Recent studies regarding the development of new hydrogel dressings based on different polymers composition and bioactive agents for tissue regeneration.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3076",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Wind Power",title:"Advances in Wind Power",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Today's wind energy industry is at a crossroads. 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With a length of ~2 m2 and weight of ~15% of the body mass, the skin represents a sophisticated tissues complex of the human body, being the largest and the heaviest organ [1]. Due to its optimal physicochemical characteristics, the skin is a dynamic and effective outermost barrier, defending the body against the external surroundings [2]. In addition to the role of physical protection, the skin is involved in the regulation of the body’s homeostasis, synthesis of vitamin D [3], and control of the temperature and blood pressure. Furthermore, it impedes dehydration, maintains an optimal level of moisture and body nutrients, and exhibits self-healing properties [4]. Skin is also an essential sensory organ when it connects with the environment, and the stimulation is perceived on the human body as pain, temperature, and pressure [5]. Normal skin represents a stratified epithelium that is composed of three principal layers: epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous tissue. The epidermis is made up of many cells, including melanocytes, Merkel, and Langerhans cells, but keratinocytes are the most numerous (~95%). This stratum has a thickness of 0.05–0.1 mm, and it does not contain blood vessels and sensory nerve endings [6]. Dermis represents a hard fibrous layer, due to its composition in collagen and elastic tissues. It is based on a supporting network that furnishes elasticity and toughness to the skin. Dermis exhibits a noticeable ability to absorb the water. Its thickness varies from 0.5 mm to 5 mm or more according to the skin region. Compared to the epidermis, the dermis is vascularized [7]. Hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue) represents the profound stratum of the skin, and it is made of fat cells among which are found elastin fibers, collagen, nerves, lymphatic, and blood vessels. The main roles of this layer are to store energy, to thermally insulate the body, and to defend against physical trauma [8].
Being the main organ that interacts directly with the environment, the skin is principally disturbed by external agents, such as chemicals, microorganisms, UV and electromagnetic radiations, allergens, heat, pollution, and mechanical trauma [9]. On the other hand, the skin can also suffer various modifications due to behavioral factors (smoking, alcohol, and nutrition), physiological factors (obesity), demographic factors (age and gender), and pathological factors (numerous local and systemic diseases) [10, 11]. All these mentioned factors often generate a skin injury and a delay in the healing process, so the restoration of healthy and functional skin is still a big challenge for the medical community [12] and an increasing problem worldwide [13]. Depending on the degree of the skin damage, cutaneous lesions can necessitate a long-term treatment, which involves a huge financial cost for global healthcare systems [14]. Statistics showed that the number of people with skin injuries of different etiologies worldwide is constantly growing from ~5 million in 2005, ~6 million in 2015 to about 8 million in 2018, and the total costs for their medical care are estimated to be between ~$28 billion and ~ $97 billion. Taking into account the dynamics of the factors that cause damage to the skin tissue, in the coming years, the total costs for their treatment are expected to rise [15, 16]. From all types of wounds, chronic lesions have the highest incidence in the population. Thus, in developed countries, approximately 1–2% of people will suffer a chronic lesion during their lifetime [17]. The highest increase is in the case of injuries caused by diabetes because it is estimated that in 2025 there will be at least 400 million people with diabetes globally, most cases being in South Africa, Asia, and Africa. About 15–25% of these people will develop throughout their life one of the major complications of diabetes which is the diabetic foot ulcer [18].
Most often a wound is accompanied by pain that can vary from mild to severe depending on the degree of the skin impairment. Hence, the personal life quality of the patients is considerably affected because they have to limit their daily activities, which negatively influences their physical, psychological, and social conditions [19, 20].
Optimal wound management needs physicians to comprehend the etiology of the wound, its healing time and complexity, the mechanism of injury healing, and the factors which affect the skin regeneration to make the right decision regarding the most efficient treatment for a proper cutaneous tissue restoration [21]. Since ancient times, the care of a lesion involves its cleaning and applying a patch (traditional dressing) that allows protection from the external environment, but it cannot absorb high amount of exudates and requires regular application that produces soreness when changing the patch; moreover, the common patch owns modest adhesive characteristics and cannot furnish an adequate drainage for the injury. Consequently, the wound healing process is delayed, and the quality of the patient’s life is seriously affected [22]. Nowadays, those patches have been switched with new wound dressings (modern dressings) that function as a physical and defensive barrier, swallowing the exudate and facilitating the healing process [23]. Over the last few years, modern dressings have been developed, which include hydrogels, hydrocolloids, semi-permeable films, foams, and alginates [24]. Comparing to the traditional dressings, these modern wound dressings, due to their improved structure, have a high capacity to generate a moist environment all over the skin lesion and to keep it, promoting the healing process and the reepithelialization by developing the proliferation of fibroblasts and enhancing the synthesis of collagen [25]. Moreover, they are semi-permeable and highly absorbent dressings and semi-occlusive or occlusive that stimulate the granulation tissue production and promote the epithelial cells movement from the injury margins to its center, providing an enlarged functionality [22].
