Alternative host plants of vector species in different parts of the world.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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This book provides information on new manufacturing and processing methods of single- and two-phase titanium alloys. The eight chapters of this book are distributed over four sections. The first section (Introduction) indicates the main factors determining application areas of titanium and its alloys. The second section (Manufacturing, two chapters) concerns modern production methods for titanium and its alloys. The third section (Thermomechanical and surface treatment, three chapters) covers problems of thermomechanical processing and surface treatment used for single- and two-phase titanium alloys. The fourth section (Machining, two chapters) describes the recent results of high speed machining of Ti-6Al-4V alloy and the possibility of application of sustainable machining for titanium alloys.",isbn:"978-1-83962-553-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-552-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-554-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78626",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"titanium-alloys-novel-aspects-of-their-manufacturing-and-processing",numberOfPages:154,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e5533136b732dc4ada818553023d4d55",bookSignature:"Maciej Motyka, Waldemar Ziaja and Jan Sieniawsk",publishedDate:"November 27th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8408.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8553,numberOfWosCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:27,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:51,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 14th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 4th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 3rd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 22nd 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 21st 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"101690",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Maciej",middleName:null,surname:"Motyka",slug:"maciej-motyka",fullName:"Maciej Motyka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101690/images/system/101690.jpg",biography:"Maciej Motyka serves as an Associate Professor at Department of Materials Science, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics of the Rzeszow University of Technology. He graduated from Faculty of Non-Ferrous Metals in AGH University of Science and Technology in Cracow in 1998 and earned his PhD degree in 2004 and DSc degree in 2015. Scientific interests of Dr. Motyka cover relationships between processing, microstructure and mechanical properties of advanced structural materials, mainly titanium alloys. His activity is focused on hot plasticity and fine-grained superplasticity phenomena. He is also working on characterization of ultrafine-grained materials – submicrocrystalline aluminium alloys and nanocrystalline titanium – obtained by plastic consolidation and severe plastic deformation methods. Dr. Motyka is an author and co-author of over 90 papers in scientific journals and conference proceedings.",institutionString:"Rzeszów University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Rzeszów University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"109233",title:"Dr.",name:"Waldemar",middleName:null,surname:"Ziaja",slug:"waldemar-ziaja",fullName:"Waldemar Ziaja",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109233/images/system/109233.jpg",biography:"Waldemar Ziaja graduated in Aeronautical Engineering from Rzeszów University of Technology in 1992 and ever since he is engaged with Department of Material Science at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics of the Rzeszów University of Technology. He obtained his PhD degree in 1999.\n Scientific interests of Dr. Ziaja include relationships between processing, microstructure and mechanical properties of the advanced structural materials, mainly titanium and nickel based alloys. He is also working on modelling the microstructure dependant deformation of materials in fatigue and creep conditions including damage initiation and growth.\n Dr. Ziaja is an author and co-author of over 50 papers in domestic and international scientific journals and conference proceedings.",institutionString:"Rzeszów University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Rzeszów University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"109232",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Sieniawski",slug:"jan-sieniawski",fullName:"Jan Sieniawski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109232/images/system/109232.jpg",biography:"Professor Jan Sieniawski is a Head of Department of Material Science at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics and a Head of R&D Laboratory of Aerospace Materials of the Rzeszow University of Technology. He graduated from Silesian University of Technology in Gliwice in 1972. His scientific activity covers topics in the area of physical metallurgy of aerospace materials – titanium and aluminium alloys, nickel and cobalt-based superalloys, development and characterization of single crystal castings and thermal barrier coatings on the elements of the hot section of gas turbines. Prof. Sieniawski is a founder member of the Polish Materials Society, member of The Committee on Materials Science and Committee on Machine Building of the Polish Academy of Sciences. He is an author and co-author of 10 books and over 370 papers in domestic and international scientific journals and conference proceedings.",institutionString:"Rzeszów University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Rzeszów University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"944",title:"Metallurgy",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals-metallurgy"}],chapters:[{id:"65232",title:"Introductory Chapter: Novel Aspects of Titanium Alloys’ Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83722",slug:"introductory-chapter-novel-aspects-of-titanium-alloys-applications",totalDownloads:834,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Maciej Motyka, Waldemar Ziaja and Jan Sieniawski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65232",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65232",authors:[{id:"101690",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Maciej",surname:"Motyka",slug:"maciej-motyka",fullName:"Maciej Motyka"}],corrections:null},{id:"68769",title:"Modern Production Methods for Titanium Alloys: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81712",slug:"modern-production-methods-for-titanium-alloys-a-review",totalDownloads:1957,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Titanium