More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
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“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\n
Simba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\n
IntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\n
Since the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n
\n\n
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1. Introduction
Global warming and the changing climatic conditions lead to the concurrence of multiple abiotic and biotic stresses individually/or in combination [1, 2] thus adversely affecting the rice crop growth and yield [3]. The changing climate, more and more extreme weather events are increasing the probability of simultaneous multiple abiotic stresses, including extra pressure from biotic stresses. Abiotic and biotic stresses reported to have significant negative impact on rice crop survival, growth, development and yield in most parts of the world, especially the Asia and Africa [4, 5]. The abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, cold, high temperature and heavy metals are known to influence the occurrence of biotic stresses [6, 7, 8]. The combined effect of multiple stresses may resulted the minor pests to become the potential threats in the coming future [1, 9, 10].
The rice farming is practiced in various diverse ecological zones. The rice cultivation system in diiferent growing areas are mainly depends upon various factors such as available water, soil type, and the prevailing monsoon. Rice production faces various constraints in various ecology of rice cultivation (Table 1). Rice crop faces multiple stresses during different stages of its growth and development and around 70% reduction in yield was reported due to the occurance of abiotic stresses at different stages of growth and development [5]. Similarly, the major biotic stresses such as bacterial leaf blight, blast, brown plant hopper, brown spot, sheath blight and gall midge reported to impart severe crop yield losses or even complete crop failure during infestation [4]. The growth of rice yield has deteriorated from 2.3% per year during 1970s–1980s to about 1.5% during 1990s, and to <1% in the first decads of this present century [11]. Although the rice production has improved considerably over time but it is not sufficient to cope with the increasing demand globally [12]. The annual shortage of rice is expected to rise from 400,000 tons in 2016 to around 800,000 tons by 2030 [13].
Lack of assurred irrigation, frequent drought, blast, bacterial leaf blight
Rainfed medium lowland
Rainfall, water table
Lack of assurred irrigation, drought, flood, drought and flood in same or different season, bacterial leaf blight, brown plant hopper, gall midge
Rainfed deep lowland
Rainfall, water table, flood water
Lack of assured irrigation, fragile and low productivity, Prevailing abiotic stresses such as flood, salinity, Biotic stresses such as bacterial leaf blight, gall midge, brown plant hopper
Irrigated
Irrigation
Salinity, bacterial leaf blight, brown plant hopper
Table 1.
Rice production constraints in various ecologies of rice cultivation.
As crop plants are immobile, they have to respond to the different abiotic and biotic stresses in the field itself. Breeding efforts in developing tolerance for single stress such as drought, heat, salinity, cold, insect and pathogen or a single stress type viz. abiotic or biotic may be tricky because plants may respond differentially to different or simultaneous occurance of stresses. The increase in resistance/tolerance to one type of stress may be at the cost of resistance/tolerance to another stress [14]. Breeding of high yielding multiple stress tolerant/resistant rice varieties with better grain quality is the urgent need of the hour since many decades [15]. Improvement of germplasm involving improved donors free from undersirable linkage, identification and introgression of genomic regions after validation involving recent advances in genomics-assisted breeding has provided opportunity to combat the challenges arising due the occurance of multiple stresses [16]. An integrated genomics-assisted breeding approach to introgress desirable genes/QTLs conferring tolerance/resistance to major abiotic and biotic stresses in addition to improved yield and quality will help to combat the present situation [16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. The commercial use of QTLs/genes-conferred multiple stress tolerant/resistant rice varieties provides an effective, economical and environment friendly approach to protect the crop yield and productivity. In past few years, the identification of genomic regions associated with drought, submergence and heat tolerance and introgression and pyramiding of these regions applying markers assisted selection/backcross approach have successfully led to the development of drought or flood tolerant version of some of the mega varieties such as Swarna, IR64 and Sambha Mahsuri. Some of these developed genomics-assisted derived breeding lines have been released as varieties in various countries of South Asia and South East Asia for cultivation.
2. Biotic stresses
2.1 Bacterial blight
Rice crop is most vulnerable to bacterial blight (BLB) caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. Oryzae (Xoo). The incidences of BLB reported yield losses of 20–30% and as high 80–100% in moderate and severe infection conditions, respectively [21, 22]. This might be due to the partial grain filling resulted from low photosynthetic activity [23]. Out of already identified 45 BLB resistant (R) genes, 11 genes have been fine mapped and cloned till date applying modern biotechnological [24, 25, 26, 27]. The marker-assisted pyramiding approach was applied to pyramid four BLB resistant genes; Xa4, xa5, xa13 and Xa21 in background of high yielding rice varieties to achieve wider and durable resistance [28, 29, 30, 31]. The combination of these four BLB genes reported as most stable and showed resistance to most of the pathogen isolates [32, 33].
2.2 Blast
Rice blast (Magnaporthe oryzae) is another crucial threat to the rice production caused by fungus Pyricularia oryzae. It is affecting leaves, collar, nodes, panicles and panicle neck during vegetative to reproductive stage causing 10–30% under mild infestation [34, 35, 36] to 70–80% [37] to 100% [38] yield losses under severe infestation conditions. Till now, more than 100 blast resistant genes have been identified, however only 30 of them has been cloned and functionally characterized [17, 39]. The identified linked markers can be used effectively to provide resistance against this devastating fungal disease. The broad-spectrum blast resistant genes viz. Pi9 which encodes the NBS–LRR gene clusters and Pita2 which was mapped on the short arm of chromosome 12 confer resistant to many of the blast races in different countries [40, 41]. Transgenic rice lines carrying Pi-d2 blast resistance gene transformed involving vectors pCB6.3 kb, pZH01–2.72 kb, and pCB5.3 kb showed various levels of resistance (~92%) against 39 strains of rice blast [42]. The durability of rice blast resistance can be further improved by the hybridization of rice varieties carrying complementary genes to attain multi-genic resistance against broad spectrum pathogen races [43], thereby reducing the selection pressure on a single isolate.