Thus, this chapter highlights the main structural and functional properties of hydrogels, which are hydrophilic macromolecular networks, formed by crosslinking of diverse polymers, physically or chemically [26]. Also, this chapter presents recent studies regarding the broad applicability of hydrogels as bioactive dressings, which, after application to the wound bed and alleviate the pain, inflammation, and infection that generally follow a lesion [27]. Primary results consist of anatomical, functional, and esthetic restoration of the skin, improving the patient’s quality of life [28].
Cutaneous lesions appear while the skin tissue is broken, or the cellular stability is imperiled under the action of physical, chemical, mechanical, and thermal agents or because of genetic diseases and metabolism-linked factors [29].
In the first instance, skin injuries can be clinically partitioned into acute and chronic injuries. Acute lesions are those wounds that often heal totally, with minimal scarring, in a period between 8 and 12 weeks [30]. Mainly, acute lesions can be produced by mechanical trauma; thus, these types of lesions can be classified inside one of these eight types: abrasions (it happens when a mechanical power scratches away a limited thickness of the skin) [31], avulsions (occurs when the primary layers of the skin are cut from the underlying fascia, for example, injury produced by animal bites) [32], contusions or bruises (fist leads to a contusion), crush wounds, cuts (knife or paper can cause a cut), fish hook injuries, incised wounds (it is the result of a surgical cut inside the skin) [33], and lacerations or tears (it means a break in the skin, which can be generated by a sharp object, for example, metal, glass, or wood) [34, 35]. Also, in the category of acute wounds are found burns and chemical lesions. On the other hand, chronic wounds heal slowly, their healing time exceeds 3 months, and they often reoccur. According to the Wound Healing Society, in this category of cutaneous lesions are included: pressure, venous, and arterial insufficiency, diabetic ulcers, and also malignant wounds [17].
Furthermore, from an etiological point of view, cutaneous lesions can be categorized as follows: surgical wound, which is a mechanical lesion produced by surgical incisions, for example, to eliminate tumors [36]. Traumatic injury is an accidental and a spontaneous lesion that can vary from a small wound, such as a scraped knee, to a serious injury, such as a gunshot lesion. Abrasions, lacerations, skin tears, bites, burns, crush, and stab injury are some examples of traumatic wounds [37]. Radiation lesion is the result of radiotherapy and surgery, two treatment methods that are generally used for the therapy of cancerous tumors, lesions whose delayed healing produces physiological and psychological stress to the patient [38]. Chemical and thermal injuries (burns) are produced by a diversity of factors such as radiation exposure, electricity, corrosive chemicals, or thermal agents [39]. In these types of injuries, it is very important to know how deep the wounds are and how much of the body surface is affected, all these for good management that can lead to a decrease of wounds healing time [40]. According to World Health Organization, there are reported globally every year more than 11 million burn wounds and their medical care passes $12 billion per year [41]. A lesion becomes malignant when cancerous cells attack the epithelium, penetrate blood and lymph vessels, and invade the epidermis; mostly, this type of wound produces death and necrosis of the tissue [42]. Melanoma is metastatic skin cancer, with an increased risk of death, produced by uncontrolled growth of melanocytes that spread abnormally in neighboring tissues. This type of cancer produces severe wounds, requiring special treatment for optimum treatment [43]. Psoriasis is an autoimmune disease, characterized by erythematous-scaly lesions (crumbly white peels on irritated skin background) on the scalp, elbow, and knees, lesions to the face caused by sun exposure, and lesions at the level of the inguinal, axillary, or interfacial skin folds [44]. A pressure ulcer (pressure lesion, pressure sore, decubitus ulcer, or bedsore) is a surface of localized disturbance to the skin and hidden tissue, and it is induced by pressure, shear, or rubbing. The main risk factors that can lead to a pressure ulcer are incomplete nutrition, peripheral vascular disease [45], elderly people, obesity, diabetes, inadequate posture, pregnancy, smoking, or an increased frequency of infection (osteomyelitis) [46]. The most frequent complication of diabetes mellitus is diabetic foot ulcer, which affects 15–25% of diabetic patients. This is a condition that requires a long period for healing, or in some cases, it does not heal and can lead to infection, the major consequence being lower limb amputation [47, 48]. In close relation with diabetic foot ulcer is vascular ulcer, which is caused by disorders of the circulatory system; there are two principal types: venous ulcer (varicose ulcer) and arterial ulcer [49].
