Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
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Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
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"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1629",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Astrophysics",title:"Astrophysics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book provides readers with a clear progress to theoretical and observational astrophysics. 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by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"78532",title:"Pancake Bonding Seen through the Eyes of Spectroscopy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99747",slug:"pancake-bonding-seen-through-the-eyes-of-spectroscopy",body:'
1. Introduction
The initial concept of “pancake bonding” was constructed by Mulliken and Person as to characterize the overall shape and bonding mechanisms of donor-acceptor π systems [1]. More recently the term “pancake bonding” has primarily been used to describe the formation of stabilizing parallel π–π interactions between two or more open-shell free radicals, those of which are typically planar and/or consist of light-atoms [2, 3, 4]. Such interactions have received a considerable amount of interest as they allow one to synthesize novel radical-based materials, via electron or hole through-space delocalization, that exhibit unique magnetic [5], optical [6], and electronic properties (i.e. conductive polymers, organic conductors) [7].
Generally, free radical species are short lived and exist in low concentration as two radicals will typically react to form a single covalently bonded dimer, or σ-dimer. However, when radicals are sterically hindered against approaching within a covalent bonding distance, they can exist as a stable, spin-paired, open shell species. Unlike general non-covalent interactions between closed-shell species (i.e. van der Waals), the open-shell radicals have been said to undergo stabilization with each other via through-space π-stacking 2e/mc distributed interactions (i.e. pancake bonding). This 2e/mc bonding (i.e. pancake bonding) is a result of overlapping antibonding (π∗) singly occupied molecular orbitals (SOMO) of the two monomer radicals with highly delocalized π-electrons [8]. It is noted that magnetic experimental analysis has found the spin pairing of pancake bonded dimers to be diamagnetic with an overall spin density of zero (i.e. singlet electronic state) [9]. The overlapping of antibonding (π∗) SOMOs is the basis of pancake bonds as this interaction leads to the following distinctive features [4]: i) contact bond distances that are beyond the usual C(sp3)–C(sp3) bond length (1.54 Å) but are also much shorter than the bonds of closed shell dimers that are held together by vdW forces (sum of vdW radii = 3.40 Å) (ii) due to direct atom-to-atom overlap, SOMO-SOMO overlapping strongly favors configurations that yield maximum overlap orientations which lower the energy of the two radical SOMOs iii) low lying singlet (singlet-singlet) and triplet (singlet-triplet) electronic excited states, iv) negative singlet-triplet splitting energies (i.e., ΔEST = E(singlet) – E(triplet)) for stable open shell singlet pancake bonded complexes [10] and v) interaction energies larger than those of vdW interactions. Bond dissociation energies (BDE) of pancake bonded system have been estimated to be smaller than those of a normal covalent system but larger than dimers subject to typical π-stacking where this type of π-stacking is observed for DNA base pairs [11] (vdW π stacking interactions and pancake bonds are different). Several works analyzed the related binding energies (BE), splitted into two contributions, a destabilizing stabilizing vdW part, EvdW, and a stabilizing energy, ESOMO, associated with the bonding overlap of the singly occupied SOMO [12]. ESOMO yields a reasonable description of the SOMO-SOMO overlap contribution to BE and it has been suggested that ESOMO can be estimated from the difference between E(singlet) – E*(triplet), where E*(triplet) is the triplet energy evaluated for the singlet geometry [12].
BE, ESOMO and SOMO-SOMO overlap have been utilized as to further explain the nature of these systems [8, 13]. It was argued that the dimerization of such radicals exhibit covalent bonding character as the spin-pairing of the electrons in the SOMO leads to a filled highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and a corresponding empty antibonding LUMO [14]. In this situation, the interaction occurs at rigid rotational geometries, due to SOMO-SOMO overlapping, which is different from π-stacking in which various rotational orientations are possible [15]. On the other hand, dispersion and/or van der Waals interactions have been suggested to play important roles in the overall stabilization of these dimers [14]. Thus, the nature of pancake bonds between 1,2-chalcogen-3,5-diazol radicals and phenalenyl-based radicals remains in debate to the present day.
A CSD database survey based upon 35 cis-cofacial dimers composed of HCNSSN radicals, with C–C contact distances ranging between 2.75 to 3.50 Å, showed that S⋯S contact bond distances ranged from 2.93 to 3.30 Å [8]. These S⋯S contact bond are much shorter than the vdW distance between two sulfur atoms (4.06 Å) [16], in the case of two spherical sulfur atoms the vdW distance has been computed to be 3.60 Å. A CSD database survey based on 12 cis-cofacial 1,2-diselena-3,5-diazolyl dimers, with C⋯C contact distances between 2.80 and 3.50 Å, found the average Se⋯Se contact distance to be 3.26 (s = 0.05) [8]. This average Se⋯Se contact distance is slightly smaller than the vdW distance between spherical Se atoms (3.32 Å). Previously computed dissociation energies have suggested that dimers of R-CNSeSeN radicals dimers are more binding than dimers of R-CNSSN radicals; relative binding energy values were also observed to be analogous to vdW interactions [8].
1,2-chalcogen-3,5-diazole dimers: Within the past two decades di-chalcogen-diazole radicals, such as 1,2-dithia-3,5-diazolyl (i.e. HCNSSN) and 1,2-diselena-3,5-diazolyl (i.e. HCNSeSeN) radicals, and their derivatives have been a subject of many investigations [17]. The rings of HCNSSN and HCNSeSeN are rich in π-electrons and have π∗ singly occupied molecular orbitals (SOMO). The 1,2-dithia-3,5-diazolyl and 1,2-diselena-3,5-diazolyl radicals have been experimentally observed to result in stable dimerizations in the solid state where, in most cases, the neutral radicals prefer to be oriented with their faces parallel to one another (cis-cofacial) in order to achieve a configuration that supports maximum π∗-π∗ (SOMO-SOMO) overlapping observed as two electron/eight-center (2e/8c) π-stacking (i.e. pancake bonding) interactions. A notable feature of HCNSSN and HCNSeSeN dimers are their four long chalcogen-chalcogen bonds (i.e. contacts) ranging between 2.2 and 4.0 Å. HCNSSN and HCNSeSeN dimers have been suggested to stabilize via a combination of π and σ aromaticity [13].
Phenalenyl-based dimers: In solution, phenalenyl radicals maintain chemical equilibrium via the formation of a σ-bonded dimer [18]. Due to the very high symmetry of the radical phenalenyl monomer, a unpaired electron is delocalized across all α-positions of the phenalenyl framework excluding the central carbon atom of the monomers [19]. As noted in the work of Kubo [19], the thermodynamic stability of such carbon-centered radical species increases as the delocalization of unpaired electrons across a system increases [19]. Another interesting feature of phenalenyl dimers and their derivatives (i.e. carbon-centered hydrocarbon radicals) is due to the formation of unique two-electron/twelve-center (2e/12c) π-stacking interactions between these spin-delocalized hydrocarbon radicals [20] as verified by NMR [21]. The hexagonal arrangement of the SOMO of the phenalenyl radicals enables perfect π-π overlap in both eclipsed and staggered stacking configurations, the staggered stacking configuration is favored over the eclipsed configuration due to shorter π-π contacts as a result of less atom-atom repulsion [19]. It is mentioned, that various phenalenyl derivatives, which demonstrate π-π stacking (i.e. pancake bonding), have been experimentally identified via single crystal X-ray diffraction (XRD) [22]. The formation of σ-bonded phenalenyl radical dimer can be inhibited by substituting the carbon atoms of the phenalenyl rings, at the 2,5,8-positions, with tert-butyl groups as a π-bonded dimer results from the sterically hindered phenalenyl radicals [19]. Moreover, X-ray studies have revealed that the application of sterically hindered substituents (i.e. tert-butyl groups) on phenalenyl radicals prevent σ-dimerization and results in a π-bonded dimer with a face-to-face stacking distance, twice that of the σ-bonded dimer, at a length of of 3.2 Å [23]. This π-π contact (face-to-face) stacking distance is characteristic to pancake bonding as this length is shorter than that of a vdW complex and is beyond the length of a coventional covalent bond. Bond dissociation energy (BDE) for systems containing carbon radicals such as phenalenyl have been estimated to be around 10 kcal/mol [11]. Because σ-bonded and π-bonded phenalenyl-based dimers are close in energy the existence of the pancake bonded dimer as a fluxional molecule has been reviewed [12].