2.3 Brown plant hopper
Brown plant hopper (Nilaparvata lugens) is one of the most notorious insect-pest of rice causing large scale destructions across Asia amounting to around 60% crop loss [44]. In addition, it is responsible for the transmission of the virus diseases such as rice grassy stunt virus and rice ragged stunt (RRSV) viruses [45, 46]. To date, 37 BPH resistant genes on six of the total twelve rice chromosomes have been reported from cultivated rice and wild Oryza species [17, 47, 48]. Out of these 34 genes, 20 genes were fine mapped and only 8 genes (Bph3, Bph14, Bph9, Bph17, Bph26, Bph18, Bph29 and Bph32) have been cloned and functionally characterized [49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56]. These resistance genes encode NBS-LRR protein family that are being widely used in marker-assisted breeding programs to develop rice varieties resistance to BPH. However, notable achievements have been made in identification and introgression of BPH resistance genes, rapid evolution of the virulent populations of BPH poses a prime concern. The Srilankan rice cultivar Rathu Heenati was first reported as the potential donor providing resistance against four BPH biotypes [57]. Even after 30 years of deployment in the Philippines, Rathu Heenati still reported to provide resistance to BPH [58]. The cloning and functional characterization of BPH resistant genes provides unique opportunity to effectively use these genes in marker-assisted gene introgression program [53].
2.4 Gall midge
The Asian rice gall midge (Orseolia oryzae) is another serious insect pest of rice prevailing mainly in wet season in the South-East Asia, China, and India, while Orseolia oryzivora, a closely related species is prevalent in the Africa. The infestation of gall midge (GM) amounting an annual yield loss of $550 million in different countries in Asia [59]. Till date, various genetic studies have identified 11 major resistance (R) genes providing resistance to 7 biotypes of the gall midge of rice which are prevailing mostly in South Asian countries [60, 61, 62, 63]. Out of 11, eight of GM resistance genes (Gm1, Gm2, Gm4, gm3, Gm6, Gm8, Gm7, and Gm11) have been mapped successfully [64, 65]. Interestingly, none of the identified GM resistant genes confers resistance to all the biotypes of gall midge, while none of the GM biotype is virulent against all the identified resistance genes. Four gall midge resistance genes designated as Gm1, gm3(NB-ARC), Gm2(NB-ARC), and Gm4(NB-LRR) have been functionally validated and linked markers can be used for the marker-assisted introgression program [63, 66, 67, 68]. Marker-assisted introgression/pyramiding of gall midge resistant genes (Gm1 + Gm4) and (Gm4 + Gm8) in background of improved Samba Mahsuri and an elite rice hybrid DRRH3 respectively was attempted by Divya et al. [62] and Kumar et al. [69]. Further, marker assisted pyramiding of multi-genes conferring to bacterial blight, gall midge, blast along with Saltol QTLs for salinity tolerance was reported [18, 33].
3. Abiotic stresses
3.1 Drought
Among the abiotic stresses, drought is one of the most disruptive, and risky events of the ongoing climate change that affect millions of people every year across the world. Depending upon the intensity and pattern of rainfall, drought can occur from few days to few months or even to years [70]. The development of high yielding drought-tolerant rice varieties is the final goal of rice breeders to reduce the yield losses due to drought and to ensure the projected world food production. However, the development of drought-tolerant rice varieties is immensely tough due to the complex quantitative nature of trait [71, 72]. The selection of lines under differential level of drought and due to the occurrence of drought at different stages [73, 74, 75] is again not an easy task. In addition, the strong GxE interactions and low heritability of traits such as grain yield also add to the difficulty of the task [76]. Cost-effective modified breeding strategy involving combined phenotyping and genotyping selection approaches in the development and screening of large segregating populations covering high genetic variation have led to the successful identification of 12 major effect QTLs (qDTY1.1 on chromosome 1; qDTY2.1, qDTY2.2 and qDTY2.3 on chromosome 2; qDTY3.1 and qDTY3.2 on chromosome 3, qDTY4.1 on chromosome 4; qDTY6.1 and qDTY6.2 on chromosome 6, qDTY9.1 on chromosome 9, qDTY10.1 on chromosome 10, and qDTY12.1 on chromosome 12) with consistent effects in background of widely cultivated, popular, high-yielding but drought-susceptible rice varieties, such as IR64, Swarna, Sabitri, MTU1010, Vandana and TDK1 [77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85].
3.2 Salinity
Salinization of soil is an another important crises the world is facing nowadays. Salty soil which is widely distributed across the world is major factor of rice yield reduction. The salt affected land in India accounts for 6.73 mha (million heactare) which is predicted to increase to 16.2 mha by 2050 [86, 87]. The complexity of salt tolerance mechanisms limits the development of high yielding salt tolerance rice varieties [88]. Salinity stress reported to affect rice grain yield from 20 to 100% depends on the severity of the stress and the duration of stress exposed to the rice crop [89]. Fortunately, the exiting wide genetic variability in rice germplasm in response to soil salinity stress makes possible to develop salt tolerant rice varieties [90, 91, 92]. The identification and introgression of the trait (s)/genomic regions of interest are the well-known approaches for the development of salinity tolerant varieties [93, 94]. Marker assisted breeding approaches have been proven successful in developing new improved, high yielding salt tolerance rice varieties [95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100].