Based on contamination and postoperative infection risk, wounds can be classified in classes I, II, III, or IV. Class I or clean wound includes injuries that are infection-free, although current bacteria on the skin contaminate the injury [50]. Class II or clean-contaminated wound involves injuries, which affect the respiratory and digestive system, characterized by no loss of tissue fluid [51]. Class III or contaminated wound contains non-purulent inflammation and class IV or dirty/infected wound contains purulent inflammation [52].
According to appearance and injured tissue coloration, a wound can present necrotic tissue (characterized by a black or olive green coloration, often at pressure ulcer) [53], sloughy tissue (characterized by yellow coloration, related with excess exudates, produced during the inflammatory stage) [54], granulation tissue (characterized by red or deep pink coloration, typical for proliferative phase) [55], epithelializing tissue (characterized by pink coloration and formation of a new epidermis; it develops in migratory and proliferative phases) [56], and infected (malodorous) tissue (characterized by red coloration, hot inflamed tissue, pus formation, and unpleasant odor) [57].
An injury is classified according to complexity in simple and complex (complicated). A simple wound affects the skin tissue without any complication. On the other hand, a complex wound leads to a major tissue loss and a complicated wound involves an infected complex wound [58, 59].
Conforming to the depth of injury or number of skin layers affected, a wound can be superficial, partial thickness, or deep dermal and full thickness. A superficial wound is characterized by affecting only the epidermal skin surface, with minimum scars and a short period for healing, less than 10 days [60, 61]. A partial thickness or deep dermal wound represents a type of injury that affects the epidermis and also the inner dermal layers, containing blood vessels, sweat glands, and hair follicles; it requires between 10 and 21 days for healing, with the formation of scar and reepithelialization [62, 63]. A full thickness wound appears when hypodermis and also epidermal and dermal layers are damaged and the healing time is longer than the other two types of wounds (more than 21 days) [64, 65].
The regeneration of cutaneous lesions represents a fundamental physiological process that consists of a succession of cellular and biochemical events, which begin when a skin lesion occurs in order to reestablish the impaired tissue. The wound healing process involves more consecutive stages, but which still overlap: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, reepithelialization, and remodeling; therefore, skin tissue repair is one of the most complex processes that occur in the human body [66].
Multiple factors can delay the wound healing process, such as: different underlying physiological diseases (diabetes mellitus, human immunodeficiency virus, tumor resection, after organ transplantation, inborn genetic immunodeficiencies, burns, hypoxia, and vascular and autoimmune disease or cancer), obesity, continuous infection, stress, elderly population, sex hormones, gender, smoking, and malnutrition [67, 68]. Another cause for this delayed wound healing and epithelialization is represented by high levels of proteolytic enzymes and cytokines [69]. These factors lead to the production of a substantial amount of exudate [70], which decreases the mobility of lymphocytes and produces maceration of healthy tissue around the injury, the major problem which results being the inhibition of the wound repair process [71].
Traditionally, wound dressings have to protect lesions from physical impairment and secondary infection, to ensure thermal isolation, to be comfortable, and to be quickly changed by a new dressing, without producing any trauma on the lesion site, facilitating the dermal regeneration, playing a passive role in the evolution of the wound healing process [72]. Presently, these functions are constantly evolving. Medical healthcare systems demand for new “intelligent” products, which function not only as a protective barrier but also strongly promote the skin repair process [73]. Over the last few decades, there were developed numerous modern (advanced) wound dressings to stimulate the regeneration of cutaneous lesions, such as semi-permeable films and foams, hydrocolloids, alginates, hydrofibers, and hydrogels. These advanced products for optimal clinical management of skin wounds represent, in 2019, about $7.1 billion of the international market, and their manufacture is expected to increase to about $12.5 billion in 2022 [74]. Of all these modern products, the most competitive candidate is represented by hydrogels.
Hydrogels, also known as aquagels, are a three-dimensional (3D) and crosslinked network of polymer chains, which can absorb massive quantities of water and body fluids due to their hydrophilic functional groups (hydroxyl, carboxyl, amide, and amino), adhering to the polymeric backbone [75]. The term “hydrogel” has been invented for the first time in 1894 by van Bemmelen. Due to their 3D structure, the molecular weight goes to infinity. The fundamental feature that characterizes the molecular structure of the hydrogel is the mesh size. There are two ways to crosslink the hydrogels: physically through hydrogen bonds and chemically through covalent bonds. The main property of the hydrogel is the super-absorbent capacity of water molecules that diffuse into the hydrogel network [76].