Although many experimental and computational have been conducted for the dimerizations of 1,2-chalcogen-3,5-diazol and phenalenyl-based radicals, the intrinsic strength of these interactions remains unclear. While popular BDE and its decomposition [24] provides valuable information about the stabilizing forces involved in bond formation (in the case of pancake bond in particular in the formation of 2e/mc interactions), BDE does not adequately describe the intrinsic strength of a bond [25, 26, 27]. Because BDE measures the overall effect of bond breakage it contains the electronic reorganization and geometrical relaxation of the fragments upon dissociation. Therefore, we introduced in this work an intrinsic bond strength measure based on vibrational spectroscopy. Unlike BDE, the local stretching force constant (ka), derived from local vibrational modes [25], conserves the geometry and electronic structure of all bonds/interactions. ka provides a direct description of intrinsic bond strength and has been applied successfully applied to assess the intrinsic bond strengths for a variety of covalent interactions including ultra long C–C bonds, carbon-halogen bonds and non-covalent interactions such as hydrogen, tetrel, pnicogen, chalcogen and halogen bonds; see Ref. [25] and citations therein.
In this study, we applied the local mode analysis [25] complemented with the RING puckering analysis of Cremer and Pople [28] and Bader’s quantum theory of atoms in molecules (QTAIM) analysis of the electron density [29] to quantify the strength of the pancake bonds in six spin-paired, open-shell singlet state dimers 1–6 (shown in Figure 1) and and to learn more about their nature. Species 1–3 are 1,2-chalcogen-3,5-diazole dimers which contain sulfur (1), selenium (2), and tellurium atoms (3); it is noted that 3 is a prototypal (i.e. theoretical) species. Species 4–6 are phenalenyl-based dimers in which the bulkiness of substituents increase as follows: phenalenyl dimer (4) < 2,5,8-trimethylphenalenyl dimer (5) < 2,5,8–tert-butylphenalenyl (6). The aromatic character of the dimer species (4–6) was also explored, in particular the role of the aromaticity for the stabilization of phenalenyl-based dimers. In summary, special focus was on: i) to assess the intrinsic bond strengths of the 2e/mc interactions for selected species, ii) to quantify the ring strengths of the selected species, iii) to determine if the pancake bonds of these species are covalent in nature, iv) to elucidate on the effect of substituents on the aromaticity of phenalenyl-based species, v) to determine, for phenalenyl-based dimers, the effect of dimerization on the aromaticity for phenalenyl-based species, and vi) to determine what bond property, of the phenalenyl-based species investigated, predominately governs changes in aromaticity.
Figure 1.
Species investigated in this work. 1) 1,2-dithia-3,5-diazolyl (HCNSSN) dimer 2) 1,2-diselena-3,5-diazolyl (HCNSeSeN) dimer. 3) 1,2-tellura-3,5-diazolyl (HCNTeTeN) dimer 4) phenalenyl dimer. 5) 2,5,8-tri-methylphenalenyl dimer. 6) 2,5,8-tri-t-butylphenalenyl dimer. Detected pancake bonds (2e/mc) (i.e. targeted contact bonds and interdimer CC bonds) are denoted in red.
2. Computational methods
Local mode theory: Since the underlying theory behind the derivation of local vibrational modes is elaborated on in Ref. [25] the following text briefly covers the fundamental aspects. Every vibrational mode, being associated with potential and kinetic energy contributions, is subject to two mode-to-mode coupling mechanisms, electronic coupling and kinematic (mass) coupling [30]. As a result the normal modes remain perpetually delocalized over a molecule and cannot be directly used to assess chemical bond strength [25]. Solution of the vibrational secular equation (i.e. the Wilson equation) eliminates the electronic coupling as a result of force constant matrix diagonalization. The kinematic coupling which remains is eliminated in the local mode theory via a modified version of the Wilson equation that uses mass-decoupled Euler–Lagrange Equations [25]. This leads to local vibrational modes, associated with local mode frequencies ωa and local mode force constants ka that can serve as a quantitative bond strength measure [25] which we applied to assess the strength all 2e/mc interactions (i.e. pancake bonds) of species 1–6 (see Figure 1). Stretching force constants ka can be transformed into relative bond strength orders (BSO) n which are more convenient for comparison, via a generalized Badger rule [31], leading to the following power relationship between these two quantities: BSO n = A (ka)B. Constants A and B can be determined from two reference molecules with known ka and BSO n values and the requirement that for a zero ka value the BSO n is also zero.
In our study we used the CC single bond of ethane with BSO n = 1 and the CC double bond of ethene with BSO n = 2 as references [32]. In addition to BSO n values for the C⋯C contacts, BSO n values for N⋯N, S⋯S, Se⋯Se, and Te⋯Te bonds of the dichalcodiazolyl species 1–3 were derived using the same power relationship. For dimers 4–6, aside from deriving the BSO n values for the central C–C bonds, we also computed the BSO n values for the outer C⋯C contacts which are established between six carbon atoms of each monomer (see Figure 1).
Aromaticity index based on local modes: π delocalization in species 4–6 was determined via an aromatic delocalization index (AI) derived from local force constants following the procedure of Kraka, Cremer and co-workers [33, 34]. In contrast to the HOMA index [35] which is based upon optimal bond lengths, which sometimes tend to fail for this purpose [33], the AI is based on local stretching force constants and bond strength orders (BSO n). As a reference, we used benzene with an AI value of 1.00 and assigned BSO n value of 1.451 [33].
BDEs for 1–6 were derived via potential energy curves by varying the interdimer distance from 2.5 to 8.0 Å, using increments of 0.1 Å around and 1.0 Å further away from the equilibrium geometry, followed by a constrained optimization. By calculating BDEs via potential energy curves any basis set superposition errors can be avoided, such errors have been reported to as large as 16 kcal/mol in these complexes when the BDE is calculated from the differences between dimer and monomer energies [14]. The covalent character of the pancake bonds was assessed with the Cremer-Kraka criterion [36, 37] of covalent bonding within the framework of Bader’s QTAIM [29]. The Cremer-Kraka criterion is composed of two conditions; (i) existence of a bond path and bond critical point rb = b between the two atoms under consideration; (ii) sufficient condition: the energy density Hrb = Hb is smaller than zero. Hr is defined as Hr = Gr + Vr, where Gr is the kinetic energy density and Vr is the potential energy density. A negative Vr corresponds to a stabilizing accumulation of density whereas the positive Gr corresponds to depletion of electron density [36]. As a result, the sign of Hb indicates which term is dominant [37]. If Hb<0, the interaction is considered covalent in nature, whereas Hb>0 is indicative of electrostatic interactions.
Model chemistry used: To describe the spin-paired open shell singlet states, we applied a single determinant broken-symmetry (BS) unrestricted ansatz, which works well for systems with small singlet-triplet gaps [38, 39], combined with a density functional theory (DFT) approach. We refrained from a multi-reference description, such as CASSCF, which has been mostly applied to unsubstituted species 4 with a relatively small active space and basis sets [40]. We also refrained from post-SCF methods, such as Møller-Plesset perturbation theory of second order, which has shown to over-bind in the case of dimer complexes with pancake bonds and may results in an unrealistic C⋯C contact distance of 2.8 Å [14].
A reliable description of pancake bonding requires a careful choice of DFT functional. The popular B3LYP functional [41, 42] does not describe dispersion well whereas the dispersion corrected ωB97X-D [43] functional sometimes leads to inconsistent results [44]. It was reported that the M06-2X functional [45] yields generally shorter C⋯C contact distances [46] whereas the C⋯C contact distances based off the M05-2X functional [47] agree well for complexes for 4–6 with experimental values [48]. On the other hand, the M06 functional has shown to be well parameterized for describing chalcogens (i.e. sulfur, selenium and tellurium atoms) [45]. Another important part of the model chemistry is the basis set. We tested both, Pople’s augmented 6–31++G(d,p) double zeta [49, 50] and 6-311G(d,p) triple zeta basis sets [51]. For the Te atom we applied the SDD basis set [52] which uses the Stuttgart-Dresden pseudopotentials [53] to account for relativistic effects. Guided by our test calculations, we decided to use for our study the BS-UM06/6-311G(d,p) model chemistry for 1–2, BS-UM06/SDD for 3, and BS-UM05-2X/6–31++G(d,p) for 4–6.
Software used: All DFT geometry optimizations and frequency calculations were carried out using the Gaussian program package [54]. The following local mode analysis and the aromaticity delocalization index (AI) study was carried out with the LModeA software [55]. The QTAIM analysis was performed with the AIMALL program [56] For the rings of the di-chalcodiazoyl dimers (1–3), which do not contain a central atom, we used the ring puckering program [57] followed by LMA, as to obtain the local mode properties of the rings.