3.3 High and low temperature
Global changes in the climate conditions and increasing greenhouse gas emission led to a rise in earth’s surface temperature in some past decades, and the temperature is predicted to rise by 2 to 4°C by 2050 [101]. The high temperature duration of 3–5 days, 5–7 days and above 8 days is generally considered as mild, moderate and severe heat injury, respectively [102] while low temperature ranged from 0 to 15°C and <0°C categorized as chilling and freezing stress, respectively. Over the past few decades, extensive efforts have been made in identification of genes/QTLs improving heat [103, 104, 105] and cold tolerance [106, 107] in rice, which are very complex trait.
4. Marker-assisted pyramiding of multiple QTLs/genes for abiotic/biotic stresses
The challenges from the climate change scenario require the development of climate-adapted rice varieties that combine the tolerance of various abiotic and biotic stresses to better sustain yield losses from unpredicted climate-related events. Recent developments in the identification of major QTLs/genes for drought, submergence, salinity, bacterial blight, brown plant hopper, gall midge, and blast and the successful introgression of identified QTLs to develop improved varieties tolerant of different individual stresses indicate that, with the advent of new marker technology, the development of varieties that combine tolerance of the various abiotic and biotic stresses prevalent in any region is feasible. Such varieties once developed can help farmers overcome yield losses and better farm income under the changed climatic conditions.
The identification of major effect QTLs for the grain yield under drought qDTY12.1 [77], qDTY3.1 [80], and qDTY1.1 [78]; Sub1, the gene for submergence [108, 109]; and Saltol, the QTL for salinity [110, 111] using modern breeding tools has provided novel opportunities to the breeders to develop the rice varieties tolerant of abiotic stresses. Marker-assisted backcrossing of Sub1 to improve popular variety Swarna had been successfully demonstrated to provide a yield advantage under submerged conditions for up to 18 days [112]. Similarly, the development of drought-tolerant versions of IR64 and Vandna [84, 113] at IRRI that are shown to possess a 1.0 and 0.5 t/ha yield advantage under drought over IR64 and Vandna, respectively, and successful introgression of Saltol into BR28 [114] are some of the recent successes using marker-assisted introgression.
Marker assisted gene pyramiding is an effective breeding strategy to transfer more than one tolerance/resistance genes into a single rice line in order to achieve durable and broader resistance level which can prevent the breakdown of tolerance/resistance against specific races/pathogens [115]. Pyramiding of BLB resistant genes such as xa5 + xa13 + Xa21 [30, 31], Xa4 + xa5 + Xa21 [29] and Xa4 + xa5 + xa13 + Xa21 [70] had been reported to provide durable resistance in rice against bacterial blight disease. Pyramiding of blast resistance genes Pi9 and Pita has proven effective to combat the blast incidence and increase the durability of blast resistance genes [116].
Rice lines pyramided with multiple disease resistance genes (Xa4, Xa21, xa5, Bph18 and Pi40,) has conferred resistance against BLB, blast, and BPH disease [29]. Among abiotic stresses, recently, drought and flood tolerance were combined using marker assisted pyramiding of the drought QTLs (qDTY1.1 + qDTY2.1 + qDTY3.1) and submergence gene (Sub1) together in a popular rice variety, Swarna [19]. The marker-assisted derived rice varieties have been released in different countries (Table 2).
Variety
QTLs/gene combinations
Targeted trait
Targeted country
Year of release
DRR dhan-42
qDTY2.2 + qDTY4.1
Drought
India
2014
Yaenelo 4
qDTY2.2 + qDTY4.1
Drought
Myanmar
2015
Yaenelo 5
qDTY2.2 + qDTY4.1
Drought
Myanmar
2016
Yaenelo 7
qDTY2.2 + qDTY4.1
Drought
Myanmar
2016
CR dhan-801
qDTY1.1 + qDTY2.1 + qDTY3.1 + Sub 1
Drought + flood
India
2017
Bahuguni dhan-2
qDTY3.1 + Sub 1
Drought + flood
Nepal
2017
Bahuguni dhan-1
qDTY1.1 + qDTY3.1 + Sub 1
Drought + flood
Nepal
2017
Table 2.
Marker-assisted derived variety released in various countries of South Asia for tolerance to drought and flood in rice.
5. QTLs/gene pyramiding through multiple parents crossing
To tackle the multiple problems of rice cultivation under ongoing climate change, a high yielding climate smart new rice lines with superior grain quality is the urgent need to intensify the sustainable rice production. Genomics-assisted breeding (GAB) was attempted to introgress and assemble multiple QTL/genes-qDTY1.1, qDTY2.1, qDTY3.1, qDTY12.1, Sub1, Gm4, Pi9, Pita2, Bph3, Bph17, Xa4, xa5, xa13, Xa21 and Xa23 into the background of a high yielding breeding line suited for lowland ecosystem of rice under Stress Tolerant Rice for Africa and South Asia(STRASA) project at IRRI. Developed climate resilient rice lines carrying 6–10 QTLs/genes combinations for tolerance to multiple biotic (BLB-Xa4, xa5, Xa21, xa13 and Xa23; Blast-Pita2, Pi9; BPH-Bph3 & Bph17 and gall midge-Gm4) and abiotic stresses (yield under drought stress- qDTY1.1, qDTY2.1, qDTY3.1, qDTY12.1 and submergence- Sub1) as well as superior grain quality traits are free from undesirable linkage drags and can be released as varieties on different countries after evaluation in the national system or can be used as an elite parental lines for making diverse crosses targeted to achieve high genetic gain [117]. Recently, introgression lines with 7 to 10 QTLs/genes for multiple-biotic stresses (blast, BLB, BPH and GM) with drought QTLs in background of Swarna has been reported [14]. A MAGIC (multi-parent advanced generation intercross) population developmental strategy has also been proposed to examine the effect of multiple alleles to provide high grain yield, better grain quality, and tolerance to a wide range of multiple biotic and abiotic stresses [118].