The molecular structure of hydrogel loaded or not with a bioactive agent is illustrated in Figure 1.
Molecular structure of hydrogel: (a) without bioactive agent, and (b) with bioactive agent.
The swelling hydrogel includes three major phases:
Primary bound water—the molecules of water adhere to the hydrophilic moieties from the hydrogel structure;
Secondary bound water—the molecules of water combine with the hydrophobic moieties from the hydrogel structure;
Free water—the molecules of water totally swell into the empty spaces from the hydrogel structure.
The swelling ratio varies in accordance with polymers’ content and the density of crosslinking [77].
Hydrogels products can be classified according to different measurable parameters as detailed below:
source: natural, synthetic, or hybrid (mixture of natural and synthetic polymers);
physical aspect: film, gel, matrix, or micro−/nanoparticles (microspheres) according to the method of the polymerization used in the preparation process;
dimensions: macro−/micro−/nanogel;
polymer composition: homopolymeric, heteropolymeric, copolymeric, hybrid, composites, or interpenetrating polymer network (IPNs);
network structure: permanent (chemical or irreversible crosslinking) or non-permanent (physical or reversible crosslinking);
preparation method: copolymerization, complex coacervation, irradiation, or using enzymes;
sensitivity to stimuli: physical (pressure, sound, temperature, light, and magnetic and electric fields), chemical (pH, molecular species, solvent content, and ionic strength), or biochemical (enzymes, antigens, and ligands) stimuli;
polymer network charge: amphoteric, non-ionic, ionic (cationic and anionic), or zwitterion (polybetaines);
chains configuration: non-crystalline (amorphous), semi-crystalline, crystalline, hydrogen-bonded, or hydrocolloids;
physical properties: smart or conventional;
biodegradability: biodegradable or non-biodegradable;
sensitivity to environmental factors: temperature, electric and magnetic fields, sound, enzymes, pH, or light;
equilibrium swelling grade (SWD): low (20–50%), medium (50–90%), high (90–99.5%—these hydrogels exhibit proper biocompatibility and permeability, which make them the most suitable for use in the medical domain), or superabsorbent hydrogels (>99.5%) [78, 79, 80].
Regarding the network structure, hydrogels are mostly manufactured from crosslinking networks, so there are two major categories of hydrogels: physically and chemically crosslinked hydrogels. Physically crosslinked hydrogels have gained importance due to the fact that they are easy to produce because no crosslinking agents are used during the synthesis process; thus, these types of hydrogels are used in biomedical, pharmaceutical, and food industries. Many methods are used to generate physically crosslinked hydrogels: freeze-thawing, stereocomplex formation, ionic interaction, hydrogen bonding, maturation (heat-induced aggregation), noncovalent interaction, and thermoreversible gels [81]. Chemically crosslinked hydrogels present covalent bonds in the middle of the polymeric network that generate permanent hydrogels formation. These types of hydrogels are formed through reactions between functional groups of polymeric chains. Many methods are used to generate chemically crosslinked hydrogels: condensation reactions, polymer–polymer crosslinking, high energy irradiation, enzymatic reaction, grafting, and radical polymerization [82].
Hydrogels are of huge interest for the development of new wound dressings due to their outstanding mechanical and biochemical traits (biocompatibility, biodegradability, hydrophilicity, and the porous structure similar to the extracellular matrix) [83]. They are composed of 90 wt% water and 10 wt% different nature biopolymers. This high water content produces soothing and cooling effects, which reduce the perceived pain. Hydrogels stimulate the healing process through their moisture exchanging actions, which generate a proper microclimate between the dressing and the injury bed [74]. Depending on their composition, hydrogel-based dressings present a high power to swallow up to 1 kg of injury exudate per gram of dressing [84]. Thus, hydrogel-based dressings furnish optimal moisture on the lesion site, which has various advantages: to avoid the injury from drying out, to mitigate the pain perception, to damage the fibrin and dead tissues, and to allow the communication between target cells and growth factors [85].