3. Results and discussion
It is noted that in regard to the text which follows, the terms contact bonds, π-π stacking interactions, and face-to-face interactions loosely refer to pancake bonds while interdimer/central C-C bonds refer to the C-C bond established in the center of two monomers. Table 1 summarizes the calculated bond distances (Rcalc), experimental bond distances (Rexp), calculated bond dissociation energies (BDEcalc), experimental bond dissociation energies (BDEexp), local stretching force constants (ka), local mode vibrational frequencies (ωa), bond strength orders (BSO n), electron densities (ρb), and energy densities (Hb) for the targeted CC bonds of of targeted contacts bonds of dimers 1–6 and rings of 1–3. Table 2 summarizes symmetry, singlet and triplet C⋯C contact distance (R(CC)), energy values of SOMOs (ESOMO), and triplet/singlet (ΔEST) for all species investigated in this work (1–6). Figure 2 shows the equilibrium geometries for the HCNTeTeN 3 dimer (C2) in singlet and triplet states. Figure 3 shows the various conformations of the phenalenyl dimer in the triplet state where the red lines indicate detected C⋯C contacts. Figure 4 show the generated Morse potential curves of dimers 1–6. Figure 5 shows the correlation between BSO n values and the local stretching force constants ka of 1–6. Figure 6 showcases the BSO n(CC) values, corresponding CC bond lengths, AI values, bond weakening/strengthening parameters (WS), and bond alteration parameters (ALT) for the carbon ring structures and the outer ring structures of phenalenyl, 2,5,8-trimethylphenalenyl, and 2,5,8-tri-t-butylphenalenyl monomer radicals and dimers.
No.
Species
Rcalc
Rexp
BDEcalc
BDEexp
ka
ωa
BSO n
ρb
Hb
1
HCNSSN
Ring
3.071
−5.8
−5.3 [8]
0.657
147
0.214
0.016
0.005
C–C
3.036
3.18
0.208
243
0.083
0.041
0.007
N-N
3.034
0.128
176
0.056
0.052
0.004
S-S
3.125
0.192
143
0.078
0.104
−0.000
2
HCNSeSeN
Ring
3.210
−4.7
N/R
0.302
72
0.113
0.015
0.004
C–C
3.119
3.31
0.080
151
0.038
0.034
0.006
N-N
3.152
0.074
134
0.036
0.042
0.003
Se-Se
3.313
0.151
80
0.064
0.098
−0.000
3
HCNTeTeN, C2v
Ring
3.514
−6.0
N/A
0.049
23
0.021
0.013
0.001
C–C
3.219
N/A
0.029
83
0.014
0.036
0.006
N-N
3.333
0.032
29
0.016
0.039
0.006
Te-Te
3.840
0.045
123
0.022
0.073
0.002
4
HCNTeTeN, C2
Ring
3.413
−8.4
N/A
0.162
43
0.062
0.018
0.002
N-N
3.342
0.112
165
0.045
0.046
0.009
Te-Te
3.820
0.038
65
0.018
0.086
0.003
N-Te
3.510
0.045
78
0.021
0.069
0.007
5
Phenalenyl
Peripheral C–C
3.110
N/A
−11.0
N/A
0.366
123
0.136
0.072
0.005
Central C–C
3.152
N/A
0.293
288
0.113
0.063
0.006
6
tMP
Peripheral C–C
2.997
3.053
−14.8
N/R
0.172
64
0.074
0.090
0.006
Central C–C
3.093
3.145
0.167
217
0.072
0.070
0.007
7
tTBP
Peripheral C–C
3.391
3.306
−12.4
−9.5 [59]
0.194
68
0.081
0.047
0.003
Central C–C
3.287
3.201
0.147
204
0.065
0.050
0.005
Table 1.
Summary of calculated bond distances (Rcalc) in Å, experimental bond distances (Rexp) in Å, bond dissociation energies (BDEcalc) in kcal/Mol, experimental bond dissociation energies (BDEexp) in kcal/Mol, vibrational spectroscopy data, electron densities (ρb) in e/Å3, and energy densities (Hb) in h/Å3 of the targeted contacts bonds and rings of dimers 1–6 (see Figure 1).
The UM06/6-311G(d,p) methodology used for 1 and 2, UM06/SDD for 3, and UM05-2X/6–31++G(d,p) for 4, 5 and 6. N/A, not applicable; N/R, not reported.
No.
Species
Dimer
Monomer
Singlet
Triplet
ESOMO
ΔEST
Symmetry
Symmetry
R(CC)
R(CC)
1
HCNSSN
C2v
C2v
3.036
3.452
−15.61
−2.17
2
HCNSeSeN
C2v
C2v
3.119
3.208
−13.90
−2.09
3
HCNTeTeN
C2v
C2v
3.165
3.362
−13.26
0.96
3
HCNTeTeN
C2
C2
3.563
3.104
−8.46
−1.35
4
Phenalenyl
D3d
C3H
3.152
3.622
−12.97
−5.98
5
tMP
D3d
C3H
3.093
3.744
−19.26
−5.44
6
tTBP
S6
C3H
3.281
3.855
−6.11
−3.13
Table 2.
Symmetry of dimer and monomer, singlet and triplet face-to-face distances (R(CC)) in Å, energy values of SOMOs (ESOMO) in kcal/Mol and triplet/singlet splitting (ΔEST) in kcal/Mol for comlexes 1–6 (see Figure 1) calculated at corresponding levels of theory.
Figure 2.
Equilibrium geometries for HCNTeTeN (3) dimers in C2 symmetry. a) Singlet. b) Triplet.
Figure 3.
Conformations of the phenalenyl dimer in the triplet state. a) Staggered. b) Eclipsed. c) Intermediate geometry. The red lines indicate detected π-π contacts. Bond distances for the central CC bond between the two monomers are given.
Figure 4.
Dissociation curves for dimers 1 and 2 (UM06/6-311G(d,p), 3 (C2v) (UM06/SDD), and 4–6 (UM05-2X/6–31++G(d,p)).
Figure 5.
The relationship between BSO n and force constants of dimers 1–6 calculated with UM06/6-311G(d,p) (1 and 2), UM06/SDD (3), and UM05-2X/6–31++G(d,p) (4–6). BSO n(ring) values for 1–6 were computed via in accordance to the level of theory used.
Figure 6.
Bond strength orders (BSO) and bond lengths (in parentheses, Å) for the phenalenyl, 2,5,8-trimethylphenalenyl and 2,5,8-tri-t-butylphenalenyl radical monomers and dimers (4 through 6). The aromaticity delocalization index (AI), bond weakening (strengthening) parameters (WS) and alteration parameters (ALT) for the FULL carbon ring structures (FULL) and the OUTER ring structure (OUTER) are indicated in boxes. The term FULL accounts for all CC bonds while the term OUTER accounts only for outer CC bonds and does not account for the inner most CC bonds.
3.1 Energetics
Identifying pancake bond interactions: As shown in Table 2, the ESOMO values for dimers 1–6 range between −6.11 and −19.26 kcal/mol where 5 acquires the largest ESOMO value. We note that the ESOMO value of 6 is in good agreement with the ST-splitting of −6.64 kcal/mol derived from ESR experiments [21]. As shown in Table 2 the ΔE(ST) is small and negative for dimers 1–6 with 3 in C2 symmetry. These results are in line with the notion that the formation of pancake bonded dimers requires the spin-paired singlet state to be energetically favored over the triplet state.
From singlet to the triplet state, the central C–C bond distances in dimers 1 and 2 increase from 3.04 Å and 3.12 Å to 3.45 Å and 3.21 Å, respectively. No alterations in the rotational alignments amongst these two species were observed. Unlike for dimers of 1 and 2, we observe that, in the singlet state of the HCNTeTeN dimer (3) one monomer rotates about the CC central axis by 88.5∘, resulting in a C2v symmetry for the dimer. Moreover, the triplet state of the HCNTeTeN dimer (3) involves the rotation of a monomer, about the central C-C axis, by 99.2∘ and results in a C2 symmetry for the dimer (see Figure 2).