alloys are advanced structural materials for numerous key engineering applications in medicine (implants), aerospace, marine structures, and many other areas. The novel aspects of application potential for titanium alloys are as a result of their unique properties such as high corrosion resistance, high specific strength, low elastic modulus, high elasticity, and high hardness. This chapter examines the modern methods for production of titanium alloys. The goal of this chapter is to show the process engineers the current methods for production of titanium alloys necessary for modern applications. The chapter also presents the future methods of production for titanium and titanium alloys to meet the future demands of titanium and titanium alloys’ products.",signatures:"Hamweendo Agripa and Ionel Botef",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68769",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68769",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68115",title:"Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Laser and Mechanically Formed Commercially Pure Grade 2 Titanium Plates",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81807",slug:"microstructure-and-mechanical-properties-of-laser-and-mechanically-formed-commercially-pure-grade-2-",totalDownloads:634,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The microstructure and mechanical properties of laser and mechanically formed commercially pure grade 2 titanium plates are discussed in this chapter. The microstructure of the as received parent material is compared to that resulting from laser and mechanical forming processes. Residual stress results from the two forming processes are analysed and bring to light changes brought about by these processes to the titanium used. The effect of the two forming processes on the mechanical properties is discussed, and the effect of process parameters on these properties is also argued in detail.",signatures:"Kadephi Vuyolwethu Mjali and Annelize Botes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68115",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68115",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64837",title:"Processing of Beta Titanium Alloys for Aerospace and Biomedical Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81899",slug:"processing-of-beta-titanium-alloys-for-aerospace-and-biomedical-applications",totalDownloads:1437,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The unique combination of attributes—high strength to weight ratio, excellent heat treatability, a high degree of hardenability, and a remarkable hot and cold workability—has made beta titanium alloys an attractive group of materials for several aerospace applications. Titanium alloys, in general, possess a high degree of resistance to biofluid environments; beta titanium alloys with high molybdenum equivalent have low elastic modulus coming close to that of human bone, making them particularly attractive for biomedical applications. Bulk processing of the alloys for aerospace applications is carried out by double vacuum melting followed by hot working. There have been many studies with reference to super-solvus and sub-solvus forging of beta titanium alloys. For alloys with low to medium level of molybdenum equivalent, sub-solvus forging was demonstrated to result in a superior combination of mechanical properties. A number of studies have been carried out in the area of heat treatment of beta titanium alloys. Studies have also been devoted to surface modification of beta titanium alloys. The chapter attempts to review these studies, with emphasis on aerospace and biomedical applications.",signatures:"Sudhagara Rajan Soundararajan, Jithin Vishnu, Geetha Manivasagam and Nageswara Rao Muktinutalapati",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64837",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64837",authors:[{id:"40270",title:"Prof.",name:"Nageswara Rao",surname:"Muktinutalapati",slug:"nageswara-rao-muktinutalapati",fullName:"Nageswara Rao Muktinutalapati"},{id:"246235",title:"Prof.",name:"Geetha",surname:"Manivasagam",slug:"geetha-manivasagam",fullName:"Geetha Manivasagam"},{id:"264034",title:"Prof.",name:"Sudhagara Rajan",surname:"S",slug:"sudhagara-rajan-s",fullName:"Sudhagara Rajan S"},{id:"264036",title:"Mr.",name:"Jithin",surname:"Vishnu",slug:"jithin-vishnu",fullName:"Jithin Vishnu"}],corrections:null},{id:"69024",title:"Characteristics of the Dissipation of Energy at Hot Plastic Deformation of Near-Alpha Titanium Alloy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88845",slug:"characteristics-of-the-dissipation-of-energy-at-hot-plastic-deformation-of-near-alpha-titanium-alloy",totalDownloads:614,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Change of mechanical properties of near-alpha titanium alloy is experimentally investigated at stretching in the conditions of variation of temperature and high-speed parameters of deformation. It is established that characteristics of mechanical properties, a structural state influence processes of dissipation of the spent energy. Studying of microstructure of samples before deformation by stretching allowed to install the main mechanisms of dissipative processes and to confirm a possibility of realization of superplasticity in the studied alloy.",signatures:"Mikhail Mikhaylovich Radkevich, Nikolay Rafailovich Vargasov and Boris Konstantinovich Barakhtin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69024",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69024",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"67961",title:"Surface Treatment of Titanium Alloys in Oxygen-Containing Gaseous Medium",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82545",slug:"surface-treatment-of-titanium-alloys-in-oxygen-containing-gaseous-medium",totalDownloads:891,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of investigations on the chapter was to determine regularities of solid solution hardening of surface layers of titanium alloys depending on the conditions of thermodiffusion saturation in rarified gas medium containing oxygen and determine the correlations between parameters of surface-hardened layers (surface hardness, depth of hardened zone, microstructure) and fatigue properties of titanium alloys under various methods of surface hardening. To achieve the formulated aim, the following methods were used: (a) thermodiffusion saturation of titanium alloys in rarified gas medium containing oxygen in the wide range of temperature-time and gas-dynamical parameters and (b) surface deformation by ultrasonic shock and shot-blasting