An increase in rice productivity through introgression of multiple traits which can improve rice adaptability under dry direct seeded (DSR) and additionally carrying traits for abiotic/biotic stresses looks a promising breeding strategy to adapt with changing climate, limited water and labor resources and increase rice yield under mechanized DSR conditions. QTLs for traits that increase adaptability to direct seeded rice conditions such as root traits [nodal root number (qNR4.1, qNR5.1) and root hair density (qRHD1.1, qRHD5.1, qRHD8.1)], early vegetative vigor (qEVV9.1), early uniform emergence (qEUE1.1, qEUE11.1), grain yield under DSR conditions (qGY1.1, qGY8.1, qGY10.1), and lodging resistance (qLDG4.1) had been pyramided with abiotic stresses (drought QTLs-qDTY1.1, qDTY2.1, qDTY3.1 and qDTY12.1) as well as biotic resistance (gall midge-Gm4, blast- Pi9, Pita 2, bacterial leaf blight- Xa4, Xa21, xa5, xa13, and brown plant hoppers-Bph3 and Bph17) using MAS approach [119, 120].
5.1 Steps in multiple-trait breeding
Three steps involved in multiple traits introgression scheme, (a) assemble first (b) line fixation and (c) line evaluation. In assemble first step, a complex crossing scheme utilized in transferring the desirable alleles/traits from all the targeted parents aimed to accumulate one copy of all targeted genes/QTLs in a single genotype. In line fixation step, gene based/SSRs/linked markers were utilized in each generation from F2 to F6 generation for tracking the presence of desirable alleles of targeted QTLs/in order to find homozygous plants carrying all the targeted QTLs/genes. Phenotyping of the homozygous lines for the targeted traits were performed in line evaluation step and proceed further for multilocation testing of promising lines in the targeted environments. The detailed description on traits, donors, QTLs/genes and markers associated that were used in genomic-assisted breeding program for the development of climate resilient lines at IRRI, Philippines (Table 3).
List of traits, donors, QTLs/genes, and markers associated used in crossing program for the development of climate resilient lines at IRRI, Philippines.
5.2 Challenges in multiple-trait breeding
The complex breeding program that targets combining tolerance of various abiotic and biotic stresses together in the various genetic backgrounds is unpredictable and more research is needed as such, little is known about the effect that each gene/QTL on the others. However, it is highly assumed that most of the QTLs/genes should work in an additive manner, as far as the targeted QTLs/genes are either located on different chromosomes or in different regions of the same chromosomes. Genomic interactions play a significant role in deciding the performance of introgression lines pyramided with various drought grain yield QTLs in rice [128, 129, 130, 131]. In some cases, epistatic interactions between different loci can enhance or reduce the effect of some of the genes/QTLs. Under such a situation, as an alternative strategy of identifying and advancing lines with different combinations of genes/QTLs- six, seven, or eight for different stresses and showing higher grain yield under nonstress conditions will also be selected and the best combinations that will show tolerance of a maximum number of abiotic and biotic stresses and the highest yield advantage will be advanced for testing. Plants carrying maximum number QTLs/gene but having negative interaction with grain yield and showing inferior plant type can be rejected for further advancement.
Maintenance of larger population size could also be a feasible strategy which can allow to select rare recombinants having maximum number of targeted QTLs/genes and also free from undesirable linkages. In previous studies, drought tolerant rice lines were developed through successful breakage of the linkages between loci for tolerance to drought and undesirable traits by fine mapping and maintain huge population size [132].
6. Role of genomic selection in multiple-trait breeding
Genomic selection (GS) in crop plants facilitates the rapid selection of superior accessions/genotypes and accelerate the breeding cycle targeted for higher genetic gain. It aims to use the genome-wide markers to predict the effects of all associated loci. The developed best prediction model is applied to the tested breeding material which has been charactized only genotypically but not phenotypically. The breeding estimated value called as GEBV (genomic estimated breeding value). The parental lines with higher GEBV can be selected as the candidate lines for future breeding programs. Most of the previous studied in cereal crops has shown great potential for GS to enhance the selection for grain yield and yield related traits [133, 134]. Multi trait genomic selection can be also implemented on phenotypic data of multiple traits viz. grain quality traits, grain yield and yield components, and reaction to the biotic and abiotic stresses, however it is important that a favorable genetic correlation exists between traits to implement genomic prediction model effectively [135, 136].