The ΔEST values of 1–3, where 3 is in C2 symmetry, indicate stable arrangements (see Table 2). In the case of 3, which is common in symmetry to dimers 1 and 2 (C2v), the triplet state is lower than the singlet state (ΔE(ST) = 0.96 kcal/mol) reflecting an unstable dimer structure as no pancake bonding is formed. We note that for the lower energy structure of 3 (C2) BCP’s were detected for Te⋯Te, Te⋯N, and N⋯N contacts, being consistent with the observations of Gleiter and Haberhauer [58], in which the reorientations of dithiatriazine molecules favored the formation of S⋯N and S⋯C interactions over the the formation of a C⋯C contacts. Notably, unlike the other di-chalcodiazoyl dimers, the central C–C distance of the 3 (C2) dimer, from the singlet to the triplet state, decreases from 3.56 Å to 3.10 Å. Going from a C2v symmetry to C2 symmetry the ESOMO value of 3 changes from −13.26 kcal/mol to −8.46 kcal/mol. These results indicate that there are attractive interactions between the monomers of 3 (C2) that are unrelated to SOMO-SOMO overlap. Overall, the results based on 3 in C2v and symmetry C2, suggest that chalcogen⋯chalcogen bonds and the electrostatic attraction between a chalcogen and a less electronegative atom play significant roles in the stabilization of such dimers.
For the phenalenyl dimer (4), the triplet geometry exhibits two local minima and one global minima (see Figure 3). The staggered configuration of 4 is −1.7 kcal/mol lower in energy than the eclipsed conformer. The central C⋯C distance of both the staggered and eclipsed conformer of 4 are longer than the sum of the van der Waals radii where the central C⋯C bond of the staggered configuration is shorter than that of the eclipsed configuration by 0.27 Å (see Figure 4). The most stable arrangement of 4 is represented by an intermediate structure with a rotational dihedral of 40.9∘ which, in contrast to the staggered and eclipsed geometries, has a shorter central C⋯C distance (3.42 Å) and is −0.4 kcal/mol lower in energy than the staggered configuration. These results suggest that the triplet state of 4 is a π-complex.
Though the interatomic distances of 5 and 6, when going from a singlet to triplet state, increase from values of 3.09 Å and 3.28 Å to values of 3.74 Å and 3.86 Å, we observe no change in the rotational alignment between the monomers of the two species. These results suggest that any change in the orientations of 5 and 6 monomers are hindered by their substituent groups. We also note that the ΔEST values of 4 to 6 steadily decline as substituent size increases (see Table 2).
Dissociation energies: From the Morse potential curves of the dichalcodiazoyl dimers 1–3 (C2) bond dissociation energy (BDEcalc) values of −5.8, −4.7 and −6.0 kcal/mol are obtained, these values being more analogous to the BDE values of electrostatic interactions. The calculated BDE of 1 is in good proximity to the experimental value reported by Beneberu et al. (see Table 1). The bond dissociation energy of species 3, in C2 symmetry, in comparison to 3 in C2v symmetry, is more negative by −2.4 kcal/mol.
The computed bond dissociation energy values for species 4 through 6 are −11.0, −14.8 and −12.4 kcal/mol, respectively. The computed dissociation energy value of 6 is in good agreement with the previously reported experimental enthalpy change (ΔHD) of −9.5 kcal/mol [59]. We observe the BDEcalc of the 2,5,8-trimethylphenalenyl dimer (5) to be larger than that of both 4 and 6 by values of 3.8 and 2.4 and kcal/mol suggesting that the addition of three methyl groups to each monomer of the phenalenyl dimer (5) yields a more stable dimer as dispersion contributions are enhanced (see Tables 1 and 2). In contrast to 5, the addition of three tert-butyl groups (C4H9) to each monomer of the phenalenyl dimer (6) results in a decreased stabilization due to increased steric repulsion between the bulky C4H9 substituents. Moreover, we observe 2,5,8-tri-t-butylphenalenyl dimer (6) to be more stable than the phenalenyl dimer (4) by 1.4 kcal/mol, indicating that, within 6, there is a trade-off amongst the steric repulsion of the tert-butyl groups and stabilizing dispersion (see Table 1 and Figure 4).
3.2 Bond parameters and derived bond strength orders n
Di-chalcodiazoyl dimers: As the chalcogen atoms (S, Se, and Te) of the di-chalcodiazoyl dimers (1–3) increase in atomic radius (see Figure 5), the BSO n values of the C⋯C contacts of 1–3 decrease (see Table 1). It is noted that C⋯C contact distances of 1 and 2 are in excellent agreement with experiment (see Table 1). The chalcogen⋯chalcogen contacts within the 1,2,3,5-ditelluradiazolyl dimer (3), in C2v symmetry, acquire a ka value that is smaller than that of the chalcogen⋯chalcogen interactions of dimers 1 and 2 by 0.147 and 0.109 mdyn/Å, respectively. In the case of the 3, in C2 symmetry, N⋯Te, rather than C⋯C contacts as observed in 3 (C2v), are seen to coexist alongside Te⋯Te contacts. Moreover, we find that the BSO n value for the hetero-chalcogen (N⋯Te) bond of 3 (C2) is larger than that of the Te⋯Te contact (see Table 1).
In regard to individual aromatic rings of 1–3 (i.e. HCNSSN, HCNSeSeN, and HCNTeTeN) we observe the overall bond strength order of each ring (i.e. BSO n(ring)) to decrease as the strength of the chalcogen⋯chalcogen interactions between corresponding rings decrease in the following order: S⋯S > Se⋯Se > Te⋯Te [BSO n(ring) = 0.214 (1), 0.113 (2), 0.021 (3, C2v), 0.062 (3, C2)]. Moreover, as depicted in Figure 5, the dimer 1,2,3,5-dithiadiazolyl (1) is more stable than the 1,2,3,5-diselenadiazolyl dimer (2) by 0.355 mdyn/Å (see Figure 1); this result indicates that a greater extent of π-stacking is present within 1 which results in the C⋯C, N⋯N, and chalcogen⋯chalcogen contacts of 1 being shorter than those of 2 (see Table 1). Furthermore, the ka values for the chalcogen⋯chalcogen contacts (i.e. S⋯S, Se⋯Se, and Te⋯Te) reveal that S⋯S and Se⋯Se interactions contribute large amounts of π-delocalization primarily towards the rings, where the overall rings strength of 2 is stronger than that of 3 due to a greater amount of π-delocalization from the corresponding chalcogen⋯chalcogen interactions (Se⋯Se) (see Table 1). From Figure 5, in addition to the individual ka values of the NN, TeTe, NTe, and CC contacts of 3 in C2 and C2v symmetry, we can see that the C2 configuration of 3 results in a greater amount of stabilizing π-delocalization, dominantly due to the N⋯N contacts, towards the rings (see Table 1). Alongside a decrease in ring strength from 1 to 3 the overall bond length of the aromatic rings, which, in the case of 1 is equivalent to the summation of all R(C-N), R(S-S), and (N-S) bond lengths of a HCNSSN ring, decreases from 1 to 3 (see Table 1).
The energy density (Hb) values at the chalcogen⋯chalcogen (i.e. S⋯S, Se⋯Se, and Te⋯Te) bond critical points rb of 1–3 are negative for 1 and 2 and positive for 3 (see Table 1). The negative energy density Hb values at the bond critical points rb of the chalcogen⋯chalcogen contacts within 1 and 2 (i.e. S⋯S, Se⋯Se) indicate the presence of chalcogen⋯chalcogen covalent bonding [60]. Positive Hb values of the Te⋯Te interactions for 3, in both C2v and C2 symmetries, indicate that the Te⋯Te contacts are much weaker than the S⋯S and Se⋯Se contacts of 1 and 2 which are of an electrostatic nature. We note that in all cases (1–3), the Hb values of C⋯C and N⋯N contacts are positive. The non-detection of a bond critical point for the C⋯C contacts of 3, in C2 symmetry, reveal that such interactions disappear when the C⋯C bond distance stretches slightly beyond that for the equilibrium geometry of 3 (C2v) (see Table 1).
From our results we observe that the stabilization of molecules 1 and 2 is primarily due to the large magnitude of π-delocalization from their corresponding chalcogen interactions (i.e. S⋯S and Se⋯Se) where the extent of π-delocalization is seen to correlate in parallel with the strength of the C⋯C contacts and the overall strength of an aromatic rings (see Table 1). In contrast to dimers 1 and 2, 3 (C2v) acquires a much weaker C⋯C contact strengths and an overall weaker aromatic ring strength due to a lesser extent of π-delocalization from the Te⋯Te interactions as revealed from the much smaller ka(chalcogen⋯chalcogen) values (see Table 1). Our results show that the chalcogen bonding does play a stabilizing role in the dimers such as 1 and 2 as suggested by Gleiter and Haberhauer [13, 58, 61], which observe that as pancake bonded species (dimer) are drawn apart the monomers tip outward in such a way that the chalcogen atoms, on each monomer, undergo separation at a slower rate in contrast to their carbon and nitrogen atoms.