treatments with rapid annealing of deformed surface by means of induction heating. The positive influence of surface hardening on the fatigue characteristics is decreased under the increasing of l when K is constant. The highest relative gain of fatigue strength (Δσ−1) of samples with CTT surface-hardened layers is marked for the low- and middle-strong alloys VT1-0 and OT4-1. Thus for alloy VT1-0, Δσ−1 = 35% under relative gain of surface hardness K = 70% and l = 3 0 ?m. For the near-α-alloy OT4-1, Δσ−1 = 38% under relative gain of surface hardness K = 35% and l = 4 5 …50 μm.",signatures:"Vasyl Trush, Viktor Fedirko and Alexander Luk’yanenko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67961",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67961",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68272",title:"Sustainable Machining for Titanium Alloy Ti-6Al-4V",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82344",slug:"sustainable-machining-for-titanium-alloy-ti-6al-4v",totalDownloads:968,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sustainability achievement of difficult-to-machine materials is a major concern nowadays. Titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V machined for dry, conventional and cryogenic cooling and surface finish is selected as response to assess machining sustainability through variables: cutting power, machining time, machining cost, material removal rate and cutting tool life. Results indicate that cryogenic cooling is more sustainable than dry and conventional cooling.",signatures:"Imran Masood",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68272",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68272",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63356",title:"The Comparison of Cutting Tools for High Speed Machining of Ti-6Al-4V ELI Alloy (Grade 23)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80641",slug:"the-comparison-of-cutting-tools-for-high-speed-machining-of-ti-6al-4v-eli-alloy-grade-23-",totalDownloads:1227,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Green technology is one of the major aspects in order to reduce the global pollution content from manufacturing industries. There is a need to investigate the different available tools for high-speed micromilling process of advanced alloys to achieve desired surface finish without traditional coolants. In this chapter, tool wear investigation of uncoated and PVD-coated AlTiN, TiAlN tungsten carbide end mills in high-speed micro-end milling of alpha + beta Ti-6Al-4V ELI titanium alloy (Grade 23) under dry cutting conditions was presented. A comparison for machining performance with the three tools is reported. Cutting force analysis was done under the considered machining input parameters for evaluating the tool condition. Tool wear observation was done by SEM analysis. EDX analysis was performed to know the material constituents and wear mechanisms on the cutting tool tip. It is found that diffusion, oxidation, adhesive and abrasive wear mechanisms were the major phenomena taking place on the cutting edge of micro end mills. From the comparison of cutting tools for machining Grade 23 titanium alloy, it was found that TiAlN tools performed better than AlTiN and uncoated tungsten carbide tools.",signatures:"Chakradhar Bandapalli, Bharatkumar Mohanbhai Sutaria and Dhananjay Vishnu Prasad Bhatt",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63356",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63356",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3817",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ff86fac7ac8bce142fdc3c0e5a79f30",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",bookSignature:"M. 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Soybean is the second most important broad acre agricultural crop in the US providing high cash benefits to farmers [5]. Soybean was first introduced in the US for agricultural usage as a forage crop in 1804 [6], probably as part of an interchange of seeds between France and US. However, there is some evidence from Georgia which documents soybean cultivation in 1765. Since 1940, the area under soybean cultivation increased so much that it is now mainly used as an oil seed crop. The expansion of soybean cultivation increased from about 2.7 billion bushels in 2000 to 4.39 billion bushels in 2017 in the US [7]. Brazil, US, and Argentina dominate soybean production around the world [8]. Soybean production has doubled during the last decade because of the increased income benefits to farmers and also because of the availability and diffusion of transgenic soybeans which are glyphosate resistant (first developed in 1998) [9, 10].
Soybean is affected by a plethora of diseases caused by bacteria, fungi and viruses as well as by pests such as insects and mites [11, 12]. The effect of diseases and pests on plants results in the reduction in soybean yield. For example, during 2014, the estimated loss due to diseases was 113 million bushels in 28 states in the US. Of this, losses caused by viruses were 11.6 million bushel [13, 14]. Forty-six viruses are known to infect soybeans [14], and among them eight are economically important viz., alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV), bean pod mottle virus (BPMV), peanut mottle virus (PeMoV), peanut stunt virus (PSV), soybean dwarf virus (SbDV), soybean mosaic virus (SMV), soybean vein necrosis virus (SVNV) and tobacco ringspot virus (TRSV) [13, 15].
In 2008, soybean vein necrosis orthotospovirus (SVNV) was first reported in Tennessee (US). To date, 22 US states have reported the virus presence [16, 17, 18, 19, 20], and the incidence of soybean vein necrosis disease in some states has been very high. For instance, in a 3-year survey conducted in the mid-west and mid-south US, it was reported that SVNV was present in 49/50 fields [21]. While this survey highlighted one of the most extreme cases of SVNV presence, in the United States the percent incidence ranged between 10 and 80 depending upon the plant stage and geographic areas. In 2012, the virus was also reported in Canada [22]. The genetic diversity of SVNV was studied from samples taken from different states and showed low variability. In 2013, a comparison of the nucleocapsid protein (NP) coding sequence of SVNV isolates collected from different states was done and it was found that it had 98–100% similarity [16]. At that time, it was proposed that the virus was new and might have been introduced into the US or recently might have been moved to soybeans from other plant hosts [16]. The spread of SVNV is not limited to North America, in fact in 2017, it was reported in Egypt (Middle East) [23] where its incidence was about 67%.