Regarding the polymeric component, hydrogels can be produced from natural polymers (cellulose and its derivatives, collagen, hyaluronic acid, chitosan and its derivatives, gelatin, alginate, keratin, fibrin, pectin, elastin, dextran, chitin, and gums) and synthetic polymers (polyvinyl alcohol, polylactic acid, polyethylene oxide, polyglycolic acid, polyacrylic acid, poly ε-caprolactone, polyethylene glycol, polyacrylamide, vinyl acetate, N-vinyl-2 pyrrolidone, 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate, methoxyl polyethylene glycol, ethylene glycol diacrylate, and poloxamer) [78, 83].
Hydrogels are colorless and odorless; they also exhibit the highest capacity to absorb fluids in saline medium, a high absorbency under load, low price, proper stability, and durability during the storage and in swelling conditions, neutral pH after swelling in water, nontoxicity, and photostability [75]. Hydrogels allow an excellent mechanical safety, a suitable gases exchange (CO2 and O2), the stimulation of angiogenesis, and the absorption of local exudates; thus, epithelial cells can flourish, and the healing process accelerates to restore the skin layers with minimal scars. Also, hydrogels exhibit non-adhesive characteristics, malleability, and smoothness, so they are easy to applicate and remove without tissue impairment [86].
Moreover, the transparent structure of these dressings allows a suitable evaluation of the wound healing progress, without the dressing being removed. Therefore, hydrogel-based dressings are the first option to treat dry, necrotic lesions, superficial injuries (burns and skin tears), surgical wounds, radiation burns, sloughy and dehydrated lesions, and shallow ulcers. Depending on the hydration level required by the lesion, hydrogel dressings need to be changed every 1–3 days [87]. The schematic illustration of the action mode of a hydrogel-based dressing on cutaneous lesion for accelerating the wound healing process is illustrated in Figure 2.
The action mode of hydrogel-based dressing on cutaneous lesion for accelerating the wound healing process.
Hydrogel-based dressings are bioactive dressings, which are extensively used to cure different etiologies wounds because they furnish an optimum pH, suitable exchange of gases, proper regulation of temperature, and adequate local moisture, accelerating the fibroblasts’ proliferation and angiogenesis [88]. These dressings present biomimetic characteristics, which make them suitable vehicles for sustained release of various bioactive agents, such as plants extracts, growth factors, nucleotides, inorganic compounds, and analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anesthetic, or antimicrobial active substances, ideal for scaffolds that target the fundamental structures involved in the healing process of the injured skin. Therefore, hydrogel-based dressings can reduce, prevent, and treat the tissue maceration, pain, inflammation, and infection that usually accompany a skin lesion [87]. Recent studies regarding the development of new hydrogel dressings based on different polymers composition and bioactive agents for tissue regeneration are summarized in Table 1.
Type of lesion | Polymer composition | Bioactive agent/−s | Obtaining method/hydrogel type and properties | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Post-surgical lesion | Chitosan | Naproxen | Dissolution/thermosensitive; analgesic effect, postoperative adhesions treatment | [89] |
Polyglutamic acid/pluronic F127 | Paclitaxel | Double crosslinking/self-healing after surgical removal of melanoma, proper hemostatic effect, antibacterial activity, and mechanical properties | [90] | |
Poloxamer 407/sodium hyaluronate | Ropivacaine | Physical blending/thermosensitive; analgesic effect, efficient long-term pain alleviation | [91] | |
Radiation-induced lesion | Carbopol | Sildenafil citrate | Physical blending/notable wound contraction, minimization of skin impairment, excellent tensile strength, enhanced production of granulation tissue, mature collagen fibers, and less inflammatory infiltrates | [92] |
Alginate/hyaluronic acid/polylysine | Curcumin and epigallocatechin gallate | Crosslinking/angiogenesis stimulation, inflammation relief, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenge | [93] | |
Burns | Alginate | Vancomycin, gentamicin, or minocycline | Physical blending/infection treatment and burn depth reduction | [94] |
Chitosan | Gold nanoparticles and Aerva javanica | Crosslinking/antimicrobial and antioxidant activities | [95] | |
Keratin | Ciprofloxacin | Physical blending/antibacterial effect, collagen deposition, tissue remodeling, and macrophage recruitment | [96] | |
Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose/hydroxyapatite | Silver nanoparticles | Crosslinking/3D porous network, high antibacterial, mechanical, optical, and spectral properties, proper swelling and degradation ratio, wound closure improvement with rapid reepithelialization, and minimal scar tissues | [97] | |
Pressure ulcer | Chitosan | Genipin | Crosslinking/pH-responsive; antimicrobial, hemostatic, and mucoadhesive characteristics, wound site pH neutralization, and high swelling capacity | [98] |
Polyvinyl alcohol | Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles loaded with ciprofloxacin hydrochloride | Crosslinking (gamma radiation)/antimicrobial activity, good gel fraction, and excellent swelling ability | [99] | |
Gelatin/silk fibroin | Growth factors (adipose-derived stem cells and platelet-rich plasma) | Photocrosslinking (UV light)/optimal swelling ratio, rheological and mechanical properties, rapid reepithelialization and collagen deposition, inflammatory infiltration decrease, increased angiogenesis, and nerve regeneration | [100] | |
Venous and arterial leg ulcers | Chitosan | Gallic acid | Enzymatic crosslinking/antibacterial and antioxidant activity, inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase, myeloperoxidase, and collagenase | [101] |
Pluronic F-127 | Antisense oligodeoxynucleotides | Crosslinking/thermoreversible; anti-inflammatory effect (neutrophil cell infiltration reduction) | [102] | |
Polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan | Ibuprofen-β-cyclodextrins | Physical blending/macroporous network, optimal mechanical and morphological properties, anti-inflammatory effect, and scab formation prevention | [103] | |
Diabetic foot ulcer | Alginate | Polydeoxyribonucleotide | Crosslinking/stimulation of cell promotion and angiogenesis | [104] |
Gelatin methacryloyl | Cerium-bioactive glass | Photocrosslinkin/proper swelling ratio, cell adhesion, compressive features, antibacterial activity, granulation tissue formation, increased angiogenesis, and collagen deposition | [105] | |
Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose | Valsartan | Physical blending/antimicrobial effect, decrease of the level of the proinflammatory factors | [106] | |
Chitosan/hyaluronic acid | Insulin glargine | Crosslinking/pH-responsive; inflammatory phase reduction, enhanced collagen deposition, granulation tissue production, reepithelialization, neovascularization, and peripheral neuropathy | [107] | |
Poly(ε-caprolactone)/poly-(glutamic acid) | Ciprofloxacin | Physical blending/inhibition of superoxide free radicals and high antibacterial effect | [108] | |
Psoriatic lesion | Carbopol | Apremilast | Crosslinking/proper anti-inflammatory effect (reduction of TNF-α level) and mechanical properties | [109] |
Methotrexate | Physical blending/anti-inflammatory effect, proper viscoelastic and bioadhesive behavior | [110] | ||
Clobetasol propionate | Crosslinking/anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties, pseudoplastic behavior, spreadability, and mechanical properties | [111] | ||
Pluronic F-127 | Cyclosporine | Physical blending/suitable mechanical properties, viscosity, and pH, reduction of hyperplasia, and tissue impairment | [112] | |
Pluronic F-127/hyaluronic acid | Curcumin | Physical blending/optimal anti-inflammatory activity and mechanical properties | [113] |
Recent studies regarding the development of new hydrogel dressings based on different polymers composition and bioactive agents for tissue regeneration.
Cutaneous lesions care leads to a vast socioeconomic burden, with a huge impact on the patient’s quality of life. Thus, this chapter presents a brief approach of hydrogels, which are the most outstanding competitors for the development of new wound dressings from all five classes of modern (advanced) dressings. Hydrogels have attracted the attention of researchers due to their particular 3D structure similar to the extracellular matrix, which has a high capacity to absorb large amounts of water and biological fluids, and which can also retain in their network external microorganisms. These dressings assure optimal moisture at the wound site and a cooling effect, being so comfortable for the patient. Furthermore, hydrogels exhibit a self-healing power, interactive structure, biocompatibility, biodegradability, low cost, nontoxicity, bioadhesion, conductivity, elasticity, softness, swelling behavior, transparency, stimuli-responsive ability, and controlled release of various bioactive agents. As a result of the last feature, this chapter also emphasizes recent studies regarding the development of new wound dressings manufactured using different polymeric supports loaded with various therapeutic agents to stimulate the regeneration of impaired skin tissues.
This work was financially supported by “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy Bucharest, Romania, through Contract no. CNFIS-FDI-2022-0253, funded by the Romanian Ministry of Education.