Phenalenyl-based dimers: Unlike dimers 1–3, the phenalenyl dimers (4–6) contain central (interdimer) C–C bonds (see Figure 1). As mentioned earlier, in addition to the central C–C bonds of 4–6, we also analyze all peripheral C⋯C bonds which are established between six carbon atoms of each monomer that comprise the corresponding phenalenyl-based dimers (see Figure 1). We observe that the central C–C bonds of 4–6 decrease in strength from 4 to 6 due to a lesser extent of π-delocalization from peripheral C⋯C as observed from corresponding ka(C⋯C) values (see Table 1). The relative BSO n values of the peripheral C⋯C interactions for all phenalenyl-based dimers (4–6) are stronger than the corresponding central C–C bonds (see Table 1). The ka values of the central C–C bonds within 4–6 are within a range 0.16 and 0.70 mdyn/Å; these bonds are weaker than the C–C single bond in ethane, a classical C–C bond prototype (ka(C–C) = 4.3 mdyn/Å).
Moreover, the peripheral C⋯C bonds of the phenalenyl dimer (4) and of the tri-methylphenalenyl dimer (5) are shorter than their central C–C bonds (see Table 1). For the tri-tert-butylphenalenyl dimer (6), the interdimer C–C bond is distance is smaller than that of the peripheral C⋯C bonds (see Table 1) due to the steric repulsion between the bulky tert-butyl groups of the monomers as this repulsion “locks” the dimer into a staggered configuration. The steric repulsion between the tert-butyl groups groups of 6 results in a concave pyramidalization of the central CC bonds of the monomers [40], causing the central interatomic C–C bond to be shorter than the outer CC interactions (see Table 1). Moreover, the electron density values (ρb) of the peripheral C⋯C bonds of 4 and 5 are less than those for the corresponding central C–C bonds and an opposite trend is observed for that 6 (see Table 1). We observe both the C⋯C contacts and interdimer C–C interactions of 4–6 to have positive energy density values Hb indicating that both interactions acquire an electrostatic nature, rather than a covalent character (see Table 1).
3.3 Aromaticity and ring strength of phenalenyl-based monomers and dimers
In order to assess the effect of substitution and dimerization on the monomers and dimers of 4–6 we conduct aromaticity delocalization index (AI) analysis. Two AI were determined for each monomer and dimer of 4–6, one AI value considers all CC bonds while the second AI value considers only the outer most CC bonds which trace the species (the inner/central most CC bonds are not considered). In addition to AI values, Figure 6 lists corresponding WS and ALT parameters, WS gives the weakening/strengthening parameter of the bonds in and ALT reflects the magnitude of bond strength alteration. Overall, the WS and ALT parameters reflect the loss of aromaticity which is attributed to increased structure irregularity. Therefore, the more symmetrical an aromatic perimeter, the greater the aromaticity (i.e. AI) of the system. For example, in the case of benzene, which is planar and very symmetrical as all CC sides (bonds) are identical, the parameters are as follows: WS = 0, ALT = 0, and AI = 1. In general, the smaller the AI the weaker the aromatic character of a species.
Phenalenyl-based monomers: We observe the six outer most CC bonds of the phenalenyl monomer (BSO n(CC) = 1.412) to be identical in strength to those of benzene (BSO n(CC) = 1.451). The addition of methyl substituents to the phenalenyl monomer, in the form of 2,5,8-trimethylphenalenyl, favors a skewed arrangement which places one H atom of every CH3 group in plane with the phenalenyl rings and the other two H atoms of every CH3 group above and below the plane of the rings (see Figure 6). From the BSO n values and bond distances of the six outermost CC bonds of the 2,5,8-trimethylphenalenyl monomer we observe the outer bonds to be dissimilar (see Figure 6). For the CC outer bonds, that are on the same side of the coplaner hydrogen atom of the CH3 group, CC bond distances and BSO n values increase by 0.002 Å and decrease by 0.032 while that for the CC outer bonds, that are on the same side of the two CH3 hydrogen atoms above and below the ring, increase by 0.008 Å and decrease by 0.065 in contrast to that of the phenalenyl monomer. A similar trend is observed for the substitution of phenalenyl with t-butyl substituents in the form of 2,5,8-tri-t-butylphenalenyl, where the six outer CC bonds become slightly longer and weaker in contrast to 2,5,8-trimethylphenalenyl (see Figure 6). In comparison to the phenalenyl monomer the CC outer bonds of 2,5,8-tri-t-butylphenalenyl, which are on the same side of the coplaner methyl group, become longer by 0.003 Å and weaker by 0.037 BSO n units while that for the outer CC bonds, that are on the same side of the methyl groups above and below the ring, stretch by 0.011 Å and decrease in strength by 0.053 units. For the outer CC bonds, not affiliated with the point of substituent attachment (periphery CC bonds), the effect of substitution is too a lesser extent with bond lengths ranging between 1.412 to 1.415 Å and the BSO n(CC) values ranging from 1.283 to 1.312. We note that 6 acquires the weakest outer and periphery CC bonds. Conversely, the three bonds which radiate from the central C (i.e. inner CC bonds) increase in strength from 4 to 5 and from 5 to 6 (see Figure 6). This indicates that electron density lost by the deformation of the outer CC bonds, occurring from monomer of 4 to 6, redistributes to the inner bonds.
The AI (full/outer) values of the phenalenyl monomer are both 0.915. From monomers 4 to 6 we observe the AI, based upon the outer CC bonds, to decrease steadily while the AI, based upon all CC bonds, fluctuates. From the AI outer/full values of the phenalenyl (AI (full, outer) = 0.915), 2,5,8-trimethylphenalenyl (AI (full, outer) = 0.918, 0.911) and 2,5,8-tri-t-butylphenalenyl monomers (AI (full, outer) = 0.901, 0.885) we observe that the outer rings have a larger degree of π-delocalization than the full ring. From WS and ALT parameters we can see that the decrease in the aromatic character of the outer CC bonds from monomer 4 (WS, ALT = 0.062, 0.023), to 5 (WS, ALT = 0.077, 0.012), to 6 (WS, ALT = 0.108, 0.008) is predominantly due to bond weakening (as indicated by WS). Overall we observe that as the 4 monomer is substituted with CH3 (5) and tert-butyl groups (6) the outer aromaticity decreases steadily and is predominately governed by bond weakening effects which are attributed to smaller magnitudes of π-delocalization as additional π-delocalization (i.e. electron density) is pushed away from the points of substitution and adjacent (periphery) CC bonds towards the inner most CC bonds as reflected from the increasing inner CC bond strength from 4 to 6.
Phenalenyl-based dimers: We note that the trend in BSO n values observed amongst the CC bonds of the monomers discussed in the previous section is similarly observed for the CC bonds of their dimers (4–6). It is worth mentioning that the AI (outer/full) values for the dimers are greater than that of their monomer components (see Figure 6). The phenalenyl dimer 4, in contrast to its monomer counterpart, has larger outer, peripheral, and central CC bond strength orders (BSO n(CC)) of 1.441, in very close proximity to that of benzene (1.451). We observe that the the bigger aromaticity of dimer 4 is predominately attributed to bond strengthening as revealed from a comparison between the WS parameters of the phenalenyl monomer (WS (full/outer) = 0.066, 0.062) and dimer (4) (WS (full/outer) = 0.043, 0.035).