Interestingly, SVNV can spread through seed, an unusual feature for a tospovirus [24], and the US is one of the largest soybean exporters, making seed transmission a concern to importing countries. Until now it is speculated that due to transmission by seed and global soybean trade, seed may be a major source of virus transmission to the entire world [24]. This is because
World map showing thrips species distribution and soybean vein necrosis virus (SVNV) presence in different countries [
Infection by SVNV in soybean is characterized by necrosis of the veins as well as interveinal necrosis, followed by chlorosis of nearby leaf parenchyma [16, 35] (Figure 2). In 2013, a clear link between symptomology and virus association was described in soybean, which was confirmed later in various studies [16, 35], but some authors also found non-symptomatic SVNV positive soybeans plants [24], as well as an Asteraceae member,
Symptoms related to infection. a) Uninfected plant leaf. b) Symptomatic plant inoculated with SVNV through mechanical inoculation performed with a syringe. c) SVNV symptomatic plants infected via thrips
SVNV infection in soybean significantly reduces the oil content and may reduce the germination percentage, 100 seed weight (g), protein content percentage, and fiber content percentage [17]. An experiment was conducted to determine the seed transmission in discolored and damaged seeds, It showed that the virus was seed transmitted [24]. Another study conducted on mixed infection of SVNV and BPMV showed that both viruses can be present together as a mixed infection [25]. The seeds of BPMV infected soybean plants were also discolored. Interestingly BPMV is also seed transmitted [36]. It may be possible that both viruses used the same path to invade the seeds either through the developing embryo or any other route; however, research is needed in this context.
However, other studies conducted on the effect of SVNV on soybean yield determined that SVNV does not decrease the yield, but seed quality was affected [37]. Oil concentration was decreased by 0.1% with SVNV infection and linolenic acid, linoleic acid and stearic acid were increased [37]. This means that SVNV infection may result in lower marketability of soybean in high premium markets. In the oil market, a higher price is paid for seed which has lower linolenic acid and higher oleic acid. Bad quality seeds receive lower prices [17].
Weeds provide a valuable natural means of virus survival when the soybean is not present. Alternative host plant studies of SVNV showed that the virus can infect chrysanthemum
Seed transmission of viruses is a very complex phenomenon and is dependent upon the ability of a virus to penetrate the developing embryo as well as various factors including the type of host plant, time of infection of virus, amount of virus and mixed infection (compatibility of two viruses to propagate in the host plant cells at the same time) [39, 40, 41, 42, 43]. More than one hundred plant viruses are transmitted through seed [39, 44, 45]. Viruses often become difficult to control when they are transmitted through seed as well [39]. Virus transfer to the seed embryo can take place through different routes such as direct transfer, transfer through pollen, and indirect embryo invasion [39, 46]. Losses due to seed borne viruses increase when a stock of seed harboring virus is planted in a field [47].
There are contrary reports on the transmission of SVNV through seeds. One study conducted by Hajimurad [35] reported that like other orthotopsoviruses SVNV cannot be transmitted through seed but later in a study by Groves [24] found seed transmission and confirmed it through nested PCR and RNAseq. Hajimurad [35] did not find seed transmissibility and found only 1/1955 seeds were positive via ELISA. Hajimurad [35] considered that this observation was an anomaly and that SVNV is not seed transmitted. Another observation in the study by Hajimurad [35] was that all the seeds from the infected mother plants were non-symptomatic (not discolored or mottled, instead the seeds looked normal). However, Groves [24] used mottled and discolored seeds. Recently, a Zhou and Tzanetakis [25] study pointed that the mixed infection of SVNV and BPMV may lead to systemic infection of SVNV in the soybean seedlings. It may be that mixed infection of SVNV with BPMV results in the ability of SVNV to be seed transmitted. This is because it is hypothesized that SVNV uses the movement protein of the BPMV for systemic infection [25]. Although Zhou and Tzanetakis [48] also documented non-seed transmissibility of SVNV in 600 seedlings of field grown SVNV, most of the hybrid soybean seeds commercially available are not seed borne disease free. In SVNV, the seed transmission rate reported by Groves [24] is 6% which is considerable [24]. Until now, no virus belonging to Bunyavirales and Tosopoviridae has been regarded as a seed transmitted virus except SVNV, which gives SVNV a unique position among Tospoviridae [24, 49]. If the seed-transmission of SVNV is real, it would create a big challenge in the commercialization of soybean seeds for planting, especially in countries where SVNV is not present yet.
The avenue of seed transmission opens points for discussion. For example, if SVNV cannot be transmitted through seeds then how did the virus reach to the Middle East? It must be either human movement or thrips long distance migration. Further research is needed to confirm the seed transmissibility or the migration routes.
SVNV can be diagnosed with commercially available ELISA kits (for instance, Agdia, USA; & Life Technologies India). A Commercially available ELISA kits use synthesized antibodies. SVNV can also be diagnosed using PCR. Various authors have published PCR primers to amplify the different regions of the SVNV genome [16, 21, 50]. The variation in whole genome of SVNV can be measured through sequencing [21].