7. Conclusions
To solve the global issue of food security in the era of changing climate, novel approaches involving successful stacking of multiple genes/QTLs in a single rice line utilizing strategic phenotypic-genotypic selection could provide opportunity targeting genetic gain in rice. New advances in hybridization stratgies, genomics, marker development, and sequencing permitted the opportunity to create muti-gene carrying high-yielding rice varieties to combat multiple stresses. The development of rice varieties carrying multiple QTLs/genes in homozygous conditions can address the production constraints faced due to both biotic and abiotic stresses simultaneously. These stress-tolerant rice varieties with desired grain quality can greatly help farmers in improving productivity under multiple stress conditions.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"abiotic stress, biotic stress, genomic-assisted breeding, pyramiding, QTLs, rice, yield",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73824.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73824.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73824",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73824",totalDownloads:611,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 3rd 2020",dateReviewed:"August 26th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 30th 2020",datePublished:"July 21st 2021",dateFinished:"October 30th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Increasing incidences of multiple abiotic stresses together with increasing population are the major constraints to attain the global food security. Rice, the major staple food crop is very much prone to various abiotic and biotic stresses, which can occur one at a time or two or more together in a single crop growing season and adversely affects the rice production and productivity. The devastating effect of multiple stresses on rice crop is much more erratic and complex leading to higher losses in the crop grain yield. The concurrent occurrence of multiple streeses can destroy rice production in many of the rainfed areas of South and Southeast-Asia. Genomics-assisted breeding strategies have been instrumental in introgression of various major effect QTLs/genes into rice mega varieties and have proven successful in achieving the desired level of tolerance/resistance to various abiotic stresses in diffferent crop species. Keeping the present scenario of changing climate in mind, the chapter discusses the recent past success in combining tolerance to two or more abiotic stresses in mega rice varieties applying genomics-assisted breeding and development of high-yielding climate resilient rice through stacking of multiple genes/QTLs, which can withstand in a cascade of multiple stresses occurring regularly in rainfed environments.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73824",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73824",signatures:"Nitika Sandhu, Shailesh Yadav and Arvind Kumar",book:{id:"10363",type:"book",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants",publishedDate:"July 21st 2021",bookSignature:"Shah Fahad, Shah Saud, Yajun Chen, Chao Wu and Depeng Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10363.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83881-062-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-055-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-063-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"194771",title:"Dr.",name:"Shah",middleName:null,surname:"Fahad",slug:"shah-fahad",fullName:"Shah Fahad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"323058",title:"Dr.",name:"Arvind",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Arvind Kumar",slug:"arvind-kumar",email:"a.kumar@irri.org",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"329059",title:"Dr.",name:"Nitika",middleName:null,surname:"Sandhu",fullName:"Nitika Sandhu",slug:"nitika-sandhu",email:"nitikasandhu@pau.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Punjab Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329060",title:"Dr.",name:"Shailesh",middleName:null,surname:"Yadav",fullName:"Shailesh Yadav",slug:"shailesh-yadav",email:"shaileshagri9@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"International Rice Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Philippines"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Biotic stresses",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Bacterial blight",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Blast",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Brown plant hopper",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Gall midge",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Abiotic stresses",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1 Drought",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2 Salinity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.3 High and low temperature",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Marker-assisted pyramiding of multiple QTLs/genes for abiotic/biotic stresses",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. QTLs/gene pyramiding through multiple parents crossing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.1 Steps in multiple-trait breeding",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.2 Challenges in multiple-trait breeding",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. Role of genomic selection in multiple-trait breeding",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"7. 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DOI: 10.1038/srep14799'},{id:"B133",body:'He S, Schulthess AW, Mirdita V, Zhao Y, Korzun V, Bothe R, et al. Genomic selection in a commercial winter wheat population. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 2016;129(3):641-651. DOI: 10.1007/s00122-015-2655-1'},{id:"B134",body:'Michel S, Ametz C, Gungor H, Epure D, Grausgruber H, Löschenberger F, et al. Genomic selection across multiple breeding cycles in applied bread wheat breeding. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 2016;129(6):1179-1189. DOI: 10.1007/s00122-016-2694-2'},{id:"B135",body:'Calus MP, Veerkamp RF. Accuracy of multi-trait genomic selection using different methods. Genetics Selection Evolution. 2011;43(1):26-32. DOI: 10.1186/1297-9686-43-26'},{id:"B136",body:'Schulthess AW, Wang Y, Miedaner T, Wilde P, Reif JC, Zhao Y. Multiple-trait-and selection indices-genomic predictions for grain yield and protein content in rye for feeding purposes. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 2016;129(2):273-287. DOI: 10.1007/s00122-015-2626-6'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Nitika Sandhu",address:null,affiliation:'
Punjab Agricultural University, India
International Rice Research Institute, Philippines
International Rice Research Institute, Philippines
IRRI South Asia Regional Centre (ISARC), Varanasi, India