From Figure 6 it is shown that dimers 5 and 6 favor configurations which position the six methyl or tert-butyl groups amongst the dimers in an alternating manner yielding a symmetrical arrangement and in turn a stable species. We note that the methyl groups within the lowest energy rotational isomer of dimer 5 do not have the same orientation as those within its monomer as six hydrogen atoms of the CH3 groups are rotated inward, towards the center of the molecule (see Figure 6). From WS and ALT parameters we see that the dimer of 2,5,8-trimethylphenalenyl (5) has a greater outer CC aromaticity (AI (outer) = 0.911 (monomer), 0.914 (dimer)) than its monomer due to bond strengthening (WS (full, outer) = 0.077 (monomer), 0.075 (dimer)). We note that this result is consistent with the BSO n values of the peripheral and central CC bonds of dimer 5, which are greater than those of the monomer by 0.012 to 0.026 units (see Figure 6). In contrast to the phenalenyl dimer (4), 5 has much larger WS (full/outer) and smaller ALT (full/outer) parameters, where the WS parameters are more altered than the ALT parameters (see Figure 6). These results reveal that the aromaticity of the 2,5,8-trimethylphenalenyl dimer (5) (AI (full/outer) = 0.918, 0.914) is less than that of the phenanlenyl dimer (AI (full/outer) = 0.934, 0.938) primarily due to bond weakening (indicated by WS, see Figure 6). The outer/full AI values of the 2,5,8-tri-t-butylphenalenyl dimer (6) are both bigger than its monomer counterpart being primarily due to bond strengthening as observed from the smaller WS (outer/ full) parameters of the dimer in contrast to that of it monomer (see Figure 6). It is also notable that changes in AI (outer/full), when comparing monomer to monomer, monomer to dimer, or dimer to dimer, do not correspond directly to changes in CC bond lengths, in some instances these lengths stay the same or do not drastically change unlike BSO n (CC) orders (see Figure 6).
From our results, it is clear that substituents not only prevent σ-dimer formation but reduce the overall aromaticity of both phenalenyl-based monomers and the dimers. As noted, the dimeric systems display a higher AI than the monomeric systems indicating that the dimerization of phenalenyl-based species enhances the aromaticity of the species. Our observation is in line with the nucleus-independent chemical shift (NICS) NMR analysis of Suzuki et al. [21], which suggets that SOMO-SOMO overlap in the dimerized system, overall, supports and stabilizes the aromaticity of the molecules. Furthermore, our work supports the suggestions of Gleiter and Haberhauer who propose that dimers which are pancake bonded undergo stabilization via electron combination as to create a Hückel-allowed [62] (4n + 2 electron) 3-dimensional aromatic system as we observe that, despite the fact that the dimers, unlike their monomers, are not planar (which reduces orbital overlap), the dimers exhibit higher aromaticity. Ultimately, from AI, WS, ALT, and BSO n parameters, we discover that the dimerization of phenalenyl-based monomers increases the aromaticity of the phenalenyl rings predominantly through CC bond strengthening while the substitution of the phenalenyl dimer, alongside inhibiting σ-dimerization, reduces the overall aromaticity of the system predominantly through CC bond weakening.
4. Conclusions
In this work, we conducted local mode analysis, electron density analysis, and aromaticity delocalization index (AI) calculations (based upon vibrational frequencies) for a set of six neutral pancake-bonded systems, di-chalcodiazoyl dimers (1–3) and phenalenyl-based dimers (4–6), as to elucidate on the strength of pancake bond interactions within dimers, the ring strength of their monomers, the nature of the pancake bond interactions, the effect of substituents on the aromaticity of phenalenyl-based species, and the effect of dimerization on the aromaticity for phenalenyl-based species. The local stretching force constants, being suitable descriptors of bond strength and π-delocalization, are used to describe the pancake bond interactions of 1–6 and the degree of π-delocalization amongst these bonds and their corresponding dimer species. Directly from computed local stretching force constants we derived bond strength orders. We use measures of AI, and corresponding WS and ALT parameters, to determine what bond property, of the phenalenyl-based species investigated, predominately governs changes in aromaticity. From the results of our work we draw the following: [1] We find that dimer species 1 (1,2,3,5-dithiadiazolyl) and 2 (1,2,3,5-diselenadiazolyl) are significantly stabilized by their chalcogen⋯chalcogen contacts. Unlike 1 and 2, which have C2v symmtery, the 1,2,3,5-ditelluradiazolyl (3) dimer is found to be stable in C2 symmetry as the singlet state is energetically favored over the triplet state, revealed from a negative ΔEST. [2] In regard to the phenalenyl-based dimers, as the substituent size increased from 4 to 6 the stability of the system steadily declined as the steric repulsion between the substituent groups hindered the monomers of these dimers from changing into a orientation of lower energy. [3] As the radius of the chalcogen atoms di-chalcodiazoyl dimers 1–3 increase (Te < Se < S) the strength of the C⋯C contacts decreases. As the strength of the chalcogen⋯chalcogen interactions (i.e. contacts) decrease from 1 to 3 the overall ring strength decreases and the strength of the central (i.e. interdimer) C–C bond decreases [4]. For all phenalenyl-based dimers (4–6) we observed that the BSO n values of peripheral C⋯C are stronger that of their corresponding central C–C bonds. Revealing that pancake bonding interactions contribute largely to the stability of these species [5]. From energy density analysis Hb, following the Cremer-Kraka criteria, we observe the chalcogen⋯chalcogen pancake bonding interactions of the 1,2-dithia-3,5-diazolyl dimer (1) and 1,2-diselena-3,5-diazolyl dimer (2) are covalent in nature as they have negative (stabilizing) Hb values at their bond critical point rb. [6] Unlike the other 1,2-chalcogen-3,5-diazole dimers (1 and 2) the chalcogen⋯chalcogen contacts (i.e. Te⋯Te) of 3 are much weaker in strength and have a positive (destabilizing) energy density value Hb at the Te⋯Te bond critical point rb revealing that the Te⋯Te do not have a typical pancake bond nature as we observed 1 and 2. [7] All pancake bonding interactions within the phenalenyl dimer (4), 2,5,8-trimethylphenalenyldimer (5), and the 2,5,8-tri-t-butylphenalenyl dimer (6) were observed to have postive (destabilizing) Hb values revealing that their pancake interactions are electrostatic in nature. [8] From BSO n(CC) values, the calculated AI, and related WS and ALT parameters we found that the dimerization of phenalenyl-based monomers leads to an increased aromaticity primarily due to CC bond strengthening. [9] From the same parameters mentioned above we observed that the substitution of the phenalenyl dimer, which is necessary for inhibiting σ-dimerization, results in an overall reduction of system aromaticity predominantly through CC bond weakening.
Acknowledgments
In memoriam of Dr. Dieter Cremer (1944-2017) who laid the foundation for this project. This work was financially supported by the National Science Foundation, Grant CHE 1464906. We thank SMU for providing computational resources.