SVNV is a spherical virus with a tri-segmented, negative-sense and ambisense, single-stranded RNA genome, containing 5 open reading frames [21, 51]. A schematic model of the SVNV virion based upon the literature [21, 24] is described in Figure 3. The diameter of the SVNV particles ranges between 80 and 100 nm [24]. The 3 genomic segments encode for putative proteins involved in virus replication, in plant defense evasion, virus movement in the plant, virus coating, and vector attachment [21]. The large segment (9010 nt) encodes for the putative RNA-dependent RNA polymerase which is necessary for virus replication [21, 52]. The method of replication has been described in detail for tomato spotted wilt orthotospovirus (TSWV), the type species of this genus [52]. The middle segment (M) is 4955 nt long, ambisense and has two ORFs. ORF 1 encodes for a putative non-structural movement protein (NSm). In TSWV infections, it is assumed that NSm makes tubular structures and is associated with plasmodesmata [53]. ORF 2 encodes for two putative glycoproteins, Gn and Gc, and their role in vector attachment has been well documented for TSWV [54]. Gn-Gc’s role in the
Model of soybean vein necrosis virus particles showing different RNA segments (small, medium and large) coated by N proteins. Glycoprotein (Gn, Gc) spikes decorating the lipid bilayer. Molecules of RNA dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) are enclosed in the virus particles.
The small segment (S) is ambisense, 2603 nt long, and contains two ORFs in opposite orientation [21]. ORF 1 encodes for the nonstructural silencing suppressor protein (NSs) [21]. This protein in TSWV binds dsRNA including miRNAs and siRNAs [52]. The role of NSs in SVNV and vector interaction still needs to be determined. ORF 2 encodes for the structural nucleocapsid protein (N) (31 kda) [21].
Viruses belonging to Orthotospoviridae are persistent and propagative, which means that after entry into the vector insect, the virus multiplies in the insects and insects remain viruliferous for their entire life [54]. Studies conducted on the virus-vector relationship confirmed that
Shazly [23] reported
The host plant has a role in virus transmission. Shazly [23] stated that
There are complex theories regarding the thrips arrival, migration pattern, oviposition, hibernation and dispersion in the soybean fields (Figures 1–4) [21, 37]. According to Mueller, Higley [58] soybean thrips overwinter in southern states and annually migrate to northern US States (Figure 4). However, Anderson, Irizarry [17], and Zhou and Tzanetakis [48] postulated that due to the high number of thrips in soybean growing season in northern US states, soybean thrips may overwinter on perennial weeds and then during the early summer propagate on cover crops. Cover crops such as buckwheat and vegetables such as melon and winter pea can sustain SVNV and its vectors so they can act as reservoir to maintain inoculum from the overwintered insects and increase their number on the soybean crop [37, 59]. Irizarry, Elmore [59] proposed that alfalfa and other cover crops may act as the host of vectors before soybean planting in Wisconsin and Iowa. Zhou, Aboughanem-Sabanadzovic [38] suspected that Kudzu is a natural reservoir of SVNV and may be a natural shelter for the thrips during south to north movement every year because Kudzu is extensively present in the soybean growing region and interstate regions in the south.
Migration, dispersal and winter diapause of soybean theories, hypothesis and results. Here the yellow colored states are north eastern states. Light blue states = southern US states, purple = mid-west states, green = western states. This schematic diagram is based upon the Mueller, Higley [
Soybean is not thought to be the original host of SVNV because SVNV isolates collected in various locations on soybeans had more than 98% similarity [16]. However, comparison of the various isolates was done on the basis of the NP gene [16]. It would be interesting to look at the similarity of SVNV isolates in other genomic segments.
The SVNV transmission is complex because different vector species feed on different wild plants, weeds, cover crops and then eventually transfer the virus to the target crop. Furthermore, the virus can also be transferred to other regions along with infected seeds (Table 1) [24].
Country | Crop | Productive region/state | Species | Experimental conditions (Field or greenhouse experiment) | Identification technique | Plant hosts | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
USA | Alfalfa, buckwheat, and crimson clover, red clover | Iowa | Greenhouse | Insects were slide mounted and identified to the level of species on the plants. Progeny formation was also observed. | Alfalfa, buckwheat, crimson clover and red clover are intermediate host of vector but buckwheat is inoculum reservoir as well. Buckwheat is open end host. | Zhou and Tzanetakis [16] | |
USA | Smart weed, cucumber, Crab apple, Viburnum, Willow, and Jackson | Iowa, Illinois, Maryland, Virginia | Field collections | Field Collection from the plant hosts and then taxonomic identification after slide mounting until the species level. | Dead end host alternate hosts of vector but virus cannot replicate. | Hood [61] | |
USA | Hackberry, Elm and clover | Iowa | Field conditions | Taxonomic identification | Presence of virus in these host plants have not been studied yet. | Beach (1896) [62] | |
USA | Cotton | Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisinia, Missisippi, Tennsesse | Field conditions | Field capture, slide mounting and identification until the species level. | Dead end host, thrips can feed but the virus can not replicate in cotton. | Cook, Allen [63] | |
USA | Lima beans and Snap beans | Arkansas | Field sampling | Field capture of thrips from the spring planted crop and slide preparation for identification of thrips species | Replication of virus in Lima beans and snap beans has not been studied so far. | Sweeden and McLeod [64] | |
USA | Horse radish | Illinois | Field sampling | Field capture of thrips from the spring planted crop and slide preparation for identification of thrips species | Replication of virus in horse radish has not been studied so far. | Gerdes [65] | |
USA | Tomato | Virginia | Field sampling | Population sampling | Virus can not replicate and thrips feed on it. | Nault, Speese Iii [66] | |
USA | Cotton, Peanut and Soybeans | Virginia | Yellow sticky cards | Yellow sticky cards were placed in the fields and thrips were counted after one-week interval. Insects were identified to the level of species. | Soybean is target crop. Whereas the virus cannot replicate in peanut and cotton. Peanut and cotton are dead end host. | Samler [67] | |