We, the authors of this paper: Mihaela Violeta Ghica, Cristina-Elena Dinu-Pîrvu, Lăcrămioara Popa, Elena-Emilia Tudoroiu, Diana-Georgiana Ionescu, and Claudia-Maria Benga, declare no conflicts of interests.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Because of this aspect, the framework of modern forensic medicine includes a new field, that of forensic genetics, that mostly involves working with investigations that have human genotype identification as a goal.",book:{id:"5259",slug:"forensic-analysis-from-death-to-justice",title:"Forensic Analysis",fullTitle:"Forensic Analysis - From Death to Justice"},signatures:"Raluca Dumache, Veronica Ciocan, Camelia Muresan and Alexandra Enache",authors:[{id:"179199",title:"Dr.",name:"Raluca",middleName:null,surname:"Dumache",slug:"raluca-dumache",fullName:"Raluca Dumache"},{id:"181860",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Enache",slug:"alexandra-enache",fullName:"Alexandra Enache"},{id:"190151",title:"Dr.",name:"Camelia",middleName:null,surname:"Muresan",slug:"camelia-muresan",fullName:"Camelia Muresan"},{id:"190153",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronica",middleName:null,surname:"Ciocan",slug:"veronica-ciocan",fullName:"Veronica Ciocan"}]},{id:"19164",doi:"10.5772/19434",title:"Epidemiology and Diagnostic Problems of Electrical Injury in Forensic Medicine",slug:"epidemiology-and-diagnostic-problems-of-electrical-injury-in-forensic-medicine",totalDownloads:6433,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"243",slug:"forensic-medicine-from-old-problems-to-new-challenges",title:"Forensic Medicine",fullTitle:"Forensic Medicine - From Old Problems to New Challenges"},signatures:"William Dokov and Klara Dokova",authors:[{id:"34961",title:"Dr.",name:"Klara",middleName:null,surname:"Dokova",slug:"klara-dokova",fullName:"Klara Dokova"},{id:"34976",title:"Dr.",name:"Klara",middleName:null,surname:"Dokova",slug:"klara-dokova",fullName:"Klara Dokova"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50789",title:"Molecular Genetics and its Applications in Forensic Sciences",slug:"molecular-genetics-and-its-applications-in-forensic-sciences",totalDownloads:4655,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The way to medico legal identification was open at the end of the twenty‐first century by the “digital fingerprinting” represented by the multifactorial phenotypical trait, determined by both polygenic and environmental factors, followed by group‐specific antigens, or with specificity for blood and tissue, and ending with the DNA molecule in use today. Because of this aspect, the framework of modern forensic medicine includes a new field, that of forensic genetics, that mostly involves working with investigations that have human genotype identification as a goal.",book:{id:"5259",slug:"forensic-analysis-from-death-to-justice",title:"Forensic Analysis",fullTitle:"Forensic Analysis - From Death to Justice"},signatures:"Raluca Dumache, Veronica Ciocan, Camelia Muresan and Alexandra Enache",authors:[{id:"179199",title:"Dr.",name:"Raluca",middleName:null,surname:"Dumache",slug:"raluca-dumache",fullName:"Raluca Dumache"},{id:"181860",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Enache",slug:"alexandra-enache",fullName:"Alexandra Enache"},{id:"190151",title:"Dr.",name:"Camelia",middleName:null,surname:"Muresan",slug:"camelia-muresan",fullName:"Camelia Muresan"},{id:"190153",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronica",middleName:null,surname:"Ciocan",slug:"veronica-ciocan",fullName:"Veronica Ciocan"}]},{id:"19160",title:"Death Scene Investigation from the Viewpoint of Forensic Medicine Expert",slug:"death-scene-investigation-from-the-viewpoint-of-forensic-medicine-expert",totalDownloads:27471,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"243",slug:"forensic-medicine-from-old-problems-to-new-challenges",title:"Forensic Medicine",fullTitle:"Forensic Medicine - From Old Problems to New Challenges"},signatures:"Serafettin Demirci and Kamil Hakan Dogan",authors:[{id:"30612",title:"Prof.",name:"Kamil Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Dogan",slug:"kamil-hakan-dogan",fullName:"Kamil Hakan Dogan"},{id:"32211",title:"Dr.",name:"Serafettin",middleName:null,surname:"Demirci",slug:"serafettin-demirci",fullName:"Serafettin Demirci"}]},{id:"57199",title:"Negative Autopsy in Infant and Juvenile Population: Role of Cardiac Arrhythmias",slug:"negative-autopsy-in-infant-and-juvenile-population-role-of-cardiac-arrhythmias",totalDownloads:1417,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Negative autopsy is a post-mortem examination in which a comprehensive analysis does not provide a cause of death. These include situation of death, anatomical and histological analysis, toxicology and microbiological study. A low part of autopsies remain without a conclusive cause of death, but all these cases are usually seen in young population, apparently healthy who died suddenly and unexpectedly. In these situations a cardiac arrhythmia is suspected as cause of death and genetic testing is recommended despite not regularly performed. Sudden death is a natural and unexpected decease that occurs in apparently healthy people, or whose disease was not severe