\n',keywords:"local stretching force constant, dimerization, pancake bonding, aromaticity, 2e/mc bonding",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78532.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78532.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78532",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78532",totalDownloads:101,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"July 31st 2021",datePrePublished:"October 8th 2021",datePublished:"May 18th 2022",dateFinished:"September 10th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"From local mode stretching force constants and topological electron density analysis, computed at either the UM06/6-311G(d,p), UM06/SDD, or UM05-2X/6–31++G(d,p) level of theory, we elucidate on the nature/strength of the parallel π-stacking interactions (i.e. pancake bonding) of the 1,2-dithia-3,5-diazolyl dimer, 1,2-diselena-3,5-diazolyl dimer, 1,2-tellura-3,5-diazolyl dimer, phenalenyl dimer, 2,5,8-tri-methylphenalenyl dimer, and the 2,5,8-tri-t-butylphenalenyl dimer. We use local mode stretching force constants to derive an aromaticity delocalization index (AI) for the phenalenyl-based dimers and their monomers as to determine the effect of substitution and dimerization on aromaticity, as well as determining what bond property governs alterations in aromaticity. Our results reveal the strength of the C⋯C contacts and of the rings of the di-chalcodiazoyl dimers investigated decrease in parallel with decreasing chalcogen⋯chalcogen bond strength. Energy density values Hb suggest the S⋯S and Se⋯Se pancake bonds of 1,2-dithia-3,5-diazolyl dimer and the 1,2-diselena-3,5-diazolyl dimer are covalent in nature. We observe the pancake bonds, of all phenalenyl-based dimers investigated, to be electrostatic in nature. In contrast to their monomer counterparts, phenalenyl-based dimers increase in aromaticity primarily due to CC bond strengthening. For phenalenyl-based dimers we observed that the addition of bulky substituents steadily decreased the system aromaticity predominately due to CC bond weakening.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78532",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78532",signatures:"Alexis Antoinette Ann Delgado, Alan Humason and Elfi Kraka",book:{id:"11001",type:"book",title:"Density Functional Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",fullTitle:"Density Functional Theory - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",slug:"density-functional-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11001.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-846-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-845-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-847-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"418191",title:"Prof.",name:"Elfi",middleName:null,surname:"Kraka",fullName:"Elfi Kraka",slug:"elfi-kraka",email:"ekraka@smu.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"419169",title:"Mrs.",name:"Alexis",middleName:null,surname:"Antoinette Ann Delgado",fullName:"Alexis Antoinette Ann Delgado",slug:"alexis-antoinette-ann-delgado",email:"alexisdelgado81096@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Southern Methodist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"427809",title:"Dr.",name:"Alan",middleName:null,surname:"Humason",fullName:"Alan Humason",slug:"alan-humason",email:"ahumason@smu.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Southern Methodist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Computational methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Energetics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Bond parameters and derived bond strength orders n",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Aromaticity and ring strength of phenalenyl-based monomers and dimers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Mulliken RS, Person WB. Molecular Complexes: Chapter 16 – Inner and Outer Complexes with π-Acceptors. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience; 1969.'},{id:"B2",body:'Gleiter R, Haberhauer G. Chapter 3: Aromaticity and Other Conjugation Effects. VCH, Weinheim: Wiley; 2012.'},{id:"B3",body:'Boeré RT. Experimental and computational evidence for “double pancake bonds”: The role of dispersion-corrected DFT methods in strongly dimerized 5-aryl-1λ2,3λ2-dithia-2,4,6-triazines. 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Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, United States
Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, United States
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After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. 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Elements of ecotourism fit within this context, and such tourism includes, but is not limited to, activities such as visiting natural and cultural resources without destroying nature, which are carried out with an aim toward sustainability. Ilgaz Mountain has a wealth of natural, cultural, historical, and recreational features, and its location near the Black Sea gives the area significant tourism potential. In order to evaluate the impact, potential, and possibilities of ecotourism in this protected area, we used geographic information systems (GIS) to determine the nature of protection required based on implementation availability. In this study, we used ecology-based identification of the natural and cultural values to characterize the features. The study consists of four parts: (1) the concept of ecotourism, (2) discussion of sustainable growth of tourism, (3) sustainability of ecotourism using GIS and how this is related to sustainable ecotourism in protected areas, such as in Turkey, (4) results and evaluation. By assessing these results, we aim to determine potential areas for ecotourism in terms of sustainable development, and we expect the results to provide useful ideas for further research.",book:{id:"5140",slug:"tourism-from-empirical-research-towards-practical-application",title:"Tourism",fullTitle:"Tourism - From Empirical Research Towards Practical Application"},signatures:"Mehmet Cetin and Hakan Sevik",authors:[{id:"93082",title:"Dr.",name:"Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Sevik",slug:"hakan-sevik",fullName:"Hakan Sevik"},{id:"178455",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Cetin",slug:"mehmet-cetin",fullName:"Mehmet Cetin"}]},{id:"50032",doi:"10.5772/62293",title:"Community Participation toward Tourism Development and Conservation Program in Rural World Heritage Sites",slug:"community-participation-toward-tourism-development-and-conservation-program-in-rural-world-heritage-",totalDownloads:5033,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Community participation in tourism development and World Heritage Site (WHS) conservation management is essential for the sustainable development of WHS destinations. Local communities play a significant role in reviving and sustaining WHSs. Community participation ranges from involvement in the decision-making processes at the highest level down to economic involvement and the promotion of the destination at the lowest level. What shape community participation ultimately takes depends on the circumstance of destinations. This study attempts to review the current community participation literature with respect to rural WHS destinations, synthesising the current literature by way of a systematic review. The findings reveal a preference among rural WHS residents for economic involvement and destination promotion rather than participation in the decision-making process. The findings of this study expand upon the community participation literature, clarifying the concept in the context of rural WHS destinations. In addition, the results have practical implications for local authorities responsible for the sustainable conservation management and tourism development of rural WHS—that these seemingly competing objectives are best achieved by involving local residents in economic activities and increasing their benefits from tourism.",book:{id:"5140",slug:"tourism-from-empirical-research-towards-practical-application",title:"Tourism",fullTitle:"Tourism - From Empirical Research Towards Practical Application"},signatures:"S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh and Mastura Jaafar",authors:[{id:"170959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mastura",middleName:null,surname:"Jaafar",slug:"mastura-jaafar",fullName:"Mastura Jaafar"},{id:"178812",title:"Dr.",name:"S. Mostafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rasoolimanesh",slug:"s.-mostafa-rasoolimanesh",fullName:"S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh"}]},{id:"50197",doi:"10.5772/62308",title:"Ecotourism and Its Role in Sustainable Development of Nepal",slug:"ecotourism-and-its-role-in-sustainable-development-of-nepal",totalDownloads:4947,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Ecotourism helps in environmental protection, wildlife conservation, poverty alleviation and socio-economic development. It affects environmental, social and economic components of the community and the whole country. It has different forms which are named according to the preference of the country. Developed as well as developing countries , such as Nepal, are promoting ecotourism for sustainable development of the nation. Different methodologies are applied throughout the world by different researchers for assessing ecotourism. This chapter focuses on review of ecotourism researches throughout the world. It has both positive and negative impacts on environmental, social and economic aspects of the country. Due to the high rate of beneficial impacts, it is helping in the overall development of the community, country and the whole world. There is need of cooperation among different stakeholders, training of ecotourism to tourism entrepreneurs and appropriate management policy for sustainable implementation of ecotourism projects.",book:{id:"5140",slug:"tourism-from-empirical-research-towards-practical-application",title:"Tourism",fullTitle:"Tourism - From Empirical Research Towards Practical Application"},signatures:"Anup K. C.",authors:[{id:"178579",title:"Mr.",name:"Anup",middleName:null,surname:"K.C.",slug:"anup-k.c.",fullName:"Anup K.C."}]},{id:"50364",doi:"10.5772/62724",title:"Tourism Carrying Capacity for Beaches of South Andaman Island, India",slug:"tourism-carrying-capacity-for-beaches-of-south-andaman-island-india",totalDownloads:2998,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The Andaman and Nicobar Islands (ANI) is one of the largest tourist areas in India attracting both the international and domestic tourists each year. The Island Administration has a vision to develop the islands as an upmarket island destination for ecotourism. Among the island group, the South Andaman region is the most visited tourist destination and beaches of these islands have great potential for tourism attractions. The present work is an attempt to understand the potential of these beaches by assessing the carrying capacity in terms of number of visitors that can be allowed over a period of time, which will further help with better tourism management. The methodology used to estimate the tourism carrying capacity (TCC) is based on the physical and ecological conditions of each site and the existing infrastructure. The total effective carrying capacity (ECC) estimated for the beaches of Port Blair area (126,301 visitors/day) reveals that the current tourism activity is in lower level compared to its carrying capacity. Such carrying capacity assessments can be used as an input into the regular planning process. Preliminary estimates suggest that A&N Islands can be promoted for high value-low volume, eco-friendly, and environmentally sustainable tourism.",book:{id:"5140",slug:"tourism-from-empirical-research-towards-practical-application",title:"Tourism",fullTitle:"Tourism - From Empirical Research Towards Practical Application"},signatures:"R. Sridhar, E. Yuvaraj, V. Sachithanandam, T. Mageswaran, R.