. VEC rule is well-established in HEAs, but its drawback is that it does not discuss about lattice other than BCC and FCC, in the case of Mg HEAs, most of the lower density alloys crystallizes in HCP.
The unique compositions of HEAs give rise to a new set of properties which makes every high entropy alloy unique. Mg containing high entropy alloys have shown promising features which make them unique for the following applications.
Aerospace alloys and alloys in motor vehicles as a replacement of Al based alloys: Aluminium is already a popular materials for construction of motor vehicles and even aerospace materials. Mg being lighter than Al in fact acts as a means of reducing the density of the alloy even more.
High strength and corrosion resistant applications.
Hydrogen storage devices: The details of the hydrogen storage behaviour of Mg containing HEAs are already discussed in section 6. According to Table 6,
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"},selectedSubseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"}}},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/34767",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"34767"},fullPath:"/chapters/34767",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()