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Harskamp",authors:[{id:"164896",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcel",middleName:"A.",surname:"Beijk",slug:"marcel-beijk",fullName:"Marcel Beijk"},{id:"165094",title:"Dr.",name:"Ralf",middleName:null,surname:"Harskamp",slug:"ralf-harskamp",fullName:"Ralf Harskamp"}]},{id:"61397",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76844",title:"The Ethics in Repeat Heart Valve Replacement Surgery",slug:"the-ethics-in-repeat-heart-valve-replacement-surgery",totalDownloads:1167,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The treatment of patients with intravenous drug use (IVDU) has evolved to include a wide range of medications, psychiatric rehabilitation, and surgical interventions, especially for life-threatening complications such as infective endocarditis (IE). These interventions remain at the discretion of physicians, particularly surgeons, whose treatment decisions are influenced by several medical factors, unfortunately not without bias. The stigma associated with substance use disorder is prevalent, which leads to significant biases, even in the healthcare system. This bias is heightened when IVDU patients require repeat valve replacement surgeries for IE due to continued drug use. Patients who receive a valve replacement and continue to use illicit drugs intravenously often return to their medical providers, months to a few years later, with a reinfection of their bioprosthetic valve; such patients require additional surgeries which are at the center of many ethical discussions due to high mortality rates, for many complex medical and social reasons, associated with continuous chemical dependency after surgical interventions. This chapter examines the ethics of repeat heart valve replacement surgery for patients who are struggling with addiction. Considerations of justice, the fiduciary therapeutic relationship, and guiding ethical principles justify medically beneficial repeat heart valve replacement surgeries for IVDU patient populations.",book:{id:"6556",slug:"advanced-concepts-in-endocarditis",title:"Advanced Concepts in Endocarditis",fullTitle:"Advanced Concepts in Endocarditis"},signatures:"Julie M. Aultman, Emanuela Peshel, Cyril Harfouche and Michael S.\nFirstenberg",authors:[{id:"64343",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael S.",middleName:null,surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. 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By 19th century, the transplantation concept become possible by extensive contributions from scientists and clinicians whose works had taken generations. Although Alexis Carrel is known as the founding father of experimental organ transplantation, many legendary names had contributed to the experimental works of heart transplantation, including Guthrie, Mann, and Demikhov. The major contribution to experimental heart transplantation before the clinical era were made by a team lead by Richard Lower and Norman Shumway at Stanford University in the early 1960s. They played the vital role in developing experimental and clinical heart transplantation as it is known today. Using Shumway biatrial technique Christiaan Barnard started a new era of clinical heart transplantation, by performing the first in man human-to-human heart transplantation in 1967. The techniques of heart transplant have evolved since the first heart transplant. This chapter will summarize the techniques that have been used in clinical heart transplantation.",book:{id:"11236",slug:null,title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",fullTitle:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies"},signatures:"Samuel Jacob, Anthony N. Pham and Si M. Pham",authors:null},{id:"70032",title:"Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting: Surgical Anastomosis: Tips and Tricks",slug:"coronary-artery-bypass-grafting-surgical-anastomosis-tips-and-tricks",totalDownloads:1361,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The definite feature of coronary artery disease is the focal narrowing in the vascular endothelium, and this leads to the decrease in the flow of blood to the myocardium. Atherosclerotic plaque is the main lesion. These patients can present with chest pain (angina or myocardial infarction) and need further workup noninvasively and invasively for the management. The main reasons for myocardial revascularization can be: (1) relief from symptoms of myocardial ischemia; (2) reduce the risks of future mortality; (3) to treat or prevent morbidities such as myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, or heart failure. Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) is the surgical technique of cardiac revascularization. In 1910, Dr. Alexis Carrel described a series of canine experiments in which he devised means to treat CAD by creating a “complementary circulation” for the diseased native coronary arteries. No clinical translation occurred at the time, but he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine. Experimental refinements of coronary arterial revascularization, including the use of internal thoracic artery (ITA) grafts, were later reported by Murray and colleagues, Demikhov, and Goetz and colleagues in the 1950s and early 1960s. Dr. Rene Favaloro performed his first coronary bypass operation in May 1967 with an interposed saphenous vein graft (SVG) and shortly thereafter used aortocoronary bypasses sutured proximally to the ascending aorta. The stenosed segment is bypassed using an arterial or venous graft. Left internal thoracic artery is the most commonly used artery, and long saphenous vein is the most commonly used vein for the coronary artery grafting to reestablish the blood flow to the compromised myocardium. This can be performed with or without the help of cardiopulmonary bypass machine and also with or without arresting the heart. These techniques are called as on-pump beating or on-pump arrested and off-pump beating coronary artery bypass grafting surgery. Distal and proximal anastomoses are usually performed in an end-to-side manner, but in the case of doing sequential grafting, side-to-side anastomosis is also performed proximal to the end-to-side anastomosis. In this chapter we are going to discuss the coronary artery bypass grafting tips and tricks in details.",book:{id:"9060",slug:"the-current-perspectives-on-coronary-artery-bypass-grafting",title:"The Current Perspectives on Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting",fullTitle:"The Current Perspectives on Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting"},signatures:"Mohd. Shahbaaz Khan",authors:[{id:"278633",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd. Shahbaaz",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"mohd.