\nPurvaja and R. Ramesh",authors:[{id:"178784",title:"Dr.",name:"Sridhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rengarajan",slug:"sridhar-rengarajan",fullName:"Sridhar Rengarajan"},{id:"187060",title:"Mr.",name:"Yuvaraji",middleName:null,surname:"Eswaran",slug:"yuvaraji-eswaran",fullName:"Yuvaraji Eswaran"},{id:"187061",title:"Dr.",name:"Sachithanandam",middleName:null,surname:"Veeraragavan",slug:"sachithanandam-veeraragavan",fullName:"Sachithanandam Veeraragavan"},{id:"187062",title:"Dr.",name:"Mageswaran",middleName:null,surname:"Thangaraj",slug:"mageswaran-thangaraj",fullName:"Mageswaran Thangaraj"},{id:"187063",title:"Dr.",name:"Purvaja",middleName:null,surname:"Ramachandran",slug:"purvaja-ramachandran",fullName:"Purvaja Ramachandran"},{id:"187064",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramesh",middleName:null,surname:"Ramachandran",slug:"ramesh-ramachandran",fullName:"Ramesh Ramachandran"}]},{id:"50292",doi:"10.5772/62661",title:"Interaction between Cultural/Creative Tourism and Tourism/ Cultural Heritage Industries",slug:"interaction-between-cultural-creative-tourism-and-tourism-cultural-heritage-industries",totalDownloads:3282,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The chapter presents a review of the conceptions of cultural and creative tourism, their resources, objectives and their benefit and damage to the nature and the society. It is very important in the postmodern society to not only develop cultural tourism that is one of the most rapidly growing branches of economy, but also to employ cultural heritage and does not always develop the common heritage and tourism industry. This is an especially sore point because the common cultural heritage and tourism industry has an opportunity to create added financial value for cities, regions, and it also develops a responsible conserving cultural tourist. Creative tourism is different from cultural tourism in that it provides tourists with experiences through their direct participation in offered tourism activities. Another idiosyncratic feature is that creative tourism travel packs are created by not only tourism organisations, but also communities that have authentic tangible and intangible heritage. It is important to note that cultural tourism can transform into creative tourism. Heritage tourism is of great importance as well because it relates to the aforementioned types of tourism. ‘Red’ tourism can be distinguished as a type of heritage tourism that attracts tourists’ attention.",book:{id:"5140",slug:"tourism-from-empirical-research-towards-practical-application",title:"Tourism",fullTitle:"Tourism - From Empirical Research Towards Practical Application"},signatures:"Dr. Jurėnienė Virginija",authors:[{id:"178530",title:"Dr.",name:"Jureniene",middleName:null,surname:"Virginija",slug:"jureniene-virginija",fullName:"Jureniene Virginija"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50032",title:"Community Participation toward Tourism Development and Conservation Program in Rural World Heritage Sites",slug:"community-participation-toward-tourism-development-and-conservation-program-in-rural-world-heritage-",totalDownloads:5041,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Community participation in tourism development and World Heritage Site (WHS) conservation management is essential for the sustainable development of WHS destinations. Local communities play a significant role in reviving and sustaining WHSs. Community participation ranges from involvement in the decision-making processes at the highest level down to economic involvement and the promotion of the destination at the lowest level. What shape community participation ultimately takes depends on the circumstance of destinations. This study attempts to review the current community participation literature with respect to rural WHS destinations, synthesising the current literature by way of a systematic review. The findings reveal a preference among rural WHS residents for economic involvement and destination promotion rather than participation in the decision-making process. The findings of this study expand upon the community participation literature, clarifying the concept in the context of rural WHS destinations. In addition, the results have practical implications for local authorities responsible for the sustainable conservation management and tourism development of rural WHS—that these seemingly competing objectives are best achieved by involving local residents in economic activities and increasing their benefits from tourism.",book:{id:"5140",slug:"tourism-from-empirical-research-towards-practical-application",title:"Tourism",fullTitle:"Tourism - From Empirical Research Towards Practical Application"},signatures:"S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh and Mastura Jaafar",authors:[{id:"170959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mastura",middleName:null,surname:"Jaafar",slug:"mastura-jaafar",fullName:"Mastura Jaafar"},{id:"178812",title:"Dr.",name:"S. Mostafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rasoolimanesh",slug:"s.-mostafa-rasoolimanesh",fullName:"S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh"}]},{id:"50197",title:"Ecotourism and Its Role in Sustainable Development of Nepal",slug:"ecotourism-and-its-role-in-sustainable-development-of-nepal",totalDownloads:4949,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Ecotourism helps in environmental protection, wildlife conservation, poverty alleviation and socio-economic development. It affects environmental, social and economic components of the community and the whole country. It has different forms which are named according to the preference of the country. Developed as well as developing countries , such as Nepal, are promoting ecotourism for sustainable development of the nation. Different methodologies are applied throughout the world by different researchers for assessing ecotourism. This chapter focuses on review of ecotourism researches throughout the world. It has both positive and negative impacts on environmental, social and economic aspects of the country. Due to the high rate of beneficial impacts, it is helping in the overall development of the community, country and the whole world. There is need of cooperation among different stakeholders, training of ecotourism to tourism entrepreneurs and appropriate management policy for sustainable implementation of ecotourism projects.",book:{id:"5140",slug:"tourism-from-empirical-research-towards-practical-application",title:"Tourism",fullTitle:"Tourism - From Empirical Research Towards Practical Application"},signatures:"Anup K. C.",authors:[{id:"178579",title:"Mr.",name:"Anup",middleName:null,surname:"K.C.",slug:"anup-k.c.",fullName:"Anup K.C."}]},{id:"73374",title:"Eco-Cultural Tourism: Sustainable Development and Promotion of Natural and Cultural Heritage",slug:"eco-cultural-tourism-sustainable-development-and-promotion-of-natural-and-cultural-heritage",totalDownloads:574,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Ecotourism has the eradication of poverty and environmental protection at its core. Both of these goals were established by the United Nations in 2012 though their development began in the 1980s. The purpose of this chapter is to analyse, using a comparative methodology, global and local eco-cultural tourism (natural, rural and urban areas) in tourist destinations of countries with emerging economies (Asia: China, Malaysia, Thailand), developed countries (Europe: Spain), and developing nations (South America: Peru, Argentina, Bolivia). The working hypothesis states that local, sustainable planning, endorsed by all the tourist agents is required, and should be led by the load capacity and the economic and environmental balance (green economies and ideologies), in order to answer to poverty and climate change problems by means of Tourist Projects directed by governmental policies and administrations. The outcomes suggest a need for a logistical change of policies, to prevent economies from generating pollution and carrying out abrasive activities associated with tourism. This change will create sustainable tourist destinations, the inclusion of populations, and the protection and conservation of natural and cultural heritage.",book:{id:"8970",slug:"tourism",title:"Tourism",fullTitle:"Tourism"},signatures:"Violante Martínez Quintana",authors:[{id:"322905",title:"Mrs.",name:"Violante",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez Quintana",slug:"violante-martinez-quintana",fullName:"Violante Martínez Quintana"}]},{id:"73322",title:"Marketing Cultural Resources as a Tourism Product",slug:"marketing-cultural-resources-as-a-tourism-product",totalDownloads:518,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the marketing aspect of cultural tourism resources by taking evidence from Sidama, Southern Ethiopia. It identifies the major cultural tourism resources of Sidama, and assesses their market readiness state through the lenses of tourists. It also presents the profile of cultural tourists visiting endowments in Sidama using descriptive research approach. Brief introduction of marketing approaches to cultural tourism and a review of literature on cultural tourism products and cultural tourists is also provided. As to its significance, the chapter offers analysis of cultural tourism assets and their marketability as a tourism product in a developing destination context. Practical implications for sound cultural tourism marketing are also discussed in the chapter.",book:{id:"8970",slug:"tourism",title:"Tourism",fullTitle:"Tourism"},signatures:"Amare Yaekob Chiriko",authors:[{id:"324979",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Amare Yaekob",middleName:null,surname:"Chiriko",slug:"amare-yaekob-chiriko",fullName:"Amare Yaekob Chiriko"}]},{id:"50165",title:"Assessing Potential Areas of Ecotourism through a Case Study in Ilgaz Mountain National Park",slug:"assessing-potential-areas-of-ecotourism-through-a-case-study-in-ilgaz-mountain-national-park",totalDownloads:2839,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:"The changing demands of tourism provide greater benefits to tourists and generate competitive advantages that develop diversity in tourism. Elements of ecotourism fit within this context, and such tourism includes, but is not limited to, activities such as visiting natural and cultural resources without destroying nature, which are carried out with an aim toward sustainability. Ilgaz Mountain has a wealth of natural, cultural, historical, and recreational features, and its location near the Black Sea gives the area significant tourism potential. In order to evaluate the impact, potential, and possibilities of ecotourism in this protected area, we used geographic information systems (GIS) to determine the nature of protection required based on implementation availability. In this study, we used ecology-based identification of the natural and cultural values to characterize the features. The study consists of four parts: (1) the concept of ecotourism, (2) discussion of sustainable growth of tourism, (3) sustainability of ecotourism using GIS and how this is related to sustainable ecotourism in protected areas, such as in Turkey, (4) results and evaluation. By assessing these results, we aim to determine potential areas for ecotourism in terms of sustainable development, and we expect the results to provide useful ideas for further research.",book:{id:"5140",slug:"tourism-from-empirical-research-towards-practical-application",title:"Tourism",fullTitle:"Tourism - From Empirical Research Towards Practical Application"},signatures:"Mehmet Cetin and Hakan Sevik",authors:[{id:"93082",title:"Dr.",name:"Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Sevik",slug:"hakan-sevik",fullName:"Hakan Sevik"},{id:"178455",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Cetin",slug:"mehmet-cetin",fullName:"Mehmet Cetin"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"71",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a visiting researcher at Kogakuin University, Japan, and also a vice president of the Japan Firefly Society.",institutionString:"Kogakuin University",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{}},subseries:{item:{id:"40",type:"subseries",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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