USA | Peach orchards | Georgia | Field collection | Fields were sprayed with insecticide and killing thrips fell down in big sheets of aluminuim and were preserved in ethanol 70%. | Replication of SVNV in peach has not been studied yet. | Yonce, Payne [68] | |
Hungary (Europe) | Soybeans | Monitoring | Slide preparation | Target crop. | Ábrahám [69] | ||
Egypt | Groundnut, soybeans, cowpea, mung beans, | Cairo | Monitoring | Slide preparation and identification of species. | Virus can replicate in cowpea, mung beans, and ivy morning glory. The other plants are dead end host, thrips can replicate but virus presence has either not been studied or virus do not replicate | Shazly [23] | |
USA | Mist flower | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Flowering dog wood | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Daisy fleabane | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Dog fennel | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Ivy morning glory | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Dwarf dandelion | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Lantana | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Hedgeprivet | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Blue toadflax | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Japanese Honeysuckle | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Water primrose | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Crab apple | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Creeping wood sorrel | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Yellow wood sorrel | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Parthenium weed | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Chickasaw pulum | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Wild cherry | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | False dandelion | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Wild radish | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Rose | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Sand black berry | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Sassafras | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Arrow leaf sida | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Large hop clover | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Crimson clover | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Venus looking glass | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Moss verbena | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Brazilian verbena | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Common vetch | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] | |
USA | Chinese wisteria | North Florida | Field collection | Slide preparation and identification of species. | SVNV infection status as the inoculum reservoir is not confirmed | Chellemi, Funderburk [70] |
Alternative host plants of vector species in different parts of the world.
Seasonally, many plants can support the thrips vector species and virus in various parts of the world until the principal crop is planted. A detailed study is needed in the spring and winter to examine the alternative host plants of vector and virus reservoirs. The detailed list of possible alternative host plants of the vector and their confirmation as the virus reservoir in different parts of the world is described in Table 1.
Soybean thrips lay eggs inside the leaf parenchymatous tissues near the leaf vein using a barbed ovipositor (Figure 5). A female lays about 70–90 eggs in her lifetime. Eggs hatch into first instar larvae having red eyes. These first instar larvae are transparent and feed on the leaf. The second instar larvae are pale yellow. The first instar duration is 3–4 days. Second and third instar duration is 2–3 days each. Fourth 4th instar duration is 2–4 days. Total adult male duration is 17–19 days and female duration is 20–23 days. Virus infection increased female survival [62]. Males are haploid. The mode of asexual reproduction is Arrehenotoky unlike
Life cycle of
The importance of SVNV seems to be increasing. Several years ago, it was largely unknown, but recent studies have raised concerns about its severity. Management of seed and vector borne viruses requires complex knowledge of vector ecology, type of virus transmission (circulative, semi persistent, persistent), mode of virus introduction in the field (primary or secondary spread), the method of perception of the volatile compounds by insect sensillae, insect response to the plant released stressed volatile compounds, complex interaction between herbivores occupying same niche and threshold level of disease and vector as well [71]. Management considerations include:
The first step is always to start with clean seed. Planting damaged and discolored seeds may increase the chance of virus. Planting with mycorrhizae will increase plant vigor, canopy establishment, plant height, number and weight of nodules, number and weight of pods, total grain yield [72] and plant would be able to combat viruses and vector [72].
Monitoring can provide an estimate of thrips types present on soybean and nearby crops. Monitoring can be done using the beating sheet method or counting the number of adult thrips on the upper most leaves and preserving the specimens in 70% ethanol. Irwin, Yeargan [73] demonstrated that
Irizarry [37], Shazly [23] and Zhou and Tzanetakis [16] found that soybean vein necrosis virus can propagate in crimson clover, tobacco, mung beans, alfalfa, chrysanthemum, ivy morning glory, squash, black eyed pea, blind weed, peas, cheese weed, common purslane and melon. Plantation of soybeans near weeds and alternative host of soybean vein necrosis virus may increase the inoculum of SVNV in soybean plants. Control of weeds may decrease the virus prevalence. Planting of glyphosate resistant seeds may suppress the weeds and hence can increase the yield through reduction in competition between soybean and weeds. However, weeds or host plants during the overwintering season should be rogued. Culling and removal of the infected reservoir plants and weeds may suppress the SVNV inoculum.
Moreover, the winter pea, red clover and ivy morning glory can sustain adults of thrips and immature. Since winter pea, red clover and ivy morning glory can sustain the virus and vector, avoiding plantation of these crops near soybean at least 15 m apart may help to reduce pest numbers.
Nature is rich with biocontrol agents which suppress the thrips population.
Unlike other plant pathogens, orthotospoviruses are not spread by shearing or pruning. Hence pruning or cutting the infected parts of plants would not help to reduce inoculum.