-shahbaaz-khan",fullName:"Mohd. Shahbaaz Khan"}]},{id:"65984",title:"Low Flow Low Gradient Severe Aortic Stenosis: Diagnosis and Treatment",slug:"low-flow-low-gradient-severe-aortic-stenosis-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:2213,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Approximately 40% of patients with aortic stenosis (AS) show discordant Doppler-echocardiographic parameters with aortic valve area (AVA) <1 cm2 and/or index iAVA <0.6 cm2/m2 (consistent with severe AS) and the mean gradient (MG) <40 mmHg, consistent with mild/moderate AS. Accurate diagnosis of true severe low flow low gradient AS versus pseudo-severe aortic stenosis is important for prognosis and optimal timing for intervention. Doppler echocardiography using intravenous low dose dobutamine challenge is widely used for differentiating pseudo-severe from true severe aortic stenosis. However, relying on echocardiography alone may have limitations in accurate diagnosis. Reliable diagnosis using echocardiography is dependent on multiple factors like the angle of interrogation of the aortic jet, the assumption that the LVOT area is circular in cross section, optimal echo windows, the presence of underlying subclinical coronary artery disease prior to dobutamine challenge etc. In this chapter, we describe non-invasive and invasive strategies to assess the aortic valve using dobutamine stress. Direct measurement of gradients across the aortic valve while estimating the change in cardiac output and aortic valve area with increments of dobutamine infusion dose is complementary, safe and useful when conventional echocardiography techniques are inconclusive. Finally, the chapter describes effective strategies of treatment for low gradient severe aortic stenosis, including the role for diagnostic balloon valvuloplasty, in the era of transcatheter valve replacement (TAVR).",book:{id:"8218",slug:"aortic-stenosis-current-perspectives",title:"Aortic Stenosis",fullTitle:"Aortic Stenosis - Current Perspectives"},signatures:"Faeez Mohamad Ali, Vindhya Wilson and Rajesh Nair",authors:[{id:"280651",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Nair",slug:"rajesh-nair",fullName:"Rajesh Nair"},{id:"280829",title:"Dr.",name:"Faeez",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamad Ali",slug:"faeez-mohamad-ali",fullName:"Faeez Mohamad Ali"},{id:"290351",title:"Dr.",name:"Vindhya",middleName:null,surname:"Wilson",slug:"vindhya-wilson",fullName:"Vindhya Wilson"}]},{id:"59547",title:"Left Ventricular Assist Device Infections",slug:"left-ventricular-assist-device-infections",totalDownloads:1466,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Left ventricular assist device (LVAD) infections are important causes of morbidity and mortality in patients who receive these mechanical circulatory supports as a bridge to transplantation (BTT) or as destination therapy (DT) (for individuals who are not candidates for cardiac transplant). Infections are more common among persons who received pulsatile flow LVADs as opposed to newer continuous flow (CF) devices. Other risk factors for infection include obesity, renal failure, depression and immunosuppression. An LVAD infection increases the risk of infections in persons who undergo cardiac transplantation. Infections include percutaneous site, driveline, pump pocket and pump/cannula infections; sepsis, bacteremia, mediastinitis and endocarditis. Diagnosis is achieved by monitoring LVAD flow parameters and observing typical clinical and laboratory manifestations of infection. Imaging such as PET-CT or SPECT-CT imaging can be helpful to establish a diagnosis of pump pocket infection. Echocardiography may aid in detecting native valve endocarditis and thrombus associated with the LVAD. The most common pathogens include Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium, Enterococcus, Pseudomonas and Candida spp. Treatment requires targeted antimicrobials plus surgical debridement of infected tissue and device components. In cases of pump/cannula/LVAD endocarditis, especially if fungal pathogens or Mycobacterium chimaera are involved, LVAD removal/reimplantation vs. transplant is necessary, combined with extended antimicrobial therapy.",book:{id:"6556",slug:"advanced-concepts-in-endocarditis",title:"Advanced Concepts in Endocarditis",fullTitle:"Advanced Concepts in Endocarditis"},signatures:"Marion J. Skalweit",authors:[{id:"186717",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Marion",middleName:null,surname:"Skalweit",slug:"marion-skalweit",fullName:"Marion Skalweit"}]},{id:"60658",title:"Humoral Rejection in Cardiac Transplantation: Management of Antibody-Mediated Rejection",slug:"humoral-rejection-in-cardiac-transplantation-management-of-antibody-mediated-rejection",totalDownloads:1083,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"After a successful heart transplantation, fundamental keys to achieve good results in the long term are to establish immunosuppressive therapy in the postoperative period in an appropriate manner and to ensure continuity of follow-ups. Despite the fact that these stages are maintained perfectly, patients may face one or more rejection episodes. T-cell-mediated acute cellular rejection of the cardiac allograft has well-established treatment algorithms, whereas antibody-mediated rejection (AMR) is challenging to diagnose, and its treatment varies between centers. Investigators reported that AMR is among the most important factors to improving long-term outcomes. Improved understanding of the roles of acute and chronic AMR has evolved in recent years following a major progress in the technical ability to detect and quantify recipient antihuman leukocyte antigen (HLA) antibody production. Recently, a study of the immunobiology of B cells and plasma cells that pertains to allograft rejection and tolerance has emerged. There are some questions regarding the classification of AMR, the diagnostic approaches, and the treatment strategies for managing. In this chapter, we are discuss the effector mechanisms that are used by antibodies to eliminate antigens and clinical experience about AMR and its treatment with a discussion about the latest articles.",book:{id:"6558",slug:"heart-transplantation",title:"Heart Transplantation",fullTitle:"Heart Transplantation"},signatures:"Umit Kervan, Dogan Emre Sert and Nesrin Turan",authors:[{id:"227772",title:"Prof.",name:"Umit",middleName:null,surname:"Kervan",slug:"umit-kervan",fullName:"Umit Kervan"},{id:"243592",title:"Dr.",name:"Dogan Emre",middleName:null,surname:"Sert",slug:"dogan-emre-sert",fullName:"Dogan Emre Sert"},{id:"243593",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Turan",slug:"nesrin-turan",fullName:"Nesrin Turan"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"984",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81437",title:"Pediatric Heart Transplantation",slug:"pediatric-heart-transplantation",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104518",abstract:"Despite advances in medical management, patients submitted for heart transplantation procedures still are at risk to development of complications. This chapter will discuss some specific topics of pediatric heart transplantation, focusing on perioperative care: (i) recipient management, (ii) donor evaluation, (iii) immunosuppression, (iv) early postoperative management, (v) complications, and (vi) conclusions.",book:{id:"11236",title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11236.jpg"},signatures:"Estela Azeka"},{id:"81451",title:"Donor Assessment and Management for Heart Transplantation",slug:"donor-assessment-and-management-for-heart-transplantation",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104504",abstract:"For