enough to expect a fatal outcome. It can be due to several pathologies, usually of cardiac cause and called sudden cardiac death. In infants and young people, both long QT syndrome and catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia are main causes in negative autopsies. These genetic diseases lead to ventricular fibrillation, syncope and sudden cardiac death in a normal heart. Unfortunately, sudden cardiac death could be the first manifestation of the diseases, being early identification and prevention a crucial point in current medical practice. This chapter focuses on sudden death and negative autopsy in young population, mainly due to cardiac arrhythmias.",book:{id:"6262",slug:"post-mortem-examination-and-autopsy-current-issues-from-death-to-laboratory-analysis",title:"Post Mortem Examination and Autopsy",fullTitle:"Post Mortem Examination and Autopsy - Current Issues From Death to Laboratory Analysis"},signatures:"Georgia Sarquella-Brugada, Sergi Cesar, Anna Fernandez-Falgueras,\nMaria Dolores Zambrano, Anna Iglesias, Josep Brugada, Ramon\nBrugada and Oscar Campuzano",authors:[{id:"54165",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Brugada",slug:"ramon-brugada",fullName:"Ramon Brugada"},{id:"54168",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano",slug:"oscar-campuzano",fullName:"Oscar Campuzano"},{id:"218478",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgia",middleName:null,surname:"Sarquella-Brugada",slug:"georgia-sarquella-brugada",fullName:"Georgia Sarquella-Brugada"},{id:"218479",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergi",middleName:null,surname:"Cesar",slug:"sergi-cesar",fullName:"Sergi Cesar"},{id:"218480",title:"MSc.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandez-Falgueras",slug:"anna-fernandez-falgueras",fullName:"Anna Fernandez-Falgueras"},{id:"218482",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Dolores",middleName:null,surname:"Zambrano",slug:"maria-dolores-zambrano",fullName:"Maria Dolores Zambrano"},{id:"218483",title:"MSc.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Iglesias",slug:"anna-iglesias",fullName:"Anna Iglesias"},{id:"218484",title:"Prof.",name:"Josep",middleName:null,surname:"Brugada",slug:"josep-brugada",fullName:"Josep Brugada"}]},{id:"57778",title:"Defining Dental Age for Chronological Age Determination",slug:"defining-dental-age-for-chronological-age-determination",totalDownloads:2606,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Dental age assessment is one of the most reliable methods of chronological age estimation used for criminal, forensic and anthropologic purposes. Visual, radiographic, chemical and histological techniques can be used for dental age estimation. Visual method is based on the sequence of eruption of the teeth and morphological changes that are caused due to function such as attrition, changes in color that are indicators of aging. Radiographs of the dentition can be used to determine the stage of dental development of the teeth from initial mineralization of a tooth, crown formation to root apex maturation. Histological methods require the preparation of the tissues for detailed microscopic examination. The chemical analysis of dental hard tissues determines alterations in ion levels with age, whereas the histological and chemical methods are invasive methods requiring extraction/sectioning of the tooth. In this chapter, the different techniques and considered studies were overviewed in conjunction with their advantages and disadvantages. It needs to be taken into consideration that rather than restricting on one age estimation technique, using the other available techniques additionally and performing repetitive measurements may be beneficial for accurate age estimation.",book:{id:"6262",slug:"post-mortem-examination-and-autopsy-current-issues-from-death-to-laboratory-analysis",title:"Post Mortem Examination and Autopsy",fullTitle:"Post Mortem Examination and Autopsy - Current Issues From Death to Laboratory Analysis"},signatures:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner, Emine Kaygısız and Nilüfer Darendeliler",authors:[{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner"},{id:"200985",title:"Dr.",name:"Emine",middleName:null,surname:"Kaygisiz",slug:"emine-kaygisiz",fullName:"Emine Kaygisiz"},{id:"222232",title:"Prof.",name:"Nilufer",middleName:null,surname:"Darendeliler",slug:"nilufer-darendeliler",fullName:"Nilufer Darendeliler"}]},{id:"50757",title:"Forensic Analysis of the Wakayama Arsenic Murder Case",slug:"forensic-analysis-of-the-wakayama-arsenic-murder-case",totalDownloads:2582,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This is a review paper of forensic analysis of a murder case of Wakayama arsenic poisoning incident. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). 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Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. 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(2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular Economy, Contingency Planning and Response to Disasters, Ecosystem Services, Integrated Urban Water Management, Nature-based Solutions, Sustainable Urban Development, Urban Green Spaces",scope:"