Pesticides can be used against vectors for management of the vector population. However, increased application of insecticides may lead to insecticide resistance, as it has been already reported in
In the case of
For thrips control insecticide treated seeds, provide protection for about 40 days. Also, in northern US states thrips arrive in the month of July and hence symptoms appear in August. But in southern states thrips colonized soybean in May and symptoms were observed in June. This may point to the movement of the vector from South to North [77]. Losses are higher in southern states as compared to Northern US states, however research is still needed to understand comparative losses in southern and northern states. Irizarry [37] estimated losses in between soybean growing states but their studies did not compare infected and uninfected plants, but only compared less symptomatic and higher symptomatic plants due to lack of control plants. Still more studies are needed in field conditions to determine the impact of virus on yield and quality. Application of thiamethoxam, imidacloprid, acetamiprid, lambda cyhalothrin, & chlorpyrifos can provide effective control of thrips populations. In northern US states, thrips populations do not reach to higher numbers because of low temperature, rainfall, and overwintering period but in the south the population grows rapidly and hence pesticide applications may be required.
In the US, a high SVNV incidence in soybean crops was reported, and yield losses on full-season crops were marginal but in double-cropped beans the losses were substantial [17, 37]. Since planting takes place later, thrips colonized on normal cultivated soybeans shift at flowering stage to the double-cropped beans when the plants are often very small, only about 12–24 inches tall. Populations of thrips are very high on double-cropped beans and yield is remarkably decreased [17] . On double-cropped beans insecticide application along with yellow sticky card placement, and
Acibenzolar S methyl, or other organic compounds that like salicylic acid induce plant resistance. Application of this product can reduce bacterial and fungal diseases. Also, this will induce salicylic acid in plants which may reduce SVNV incidence through promotion of plant resistance through a phyto hormone pathway. However, all research related to Acibenzolar S methyl has been conducted with Acibenzolar S methyl and TSWV interaction but has not been done with soybean plants and SVNV. Further research on time of Acibenzolar S methyl application before thrips attack through spray may determine if induction of salicyclic acid can reduce SVNV.
In TSWV and thrips interaction, Gn-Gc glycoproteins have a specific role in the receptor-mediated endocytosis and movement of virions from insect gut to the salivary gland. Although Han, Nalam [78] showed the virus presence in salivary gland of
Non-Structural silencing suppressor proteins (NSs) in TSWV and thrips interaction are hypothesized to overcome thrips inner immune processes. Elucidating the putative role of SVNV NSs protein in
In our experiments we found plant cultivars responded differently to vector colonization and hence virus titer was variable on different cultivars [62], similar results have been reported by Zhou et al., 2019. Possibly in nature there are certain processes involved which govern host plant resistance against vector virus. These mechanisms in relation to SVNV isolates may decrease SVNV incidence in farmer’s fields. However, SVNV resistant varieties may also be developed through strategizing against virus and vector.
In our work on SVNV in Pakistan we found that symptomatic SVNV infected plants were present within one month after plantation of seed [62]. In US we did not find symptomatic plants until August while crop is planted in May [62]. This may be due to insecticide treated seeds, Thrips cannot colonize plants early in the season in US but in Pakistan herbicide resistant and insecticide treated seed is not available. Hence farmers and scientists use untreated seeds which may be reason behind higher disease incidence in Pakistan as compared to Northeastern US but studies regarding global warming and its relation to viral epidemics and insects’ abundance may help to better understand and forecast the disease incidence in future.
The work on virus evolution would provide information about the origin of the virus. Up to the present, we have the characterization of SVNV from US and Egypt [62]. More information on sequence comparison may help to resolve this mystery of evolution of this virus. This is because soybean is native to Asia but now US, Brazil and Argentina dominate the world production, but since the virus can be transmitted through seed, may be this virus could have arrived along with seeds from Asia to US and inhabited here generation after generations until sequenced for first time in 2008 in Tennessee [21].
Management of SVNV requires a broad knowledge of thrips natural history as well as knowledge of the biology of the virus inside the plant host and the vector. Until now research has been done on virus characterization and the vector/virus relationship, but research is needed to understand the resistance mechanisms in plants against SVNV. According to our research experiments we did not find any cultivar which is resistant to the virus although some varieties were less preferred and some were highly preferred by thrips resulting in lower and higher incidence of SVNV [62]. But soybean (
Various kinds of microbes induce resistance in plants against orthotospoviruses. One example is
The diet of poor people in developing countries mostly consists of proteins derived from legumes. Mung beans, mash beans, & tofu are the food sources of the poor. Soybean vein necrosis virus decreases the oil content of seeds which decreases the profit margin of oil seed firms and hence the product become more expensive as well. The cost of production can be lowered through introduction of virus resistant cultivars and hence more high-quality food can be provided to poor of the world.
Disruption of the binding of the virus to its vector through transgenic cultivar development has been a pursuit of IPM specialists against viruses and vectors. In TSWV and
Soybean vein necrosis virus is an important seed and vector transmitted virus present in middle East, US and Canada. This virus can decrease the oil content percentage. SVNV can be transmitted through different species of thrips. Among them
The authors would like to acknowledge the Fulbright grant for PhD studies of the first author. We also wish to acknowledge the Pennsylvania Soybean Board (PSB) for providing funds for graduate student research (PSB #199751).