many years, heart transplantation has been an established procedure for patients with end-stage heart failure using the so-called “Standard Criteria” for an optimal heart donor. However, annually listed patients for heart transplantation greatly increased worldwide, and the use of extended criteria donor hearts has been utilized as many as possible in many countries. In this chapter, firstly, pathophysiology of brain death is explained. Secondly, donor assessment and issues of extended criteria donors are introduced. Then, donor management to maximize the heart graft availability, and the Japanese donor assessment and evaluation system and its outcome are reviewed.",book:{id:"11236",title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11236.jpg"},signatures:"Norihide Fukushima"},{id:"81057",title:"Induction Therapy in the Current Immunosuppressive Therapy",slug:"induction-therapy-in-the-current-immunosuppressive-therapy",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103746",abstract:"The current immunosuppressive therapy including calcineurin inhibitors, mycophenolate mofetil, and steroids, has substantially suppress rejections and improved clinical outcomes in heart transplant (HTx) recipients. Nevertheless, the management of drug-related nephrotoxicity, fatal acute cellular rejection (ACR), antibody-mediated rejection and infections remains challenging. Although previous some studies suggested that perioperative induction immunosuppressive therapy may be effective for the suppressing ACR and deterioration of renal function, increased incidence of infection and malignancy was concerned in recipients with induction immunosuppressive therapy. The international society of heart and lung transplantation (ISHLT) guidelines for the care of heart transplant recipients do not recommend routine use of induction immunosuppressive therapy, except for the patients with high risk of acute rejection or renal dysfunction, however, appropriate therapeutic regimen and indication of induction immunosuppressive therapy remains unclear in HTx recipients. We review current evidence of induction immunosuppressive therapy in HTx recipients, and discuss the appropriate therapeutic regimen and indication of induction therapy.",book:{id:"11236",title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11236.jpg"},signatures:"Takuya Watanabe, Yasumasa Tsukamoto, Hiroki Mochizuki, Masaya Shimojima, Tasuku Hada, Satsuki Fukushima, Tomoyuki Fujita and Osamu Seguchi"},{id:"80305",title:"Hepatic and Endocrine Aspects of Heart Transplantation",slug:"hepatic-and-endocrine-aspects-of-heart-transplantation",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102418",abstract:"End-organ dysfunction is a progression that can often develop in patients with end-stage heart failure. Hepatic abnormalities in advanced systolic heart failure may affect several aspects of the liver function. Hepatic function is dependent on age, nutrition, previous hepatic diseases, and drugs. The hepatic dysfunction can have metabolic, synthetic, and vascular consequences, which strongly influence the short- and long-term results of the transplantation. In this chapter, the diagnostic and treatment modalities of the transplanted patient will be discussed. On the other hand, endocrine abnormalities, particularly thyroid dysfunction, are also frequently detected in patients on the waiting list. Endocrine supplementation during donor management after brain death is crucial. Inappropriate management of central diabetes insipidus, hyperglycemia, or adrenal insufficiency can lead to circulatory failure and graft dysfunction during procurement. Thyroid dysfunction in donors and recipients is conversely discussed.",book:{id:"11236",title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11236.jpg"},signatures:"Andrea Székely, András Szabó and Balázs Szécsi"},{id:"79970",title:"The Role of Large Impella Devices in Temporary Mechanical Circulatory Support for Patients Undergoing Heart Transplantation",slug:"the-role-of-large-impella-devices-in-temporary-mechanical-circulatory-support-for-patients-undergoin",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101680",abstract:"Large microaxial pump systems (Impella 5.0, or Impella 5.5; i.e., Impella 5+) (Abiomed Inc., Danvers, MA, USA) have gained increasing levels of attendance as valuable tools of mechanical circulatory support (MCS). Patients undergoing heart transplantation (HTX) often need temporary MCS in the perioperative course, either as a preoperative bridge or occasionally in the early post-transplant period. Here we present our experience using Impella 5+ support for patients designated to undergo HTX, describe technical aspects of implantation and removal, and further analyze factors influencing the overall patient outcome. Significant factors are discussed in front of the background of contemporary international literature, and current scientific questions are highlighted.",book:{id:"11236",title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11236.jpg"},signatures:"Yukiharu Sugimura, Sebastian Bauer, Moritz Benjamin Immohr, Arash Mehdiani, Hug Aubin, Ralf Westenfeld, Udo Boeken, Artur Lichtenberg and Payam Akhyari"},{id:"80721",title:"Gene Therapy for Cardiac Transplantation",slug:"gene-therapy-for-cardiac-transplantation",totalDownloads:85,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102865",abstract:"Gene therapy is an advanced treatment approach that alters the genetic composition of cells to confer therapeutic protein or RNA expression to the target organ. It has been successfully introduced into clinical practice for the treatment of various diseases. Cardiac transplantation stands to benefit from applications of gene therapy to prevent the onset of post-transplantation complications, such as primary graft dysfunction, cardiac allograft vasculopathy, and rejection. Additionally, gene therapy can be used to minimize or potentially eliminate the need for immunosuppression post-transplantation. Several animal models and delivery strategies have been developed over the years with the goal of achieving robust gene expression in the heart. However, a method for doing this has yet to be successfully translated into clinical practice. The recent advances in ex vivo perfusion for organ preservation provide potential ways to overcome several barriers to achieving gene therapy for cardiac transplantation into clinical practice. Optimizing the selection of the gene-carrying vector for gene delivery and selection of the therapeutic gene to be conferred is also crucial for being able to implement gene therapy in cardiac transplantation. Here, we discuss the history and current state of research on gene therapy for cardiac transplantation.",book:{id:"11236",title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11236.jpg"},signatures:"Michelle Mendiola Pla, Yuting Chiang, Jun-Neng Roan and Dawn E. Bowles"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:13},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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