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
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\\n\\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\\n\\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\\n\\nSara Uhac, COO
\\n\\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
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\\n\\nDr Alex Lazinica
\\n\\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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\n\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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Kumpatla and Mauricio Ulloa",authors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65131",title:"Diversity of Cacao Pathogens and Impact on Yield and Global Production",slug:"diversity-of-cacao-pathogens-and-impact-on-yield-and-global-production",totalDownloads:1730,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Cacao, Theobroma cacao L., an important cash crop in foreign exchange earnings and also a major income source for many smallholder farmers in growing ecologies of West Africa. Global cocoa production has been rising fairly steadily over the years by increasing production in growing countries with most of the production taking place in areas of high pathogen biodiversity. Thus, the sustainability of the cocoa economy is under threat as diseases of various statuses now constitute the most serious constraint to production. Most important among these is the black pod disease caused by Phytophthora genus with annual losses of 30–90% of the crop. This economically important pathogen is very diverse in nature and varied across growing countries including species such as palmivora, megakarya, capsici and citrophthora distinguished based on chromosome number, sporangial characteristics and pedicel length. World losses of 20–25% in cacao production are due to black pod disease, an estimate of 700,000 metric tons on global scale reducing global cocoa production. High cacao loss to diseases is a prime factor limiting production; consequently, significant effort is required to deal with problems associated with disease control to ensure a sustainable cacao. The effective and sustainable management of black pod disease requires integrated approach encompassing different control measures.",book:{id:"7005",slug:"theobroma-cacao-deploying-science-for-sustainability-of-global-cocoa-economy",title:"Theobroma Cacao",fullTitle:"Theobroma Cacao - Deploying Science for Sustainability of Global Cocoa Economy"},signatures:"Dele Adeniyi",authors:null},{id:"67634",title:"Cacao Growth and Development Under Different Nursery and Field Conditions",slug:"cacao-growth-and-development-under-different-nursery-and-field-conditions",totalDownloads:1248,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Experiments were conducted between 2004 and 2018 to examine cacao growth, development, establishment and yield under varying experimental conditions comprised of seed mucilage handling before sowing, sowing methods and its effects on seedling growth and development, timing of mycorrhizal inoculation on root and shoot growth and development and effects of shade and dry season drip irrigation on growth and yield of field-grown cacao. Results show that cleaning cacao seed mucilage before sowing enhanced sprouting rate and percent germination. The use of manure mixed with sawdust and loamy soil aided excellent seed germination, seedling vigor and root development. Inoculating cacao seeds with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) at point of sowing and early stages in the nursery aided root development and enhanced field establishment and survival during the dry season. Dense shade retarded cacao growth and development during the rainy season, while no shade enhances optimum growth and canopy development. The use of drip irrigation strategies in young cacao plantations increased seedling survival from less than 45% under no irrigation to above 95% at the end of the second dry season. This showed that irrigation during dry season can significantly enhance cacao establishment and survival.",book:{id:"7005",slug:"theobroma-cacao-deploying-science-for-sustainability-of-global-cocoa-economy",title:"Theobroma Cacao",fullTitle:"Theobroma Cacao - Deploying Science for Sustainability of Global Cocoa Economy"},signatures:"Idowu Babadele Famuwagun and Samuel Ohi Agele",authors:null},{id:"68383",title:"Major Natural Vegetation in Coastal and Marine Wetlands: Edible Seaweeds",slug:"major-natural-vegetation-in-coastal-and-marine-wetlands-edible-seaweeds",totalDownloads:754,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"For thousands of years, seaweeds grown in coastal and marine have been used as food, materials and medicines by the people. Edible seaweeds directly consumed, especially in Asian, are used for preparing food due to the their components containing minerals, essential trace elements, and various natural compounds. At the last decades, they have been getting more and more attention in food and pharmaceutical industries because of their biological activities such as anti-cancer, anti-obesity, anti-diabetes, anti-microbial, and anti-oxidant activity. Therefore, in the present study, we have worked on to understand the structure of edible seaweeds. It is worthy to mention that they can be considered as source of some proteins, polyunsaturated fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, dietary fibers, antioxidants, and phytochemicals.",book:{id:"8667",slug:"plant-communities-and-their-environment",title:"Plant Communities and Their Environment",fullTitle:"Plant Communities and Their Environment"},signatures:"Ilknur Babahan, Birsen Kirim and Hamideh Mehr",authors:null},{id:"67540",title:"Aphid-Plant Interactions: Implications for Pest Management",slug:"aphid-plant-interactions-implications-for-pest-management",totalDownloads:1072,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Aphids are important herbivores and important pest of many field and forest crops. They have specialized long and flexible stylets which are adapted to feeding on phloem sap. To establish successful feeding on host plant, they need to counter a range of both physical and chemical defenses. The defenses employed by plants can have direct effect on the aphid species through difficulty in establishing successful feeding due to the presence of trichomes, thick cell wall, etc. or effect on their biology with lethal consequences in extreme cases (direct defenses). In contrast to this, plants can attract natural enemies of aphids through the release of volatile compounds (the so-called “cry or call for help”) (indirect defense). 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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